(eBook PDF) Born to Talk: An

Introduction to Speech and Language

Development 7th Edition
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Kathleen R. Fahey • Lloyd M. Hulit • Merle R. Howard
 Contents - VII -
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

rzrst Words 157

Cl,assifying the Chi/,d's First Words 158 • Presuppositions and Conversational 1'urn
1hking 164 • lv1idstage Reviezv: What Is Happening So Far? 165
Early Syntactic Development: A Stage Model 166
Early Stage 1 (MLU: 1.0 to 1.5; Age: 12 to 22 Months) 168 • Late Stage 1: Syn-
tactic Development- Words to Word Combinations (1\1LU: 1.5 to 2.0; Age: 22 to 26
Months) 169 • The Syntactic Level: Arranging Words Appropriately 170 • The
Semantic Level: Determining the Meanings of Early Sentences 171 • 1'he Pragrnatic
Level: An Emphasis on the Functions oj·Early Sentences 173
Comprehension and Production: A Critical and Evolving Relationship 174
Summary 177
Surfing the vVeb 179
Chapter Reviev.r 179

Chapter 5 Children Learning Language: Participating in Language

Samples 180
Purposes of Language Sampling 181
Obtaining Reliable and Valid Language Samples 182
facilitating Interaction 183
Recording the Language Sample 184 • Transcribing the Sample 184
Analyzing the Language Sample 185
GrammaticalAnalysis 186 • SemanticAnalysis 189 • PragmaticAnalysis 190
Sample Analysis and Interpretation 191
Summary 195
Surfing the vVeb 195
Chapter Reviev.r 195
Appendix A: Sample Language Transcription Form 196
Appendix B: Sample Language Transcript: Three-Year-Old Child 197
Appendix C: Language Sample Transcription- Counting Morphemes 200
Appendix D: Language Sample Transcription and Grammar Analysis 203
Appendix E: Sample Language Transcription Form- Eric 206

Chapter 6 The Saga Continues: Language Development Through the

Preschool Years 209
Mean Length of Utterances in Stages 2 and 3: Elaborating Structure 210
Pronouns: Words Used to Represent Nouns 212 • Auxiliary
Verbs 215 • Phrases 215 • Negation 217 • Asking Questions 219 • Requests
and Demands 220
- VIII - Contents
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

Refining Meaning in Stages 2 and 3: Semantics, Pragmatics, Conversations, and

Metalinguistics 221
Pragmatics and Convers(J,tion 223 • 1\1etalinguistics 226
Mean Length of Utterances in Stages 4 and 5: Elaboration ,vith Phrases and Clauses and
Polishing the Act 229
1Worphowgy, Pronouns, Verbs, Negatwn, (J,nd Questions 230 • Phrases Within
Clauses 233 • Emhedtling (J,nd Conjoining Sentences 235 • Pr(J,gmatics, Convers(J,tions,
(J,nd Narr(J,tives 236
J\1et(J,linguistics and Emergent Literacy 242
The Role of Comprehension and Production in Language Development 248
Concepts Underlying Words 248 • Active and Passive Sentences 250 • Figurative
L(J,nguage 251
Learning More Than One Language 252
Bilingu(J,lism 252 • Simult(J,neous L(J,nguage Acquisition 253 • 11.uo
L(J,nguages or a Hybrid? 254 • T'he Imp(J,ct of the Community on Simultaneous
Bilingu(J,lism 255 • Monolingu(J,l Versus Simultaneous Bilingu(J,l Devet.opment 255 • Code
1\1ixing 256 • St(J,ges of Devewpment in Simult(J,neous Bilingu(J,lism 257 • Successive
Bilingu(J,l L(J,ngu(J,ge DevewJ>ment 257 • 1r(J,nsfer from rzrst to Second
L(J,nguage 258 • Influence of the Second Langu(J,ge on the First 258 • St(J,ges of
Development in Successive Bilingualism 25 9 • T'he Optimal Age of Second L(J,ngu(J,ge
Le(J,rning 261
Summary 262
And Th(J,t's Not All, rolks.' 262
Surfing the v\Teb 262
Chapter Revie,v 262

Chapter 7 Taking Language from Home to School 263

The Classroom and Language: Ne,v Demands in Diverse Settings 265
Cultural Diversity in the Classroom 265 • Te(J,cher Preparation, Classroom Environment,
(J,nd Curricul(J,r Apj>ro(J,ches 267
The Language Forms and Curricula of the Classroom 271
T'e(J,cher/Student Di(J,/,ogues: Basic V(J,ri(J,tions 272
Semantic Development 274
}"'(l,ctors Influencing Vocabulary Acquisition 2 75 • Storing, Organizing, and Retrieving
Vocabul(J,ry 277 • Le(J,rning to Define Words 280 • H(J,ving run with Words: Liter(J,l to
}zgurative }orms 282
Syntax and Morphology 286
rzguring Out Passive Sentences 286 • The Principle of 1\1ini1n(J,l Distance 286 • Con-
joining and Embedding: Becoming More Complex 287 • 1Voun and Verb Phrases: Still
Exp(J,nding 290 • Morphologic(J,l i\1odijications 292
 Contents - IX -
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Conversations and Narratives 294

1opic 1\1aintenance and Presupj>osition 294 • Indirect Requests 295 • Conjuncts and
Disjuncts 296 • Gender Differences in Conversations 297
Narratives 300
Metalinguistics and the Development of Reading and v\Triting 303
Awareness of Speech Sounds 303 • Azvareness of Semanti(,S 304 • Azvareness of.Mor-
phology and Syntax 305 • Azvareness oj"Pragmatics 305 • Learning to Read and
Write 307 • T'he Components oj'Reading and Reading Instruction 307 • Children's
Reading Development 308 • Components of Writing and Its Devewpment 313 • And
the Beat Goes On. . . 321
Summary 322
Surfing the Web 322
Chapter Revie,-v 322

Chapter 8 Development of Speech Sounds and Cultural Variations in Speech

and Language Production 323
Describing Speech Sounds 325
Traditional Phoneti(,S 326 • Distinctive Features 329
Development of Speech Sounds in the Prelinguistic and One-Word Stages 330
Development of Speech Sounds in T,-vo-Word Utterances and Beyond 335
Consonant Clusters 336 • Intelligibility 336
Phonological Vie,vs of Development 337
Coarticulation and Suprasegmental Aspects of Speech Production 340
Cultural Variations in Speech and Language Production 343
Dialects and Accents 344 • Social/Cultural Dialects 345
Regional Dialects 357
Summary 361
Surfing the vVeb 362
Chapter Revie,v 362

Chapter 9 Speech and Language Disorders in the Home, School,

and Community 363
Defining Communication Disorders 363
Interrelationships and Impact of Speech and Language Disorders 368
}our Students with Speech, Language, and Learning Problems 368
Causes and Types of Communication Disorders 372
Environmental }actors 373 • Sensory }actors 374 • Devewpmental Factors 376
Neurowgical Factors 379
- x - Contents
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

Language Disorders of UnknOlun Origin 383

Speech Disorders 384
Articulation Disorders 385 • Voice Disorders 385
}"'luency Disorders 386
Summary 389
Final Thoughts 390
Surfing the Web 390
Chapter Revie\v 391

Chapter 10 The Anatomical and Physiological Bases of Speech, Language,

and Hearing 393
Speech as the Product of Borro,ved Stn1ctures: Four Processes of Speech 393
Respiration 396
Phonation 400
Resonation 405
Articulation 406
The Brain: The Computer Center for Speech and Language 408
Speech and Language Functions of the Brain 410
The Ear: An Energy Transformer 414
17ze Outer Ear 414 • The 1\1idd/,e Ear 414 • T'he Inner Ear 416 • ]racing the Path-
luay of Hearing: A Brief.Summary 418
Summary 419
Surfing the \i\Teb 419
Chapter Revie\v 419

Gwssary 420
Rej"erences and Suggested Readings 433
Name Index 480
Subject Index 485
Preface

Practitioners and researchers fron1 many disciplines continue to conu;bute

ne,v and exciting information about human language acquisition. It is chal-
lenging to keep abreast of the con1plex a1Tay of topics that provides the foun-
dation for hu1nan communication and its development from birth through
the young adult period. This ne,v edition of B<nn to Talk is su itable for students
and practitioners in speech-language pathology, early childhood education,
general education, special edu cation, and related disciplines ,vho seek a con-
ten1porary and co1nprehensive vie,v of speech and language develop1nent in
a reader-fi;endly manner.

New to This Edition

The eText for this title is an affordable, interactive version of the print text that
includes videos and interactive features that provide opportunities for students
to get feedback on their ans,vers to the questions posed.
To learn more about the enhanced Pearson eText, go to:
\V\V\V. pearsonhighered.con1/ etextbooks.

N ew to This Edition
This edition is again available in a digital fo1T11at. The seventh edition provides
not only revie,v opportunities but also application opportunities to deep en
understanding.
• Several Vide o Examples in each chapter allo,v readers to see and hear
content and examples that enhance learning of key concepts. Students
read a b,;ef description of ,vhat the video is about and 'Natch a video that
demonstJ-ates the concept.
• The Video Reflection feature gives readers access to a video, a thought-
provoking question that pops up from the eText, a hint for thinking
about the ans,ve1~ and a ,vrite-in area into ,vhich students apply content
by typing a ,vritten response. Detailed feedback is provided after students
sub1nit their ,vritten response, thereby im1nediately providing the co1Tect
ans,ver.
• At the end of each major section of text, students have access to a brief
section quiz, called Check Your Understanding. The quiz ch ecks compre-
hension of n1ain concepts and feedback is available for each ans,ver.
• At the end of each chapter, students have access to the Chapter Revie,v.
Feedback is available for each of these short essay format o r sh ort-ans,ver
questions.

- XI -
- XII - Preface
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

• A glossary is included in this edition that provides definitions for key

terms in the text. These tenns appear in boldface ,vhen they are first
mentioned. In the eText, readers can click on the tenn to d irectly access
the glossary.
• Search tenns in Surfing the Web sections at the end of each chapter
encourage readers to expand their kno,vledge beyond the text to practi-
cal and interactive application of the concepts. The search tenns provide
a vehicle for extended learning opportunities for students in a multime-
dia context.
In addition, in this seventh edition of Bo1-n to Talk, ,ve have
• Added ne\\' information and reorganized infonnation in Chapter 4 about
the early language environment of parents and infants.
• Reduced language examples and figures in Chapter 4 regarding differ-
ences in talkative versus tacitu1,1 parents, 1naking the remaining examples
the focus of the important concepts underlying their use.
• Added a ne,v chapter (Chapter 5) on language sa1npling that ties Chapter
4, about the one-,vord stage, to Chapter 6, regarding the development of
syntax. Chapter 5 introduces and explains the process of eliciting, o-an-
scribing, analyzing, and interpreting language samples. These processes
are useful for readers as they learn about the language gains children
make.
• Added examples and ,vorksheets to Chapter 5 to encou1-age p1-actice in
language san1pling.
• Reorganized the infonnation in Chapter 6 to discuss the language attain-
ment into t\\'O, rather than four sections: Stages 2 and 3, follo,ved by
Stages 4 and 5.
• Integrated all the infonnation about language/ cultural diversity, includ-
ing social and regional dialects, bilingualism, and diversity in schools,
into other chapters.

About This Text

The p1;mary focus of this book is on language develo,p11umt. The sole purpose
of Chapter 1 (" A Connection of Brains'') is to pique the reader's interest in
language as a unique human experience and to increase appreciation of ho,v
messages are tJ-ansmitted fi-om one hu1nan brain to another. Chapter 2 lays the
grounchvork for considedng the impressive nature and nurture of human con1-
n1tmication. We discuss the many perspectives involved in learning language by
explo1;ng ,vhat human communication is and ho,v ,ve learn it during our early
years. In this edition, ,ve also relate the three perspectives-nativist, behavior-
ist, and social interactionist-to ho,v speech-language pathologists and edu-
cators use them in designing approp1;ate goals and intervention stJ-ategies
for children ,vith typical and atypical language developn1ent. Chapter 3 is an
exploration of ho,v the developn1ent of cognition and perception is related
 Preface - X III -
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to language learning. In Chapter 4 ,ve begin the journey of early interac-

tions of parents and children that lay the foundation for language acquisition
through the one-,vord stage. In Chapter 5 the process of language san1pling is
described, to help readers appreciate ho,v language developn1ent is described
and docu1nented. Chapter 6 is a continuation of the stage ,node! to present the
joun1ey each child takes in developing the various components of language.
Chapter 7 sho,vs ho,v the integration of all language components, including
literacy, using this real-time approach facilitates an understanding of ho,v one
aspect of language affects all other aspects. Chapter 8 explores ho,v language
is learned and transmitted fi·om one person to another via speech production
and ho,v social and regional dialects influence speech and language. Chapter
9 provides a b1ief overvie,v of developmental and acquired disorders of speech
and language. So1ne readers ,viii be less familiar than others ,vith infonnation
pertaining to the anatomy and physiology of speech, language, and hea1ing.
We include this infonnation in the Chapter 10.
Before we get to our ackno,vledgn1ents, ,ve ,vant to address the gender
strategy ,ve use in this book. As 1ne1nbers of a profession that is more than 80%
female, \\'e are sensitive to the gender problem in co1nmunication. We are also
fiustrated by the li1nitations ofAme1ican English pronouns. For this reason, ,ve
alten1ate the use of feminine and 1nasculine pronouns, ,vith the understanding
that these pronouns are intended to be gender-neuu-al in all contexts. V•le also
generally refer to the child in the singular (versus the plural children) in order
to create an image of one child ,vhose speech and language develop1nent ,ve
study through this book.
There are occasional personal references in this book, indicated by first-
person pronouns and by phrases such as: 11iy sister, daughter, grandchildren, and
father. These references reflect the life expe1iences of the authors, and each is
footnoted for the reader's info1,nation.

Acknowledgments
We are grateful for the invaluable contributions of seve1-al people. Pamela Hulit
provided co1nputer assistance in creating a number of tables included in the
book. Dr. J ill Gilkerson fro1n the LENA Research Foundation provided guid-
ance in the selection of figures fi·o,n LENA publications and language samples
fi·om its database. Lori Shin fi·om the LENA Research Foundation tailored the
graphic art to meet publication specifications. Taylor \•Veber, a graduate stu-
dent in speech-language pathology fi·o,n the University of Northen1 Colorado
(UNC), assisted ,vith the video project and created the glossary. Andy Nagel,
the videographer fron1 Mirage Video Pro, and his assistant Ian ~rorked ,vith us
in a university and public school setting to produce the videos. We appreciate
the special talents of these people, and ,ve are gi-atefi.11 for their efforts on otu·
behalf.
A special thank you is extended to the parents and their children ,vho gi·a-
ciously gave their time and language inte1-actions to the video project, Dr. Mad-
eline Milian for her intervie,v about learning English as a second language and
- XIV - Pref ace
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

bilingual education, and Carol Ha,\rorth for her coordination extraordinaire

and expert speech-language pathology services in the school.
Finally, ,ve thank the follo,\ring people ,vho revie,ved the sixth edition of this
book: Robin Danzak, Sacred Heart University; Stephanie Hughes, Unive rsity
of Toledo; Mich elle Ivey, University of Houston; Donna Thon1as, South eastern
Louisiana Unive rsity.

To the 1nost important people in our lives,

,vith im,neasurable love and gratitude
Pan1ela, Yvonne, Car1nen, Scot,J ohn, Ch,;stopher,
Lance, Benjamin, Peyton , Brianna, Bonita, Lane, Cornelia,
Rosemary, Ernest, Daniel, Anna, Molly, Andre~,, and Samantha
 1
A Connection
of Brains

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Afte r comp letion of this chapt er, you wi l l be ab le t o:

• Define and relat e the terms communication, language, and speech and their
component s.
• Compare t he design f eatures of t he human communication syst em.
• Examine the element s of t he speech chain connecting a speaker's t houghts t o a
listener's understanding of t hose thoughts.

This first chapter is designed to pique your interest in speech and language
as processes v,rithin the broader process \\'e call communication. As a fi.1ture
educator, you ,viii be in a unique position to observe and facilitate the grov,rth
of children in their journeys to be effective communicators. \•Ve define and
describe these processes, and ,ve consider ho,v speech and language interact
to produce a form of communication unique to hu,nans. V•le also consider ho,v
a speaker's thoughts are conveyed to a listener's brain through a se,;es of co1n-
munication u-ansfonnations kno,vn collectively as the speech chain.

he idea for Born to Talk ,vas cultivated long before the first ,vord of the

T odginal ,nanuscript ,vas ,vritten, and it ,vas probably a good thing that
there ~ras a period of latency bet\\reen the concept and the product.
During that latency, r* obse1-ved language develop1nent firsthand in 1ny t\vo
daughters, Yvonne and Carmen. I lea1,1ed more about the po,\rer and ,vonder
of language in observing the,n than I have in all the books and all the journal
articles I have read over the course of 1ny career because I ,viu1essed their pro-
cesses of discovery. I ,vatched and listened as they made connections bet\veen
the ,vorld in ,vhich they ,vere gro,ving up and the ~rords and language fonns
that spilled out of them. They are no,v gro,vn, and they have blessed 1ny ,vife
and n1e ,vith five grandchildren, giving me five n1ore opportunities to obse1-ve
*Lloyd Hulit.
- 1 -
- 2 - Chapter 1
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

speech and language development close-up and personal. Each of them h as

reinforced 1ny appreciation of language as o n e of humankind's greatest gifts
and most p o,verful tools.
My faunily has an eclectus pa1Tot nan1ed Toby. When ,ve ,vere trying to teach
Toby to talk in his first yeai~ h e said , "hello" and "step up." These are certainly
not momentous utterances. They fall sh ort of the magic of Abraha1n Lincoln's,
"Four score and seven years ago ... " and John F. Kennedy's, "Ask not ,vhat
your country can do for you ... ", but they ai·e the beginning of speech or,
at the very least, the beginning of speech-like behavior. \•Vhat ,vas fascinating
about observing Toby ,vas that the process of acquisition ,vas so different fi·o,n
the process in human children, and it ,viii ah\rays be different. His utterances,
no ,natter ho,v many he produces over his lifeti1ne, ,viii ahvays be conditioned
responses, and there is no ,vay ,ve ,viii ever kno,v if there is any connection
bet\veen ,vhat is going on inside his pai-rot brain and ,vhat ,ve believe in our
hu1nan brains he is saying, ,vhich leads us to the po,ver of ESP in speech and
language.
Have you ever \vished you could read someone's 1nind, o r ever ,vished or
,vo1-ried that someone could read your mind? Probably each of us h as ,von-
dered about mental telepathy, and perhaps some of you reading this page
believe you have that gift. We ,vould like to suggest that every person, ,vho is
able to co,nmunicate, is capable of a form of mental telepathy, because human
communication allo,vs one hu1nai1 brain to interact ,vith another human brain
in a ,vondrous and ahnost ,nagical n1anner.
Most people give very little thought to the magic of com1nunication through
sp eech and language because it is acquired so naturally and used so effortlessly
by hun1ans. The purpose of this book is to explore the miracles of speech and
language, to exainine the marvelous anaton1ic structures and physio logical
processes ,ve hun1ans have adapted for talking and listening, to unravel the
components of language fi·o,n sounds to ,vords to elaborate sentence stru cture
that together help us deliver our 1nessages, to investigate the dialectal differ-
ences in our o,vn language, and to consider the problems that occur ,vhen
speech and language do not develop properly or ,vhen something goes ,vrong
after co,nmunication skills have been normal for a ,vhile . By the tin1e you have
turned to the final page in yourj ourney through this book, ,ve believe you ,viii
be convinced that ,vords such as 1nagic and luondrous and miraculous in refer-
ence to sp eech and language are accurately desc,;ptive, but before ,ve go any
fi.1rther, ,ve need to address so1ne basic tenninology.

Defining Communication, Language, and Speech

In the preceding paragraphs, ,ve used the ,vords sj>eech and language in a man-
ner implying that they ai·e not the same thing, ,vhich is co1Tect. They ai·e sep-
arate but related processes in the lai·ger process called communication. To
understand any of these processes, you must understand all of them and ho,v
they are in terconnected.
 A Connection of Brains - 3 -
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Communication is the sending and receiving of information, ideas, feelings,

or 1nessages. To ap preciate the breadth of co1nmunication, consider j ust so1ne
of the 1nethods by ,vh ich human beings co1nmunicate. \"le transmit messages
of all kinds by talking, ,vriting, using codes (Morse code, text ,nessaging, sen1a-
phore flags, Braille), using facial expressions, gestures, art, music, dance, the
distances ,ve maintain ,vhen ,ve interact, vocal variations, the clothes ,ve ,vea,~
hairstyles, our natural and purchased odors, and 1nore. We send hundreds,
perhaps thousands, of messages every day. Some of our communications are
intended, but many are not. \•Ve hope that most of ,vhat ,ve send is received
according to our intent, but unfortunately this is not ahvays the case. The fact
is, ,ve humans cannot stop con1n1unicating even ,vhen ,ve ,vane to. You may
decide to say nothing, but your saying nothing ,nay be saying 1nore than your
saying something. Even ,vhen you are asleep you ,nay be sending messages. You
may talk in your sleep, of course, but even in the silence of unconsciousness,
you may comn1unicate restlessness by the ~·ay you thrash around in your bed,
or you may co1nmunicate a basic insecurity by the ,vay you curl into the fetal
position, or you may transmit a message of utter tranquility by the relaxed and
peaceful expression on yow· sleeping face. Do you get the point? Co,nmunication
is so n1uch a part of the human exp erience that ,ve are constantly sending and
rece1V1ng messages.

Video Reflection 1.1: Use a Child's Nonverbal Signals to

Understand the Child's Needs
\t\Tatch this video of a speech-language pathologist
(SLP) using the nonverbal signals of a student to
assist her in using h er com1nunication device, then
ans,ver the question.

Educators develop a keen sense of the co1nmunication su·ategies of their

stud ents. You ,vill notice that some students let you kno,v that they under-
stand or d o not understand a particular idea throu gh nodding or sh aking the
head, s1niling or fro,vning, shrugging should ers, raising an eyebro,v, asking
another child for help , or giving that blank stare! These communication sig-
nals are quite important as \\'e gauge the speed, amount, and con1plexity of
our n1essages.
Language is a 1nore difficult phenomenon to describe, so ,ve ,viii build a
definition by first looking at so1ne of the characteristics of language and then
u-ying to piece the1n together. Language is an expression of an ability that is
innate in all humans. We are born ,vich the capacity to use language in the
- 4 - Chapter 1
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same ,vay a spider is born ,vith the ability to \\'eave ,vebs and a bird is born ,vith
the ability to make a nest. To use language is instinctive in humans, but the
capacity is realized differently in people according to the specific languages to
,vhich they are exposed. A child reared in a family of English-speaking adults,
,vho hears only English during the language acquisition period, zuill speak
English. You might be stu·prised that the logic of that observation escapes son1e
people. Children do not knO\\' they are German, French, Russian, or Japanese
,vhen they are born. They speak the language they hear, but the innate capacity
for that language is the same, no ,natter ,vhere they are born and children
speak the language of their families.
It is i1nportant to understand that language and the expression of language
are nvo very different things. Language exists in the mind, and it exists ,vhether
or not it is expressed. \,\'hen ,ve think through an idea or listen to others and
understand ,vhat they are saying or asking us to do, ,ve call this receptive
language. \•Vhen ,ve decide ,vhat ,ve ,vant to say and then actually speak it, sign
it, or ,vrite it, ,ve call it expressive language.
It is useful to tu1derstand language as a syste1n of abstract sy1nbols organized
according to basic rules that seem to be co1nmon to all the languages known
to humankind. In other ,vords, at the deepest, most basic level, all languages
share com1non con1ponents and each of these co1nponents use rules that allo,v
the 1ne1nbers of the language com1nunity to understand each other.

Video Reflection 1.2: Parent Strategies for a Child's Use of

Polite Language
\•Vatch the video of a parent using strategies to
encourage the use of polite language from her
child, then ans,ver the question.

Let us look at the 1nost fi.1nctional component of language-the ability to

use language as a social vehicle for establishing and maintaining relationsh ips
with others. 'A'e call this component p ragmatics. Consider ho,\' ,ve socialize ch il-
dren in our families and in early childhood settings. In 'A'estern culture, adults
use a combination of obvious instructions, such as, "\•Vait until I finish talking
before you speak," "Say please," "Ask Joey for that toy n icely," and subtle cues,
such as holding up a hand to signal ,vaiting or ,vithh olding the snack, until the
child uses a polite request.
Other culttu·es use varying degrees of verbal and gestural cues as they socialize
their children. Prag1natics involves not only using language according to
socially established standards but also nonverbal behaviors, such as maintain-
ing an approp,;ate distance benveen speakers, establishing and ,naintaining
 A Connection of Brains - 5 -
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

eye contact, and using body lan gu age appropriate to the situation. Most chil-
dren learn prag1natics through daily routines and ,ve expect that youngsters
con1e to school ,vith ,veil-established social co1nmunication patten1s. When
a child comes to school ,vithout age-appropriate pragmatics or if prag1nat-
ics skills vary considerably fro1n the cultural expectations of the classroo1n, it
doesn 't take long for teachers and other students to notice.
Another co1nponent of language is semantics. \•V hen ,ve com1nunicate, no
matter ,.,,hat medium ,ve choose, the goal is to convey 1neaning. Each language
has rules for using \\•ords and for combining the,n into meaningful arrange-
ments. Consider the follo,ving exercise. \t\1rite three nouns and then create
sentences that convey different ideas. The example ,.,,ords in the follo,ving
sentences are flowers, vase, and 1norning.

In th e n1orning, I go to the garden and pick flowers for my vase.

Th is rnorning, I knocked over the vase of flowers.
The flowers in rny favorite vase were dead in th e n1orning.
The deliveryman arrived this 1norning with a beautiful vase of flowers.
Do you want to get your friend a vase of flowers this 1norning?

As you can see, semantics involves the 1neaning that \\'e ,¥ish to convey, even
,vhen ,ve are using the same topic ,vords. It involves our use of vocabulary to
constru ct ideas through relationships bet\veen ,vords. Children benefit fro1n
lots of activities about ,vords. \t\1e ,viii explore this idea a t length in subsequ ent
chapters.
Ideas can be conveyed rather simply through three-to-five si1nple ,vord com-
binations and even non-verbally, but hu1nans develop 1ules for putting together
,vords in complex arrange1nents to boost the po,ver and efficiency of their lan-
gu age. vVe can get a lot d one by speaking in an organized and clear manner.
\t\'e use gran11nar to connect different types of ,vords and the 1ule structure for
these combinations is called syntax. In the sentences on the previous p age,
it is necessary to connect the nouns ,.,,ith other p arts of speech, so that the
meaning occurs. Imagine if \\'e did not have 1ules for combining ,vords. Ho,\'
,vould ,ve make sense of messages if ,ve only had nouns, for example? Read the
sentences aloud using only the three nouns and you ,viii get the point about
the importance of syntax.
The a1Tange1nent of ,vords is i1nportant for stating our meanings, and each
,vord is considered a morpheme-a unit of ,neaning. But ,ve also have s1nall
units of 1neaning that ,.,,e add to ,vords to enhance our messages. For example ,
the ,vord flowers, in the example is not one, but t\vo morphemes. Fwwer is the
na1ne of the object and ,ve use the sat the end to convey that there is more than
one. Thus, the sis a plural 1norphe1ne. We ,viii discuss 1norphe1nes in greater
detail in Chapters 4 and 5.
The fact that ,ve do not a ll speak the same language suggests that some
aspects of language are lea1ned. Languages are different in many ,.,,ays. They
use different ,.,,ords and different rules for organizing ,vords into gram1natical
sentences. English, for example, su·esses ,vord order in its gra1n1nar system,
but other languages, such as Latin, place greater emphasis on ,.,,ord end ings
- 6 - Chapter 1
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

than on order to indicate grammatical relationships. That is, all languages have
rules for making sentences gram,natically correct, but the 1neans by ,vhich
correctness is achieved vary. vVe can conclude, therefore, that although the
capacity for language is innate, and although all languages share very basic
rules, the sp ecific conventions of any given language are learned. The child
,vho ,viii speak English, for example, must learn the sounds of English as ,veil
as its vocabulary and grammar.
Now, let us put some of these pieces together into a definition. Language
is a system of absu·act symbols and rule-governed stiuctures, the specific con-
ventions of,vhich are learned. The symbols of language n1ay be sounds that
are co1nbined into spoken ,vords, or letters that are co,nbined into ,vritten
,vords, o r even the elements of sign language that are co,nbined into larger
units. It is important to note that ,vhatever the symbols, they are arbiu·a,;ly
established by the co nventional usage of a given p eople. Furthennore, the
symbols or their co,nbinations ,viii change over ti1ne because language is
a constantly evolving pheno1nenon. Much more needs to be added to this
definition (and ,viii be in the chapters that follo,v) , but this ,viii serve as a
starting p oint.
We can no,v define speech, a relatively simple task if ,ve understand com1nu-
nication and language. Very simply, speech is the oral expression of language.
So1neti1nes people use the terms language and speech as though tl1ey are inter-
changeable, but they clearly are not. If they \\'ere interchangeable, one could
not exist ,vithout the other because they ,vould be one and the san1e thing.
In fact, speech can and does exist in the absence of language, and language
exists in the absence of speech. Consider Toby the parrot or mynah birds that
can 1ni1nic human speech, often ,vith remarkable clarity. These birds produce
speech , but they do not have langu age. That is, they can produce su;ngs of
sounds ,vith the acoustic characteristics of human speech, and hu,nan listeners
recognize the sequences of sounds as ,vords, but the speech of these birds is
devoid of meaning and, therefore, is not the oral expression of language. They
h ave speech but not language. Some human beings, n1ost notably those ,vith
severe cognitive challenges, ,nay have the abili ty to imitate speech perfectly
even if they do not fully understand the language underlying the speech. They
h ave sp eech that reflects language abilities they do not have. Even normal
children, benveen the ages of 18 and 24 1nonths, often produce a form of
speech kno,vn as echolalia, ,vhich is an imitation of ,vords, phrases, o r even
,vhole sentences in the absence of an understanding of ,vhat they are saying. 1t
vividly recall a 3-year"Old boy named Jerry, ,vho arrived for his langu age therapy
session. Jerry had very little verbal language, but he frequently used echolalia.
v\'hen I said , "Hello, J erry," he responded " H ello, J erry." Then h e pointed
at the sign at the top of the door saying, "E-X-1-T. For 1nore information call
l -800-234-6824." He echoed ,vhat I said and then recalled ,vhat he h eard on a
television commercial.

tKathleen Fahey
 A Connection of Brains - 7 -
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Language can also exist independently of speech. Children ,vho are born
deaf~ for example, may never learn to speak, but their deafness does not pre-
clude their use of language. If these children have no other proble1ns and
receive proper stimulation and approp,;ate educational opportunities, they
can develop language abilitiesjust as sophisticated and co1nplete as those of the
hea1;ng child ,vho speaks. The child ,vho is deaf and ,vho does not have speech
must learn a different ,vay to express language, most likely through signs and
gestures. In addition, the child ,vho is deaf can receive and express language
through the ,vritten ,vord.
We can best understand speech as a highly co1nplex physiological process
requiring the coordination of respiration, phonation, resonation, and articula-
tion. So1ne of the 1novements involved in producing even the simplest utter-
ances are simultaneous and others are successive, but the synchronization of
these 1novements is critical.
Consider ,vhat happens in the production of the single ,vord statistics. The tip
of the tongue is lifted fi·on1 a resting position to an area on the roof of the mouth
just behind the upper teeth called the alveolar ridge to produce the s sound.
T h e tongue is pressed against the alveolar ,;dge hard enough to produce con-
su;ction but not so hard as to stop the airflo,\' altogether. As the speaker slo,vly
contracts the muscles of exhalation under precise conu·ol, air is forced bet\veen
the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. Leaving th e tongue in the sa1ne
area, the speaker now presses a little harder to stop the airflo,v and tl1en quickly
releases the contact for the production of the t sound. T h e tongue drops to a
neutJ-al position and the vocal folds in the larynx vibrate to produce the vo,vel
a.. The speaker turns off the voice and lifts the tongue to the alveolar ,;dge for
the next t, th en vib1-ates the vocal folds for the vo,vel i ,vhile the tongue stays
in a for,vard but slightly lo,vered position. The speaker tu1ns voicing off again
and moves the tongue to the alveolar ,;dge yet again to produce the controlled
constriction for the next s, follo,ved by increased pressure to stop the ai1ilo~·
and release it for the t. The voice is turned on one more time and the tongue
lo,vered to a neutral position for the i, and then turned off as the tongue arches
to the back of the mouth, ,vh ere it contacts the velum, or fleshy part of the roof
of the mouth, for the k. Finally, the tongue tip darts to the alveolar ,;dge for
the production of the final s sound.
All this occurs in the production of one ,vord! hnagine ,vh at occurs in the
production of a long sentence produced at an average speed. In addition
to the production of each sound, ,ve use suprasegmental aspects of speech.
T h e syllables in each ,vord are produced ,vith va,;ed degrees of su·ess. \•Ve also
use intonation to en1phasize certain ,vords over others to convey meaning,
and ,ve modulate our pitch and phrasing to 1nake speech interesting. Think
of so,neone you knO\\' ,vho speaks too fast, speaks in a monotone, or doesn't
h ave a smooth rhythm. When you consider ho,v many inu;cate adjustments are
made so quickly in the speech mechanism and the supraseg1nental aspects that
,ve use to n1ake our speech flo,v, it is difficult to imagine that anyone lea1,1s to
speak at all. But ,ve do learn to speak, and ,ve do it easily and nattu·ally over a
very brief period of time.
- 8 - Chapter 1
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

Speech and Language Rejoined

No,v that ,ve have established that speech and language are separate, although
related, parts of the communication process, ,ve ,viii reconnect the,n for the
remainder of our analysis. For practical purposes, in people ,vith normal com-
n1unicative abilities, they are not separate. Speech is co,nmonly understood
as oral language, and that understanding ,viii serve our purposes ,veil. It is
certainly clear to anyone ,vho has studied the develop1nent of co1nmunication
in children that speech and language develop together, but ,ve should ah\•ays
remember that they do not develop at the same pace. Most of ,vhat a child ,viii
ever kno,v about language is acquired before entering school, but so1ne speech
sounds are not mastered until age 7 or 8. Even \vithin language itself, not all
di,nensions are acquired according to the same schedule. Rules pertaining to
the structtu·e of language are acquired early and most of the basic vocabulary
of a language is learned early, but ,ve continue to add vocabulary as long as ,ve
live, and most of us are developing our kno,vledge about ho,v to use language
,veil into adulthood during speaking and \\Tl;ting.
Fro1n this point on, ho,\•ever, ,ve ,viii consider speech and language as inte-
grated parts of the sa1ne process in the sa1ne ,vay that pictures and sounds are
integrated parts of television. You can certainly have television ,vi th out pictures:
It's called radio. And you can have television ,vithout sound: That's called net-
,vork difficulty. But television as \\'e expect it includes not only pictures but also
sound. Speech as ,ve expect it in nonnal human beings combines phonated
and articulated noises and the rule-governed suuctures of language.

Check Your Understanding 1.1

I Assess your understanding of communication, language, and speech by
co1npleting this brief quiz.

The Unique Characteristics of Human Speech

To appreciate the po,ver of oral language, ,ve can compare it to the co,nmuni-
cation systems of other animals. Other animals do com1nunicate, of course, but
there is much ,ve do not understand about their systems. Some ani1nals seem to
co1nmunicate very general messages in si1nple ,vays. The beaver, for example,
slaps its tail ,vhen it senses danger. Dogs bark ,vhen they are fi·ightened or
excited. Other animals are able to co1n1nunicate 1nore elaborate n1essages.
Bees dance to tell their fellow bees ,vhere flo,\•ers are. Other insects use their
antennae to insuuct or inform. There is a great deal of interest in the co,nmu-
nication syste1ns of dolphins and singing ,vhales because they seem to be much
more elaborate than the syste1ns of n1ost other animals (Herman & Forestell,
l 985;Janik, 2000; Schuste1man, 1986; Tyack, 2000). Recent research provides
fascinating info1,nation about the co,nmunicative abilities of other species (see
Table 1.1). But, no ,natter ho,v much ,ve discover about the abilities of other
 A Connection of Brains - 9 -
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Table 1.1 Animal Communication Signals

Communication Signals Purpose of Signal/Effect of

Animal and Abilities Sign al Researchers
Monkeys (vervet) Snake ch utter Warns other monkeys that snake is Akmajian, Demers, and Harnish
nearby/monkeys surround snake (1984)
Aerial predator call Warns other monkeys that eagle is
overhead/monkeys seek cover on
. . ground .
Terrestrial predator call Warns other monkeys that leopard
is nearby/monkeys climb trees and
go to ends of branches
-
Marmots Alarm signal Intensity based on amount of risk
present in situation
Bonobos and Use of symbols Symbols represent objects or Corballis (2007)
chimpanzees act ions; limited combi nations of
symbols to create new meaning
Dogs Conative signals; play bow Invites other dogs to play Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch
(2002)
Bottlenose dolph ins Distress whistle Signal for " help! "/dolph ins in area
arrive and raise distressed animal to
t he surface
Recogn izes self in mirror (Not evidence of theory of mind) Akmajian, Demers, and Harnish
(1984)
Birds Aerial predator call " seet" Warns other birds that predator is Gallup, (1982)
overhead/take cover in bushes and
stay still
Mobbing call " chink" Warns other birds that stationary
predator is nearby/surround (mob)
the predator
Terrestrial song Warns other male birds to keep
away; invites uncommitted females

- .. to come to his location

...
Ch ickadees Four distinct sounds (Not evidence of recursion) Akmajian, Demers, and Harnish
repeated in limited (1984)
arrangements
Starlings Count different sounds (Not evidence of recursion)
in sequences and match
them for similarities and
differences
Nutcracker Memory for where it stored Locates food in future (not evi-
food dence of recursion)
-
Western scrub jay Memory for when and how Locates food in future (not evi- Hailman and Ficken (1986)
long food is stored dence of recursion)
- 10 - Chapter 1
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

ani1nals to com,nunicate, ,ve re1nain convinced that no animal has a co1n1nu-

nication system as po'Arerful as hu1nan speech.
One of the first linguists to take a detailed, analytical look at the character-
istics of hu1nan speech in comparison to the co1nmunication systems of other
animals \\'as Charles F. Hockett (1960), ,vho ,vrote a classic essay entitled "The
Origin of Speech," in ,vhich he desc,;bes ,vhat he calls "13 design-features" of
language. Although many ani1nals share some of these features in their com-
n1unication systems, Hockett believed that ,vhen taken together, his 13 features
effectively separate ht1111an speech from other fonns of anin1al co,nmunication.
Since Hockett ,vrote his essay, ne,v theoretical interpretations of ani1nal con1-
n1unication and research data supporting these interpretations suggest that
other species share many of the 13 features Hockett believed differentiated
hu1nan com1nunication from animal co1nmunication. Based on ,vhat ,ve no,v
kno,v, only a fe,v of Hockett's features are not found in the co1n1nunication
syste,ns of other ani1nals. Interestingly, ,ve have found features beyond those
identified by Hockett that can be ascribed to hu1nan communication. Never-
theless, "The Origin of Speech" re,nains an important and interesting part of
the literature on human language, because it challenged linguists at the time
to think about language and the hu1nans ,vho use it in revolutionary,vays. \•Ve
,viii exan1ine Hockett's odginal 13 design features as a 'A'ay of understanding
the po,ver of human co1n1nunication, but ,ve ,viii also attempt to con1pare
and contrast human communication ,vith the comn1unication systems of other
species. Vl'e ,viii then take a look at son1e design features that did not make
Hockett's list. Table 1.2 sho,vs that eight characteristics are present in humans
and other species. Four characteristics are present in hu1nan language, but
quite rare and limited in nonhu1nans, and five characteristics are particular to
hu,nan language.

From Mouths to Ears

Hockett's first design feature is the vo cal-auditory channel. That is, hu1nan
beings co1nmunicate by forcing air through the vocal folds of the larynx and
breaking the vibrating airstream into sounds of speech, ,vhich are organized
into ,vords and sentences. The listener's ear receives these sounds. This feature
is so obvious that ,ve may need to note that other channels can be used in co1n-
n1tmication and are used by other anin1als. Bees, for exa1nple, com1nunicate by
dancing, and that can be desc,;bed as the visual channel. ln fact, human beings
,vho cannot hear use the visual channel ,vhen they produce and receive sign
language. Still other ani1nals co1nmunicate by touch or by odor. The primary
advantage of the vocal-auditory channel for humans is that it leaves our hands
fi·ee to do other things ,vhile ,ve are co,nmunicating. Vl'e can build or repair,
for exan1ple , ,vhile giving or receiving instructions. In1agine ,vhat it ,vould be
like for a consuuction cre,v building a house if everyone had to put do,vn their
tools every ti1ne one person needed to communicate ,vith another through the
gesture-visual channel. There is no question that vocal-auditory communica-
tion is convenient and allo,vs us to be efficient in all tasks that involve con11nu-
nication in conjunction ,vith other physical activities. This feature, of course,
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fragments of the tentacles and fringe of the Medusa, whilst the
Medusa will in its turn occasionally capture and devour one of the
fish.

A great many of the Scyphozoa, particularly the larger kinds, have

the reputation of being able to sting the human skin, and in
consequence the name Acalephae[346] was formerly used to
designate the order. Of the British species Aurelia aurita is almost
harmless, and so is the rarer Rhizostoma pulmo; but the
nematocysts on the tentacles of Cyanaea, Chrysaora, and Pelagia
can inflict stings on the more delicate parts of the skin which are very
painful for several hours, although the pain has been undoubtedly
greatly exaggerated in many popular works.

The soft structure of the Medusae does not favour their preservation
in the rocks, but the impressions left by several genera, all belonging
apparently to the Rhizostomata, have been found in Cambrian,
Liassic, and Cretaceous deposits.

There is reason to believe that many Scyphozoa exhibit a

considerable range of variation in the symmetry of the most
important organs of the body. Very little information is, however, at
hand concerning the variation of any species except Aurelia aurita,
which has been the subject of several investigations. Browne[347]
has found that in a local race of this species about 20 per cent
exhibit variations from the normal in the number of the statorhabs,
and about 2 per cent in the number of gastric pouches.

The Scyphozoa are not usually regarded as of any commercial or

other value, but in China and Japan two species of Rhizostomata
(Rhopilema esculenta and R. verrucosa) are used as food. The jelly-
fish is preserved with a mixture of alum and salt or between the
steamed leaves of a kind of oak. To prepare the preserved food for
the table it is soaked in water, cut into small pieces, and flavoured. It
is also stated that these Medusae are used by fishermen as bait for
file-fish and sea-bream.[348]

In general structure the Scyphozoa occupy an intermediate position

between the Hydrozoa and the Anthozoa. The very striking
resemblance of the body-form to the Medusa of the Hydrozoa, and
the discovery of a fixed hydriform stage in the life-history of some
species, led the older zoologists to the conclusion that they should
be included in the class Hydrozoa. Recently the finer details of
development have been invoked to support the view that they are
Anthozoa specially adapted for a free-swimming existence, but the
evidence for this does not appear to us to be conclusive.

They differ from the Hydrozoa and resemble the Anthozoa in the
character that the sexual cells are matured in the endoderm, and
escape to the exterior by way of the coelenteric cavity, and not
directly to the exterior by the rupture of the ectoderm as in all
Hydrozoa. They differ, on the other hand, from the Anthozoa in the
absence of a stomodaeum and of mesenteries.

The view that the Scyphozoa are Anthozoa is based on the belief
that the manubrium of the former is lined by ectoderm, and is
homologous with the stomodaeum of the latter; and that the folds of
mesogloea between the gastric pouches are homologous with the
septa.[349]

The Scyphozoa, notwithstanding their general resemblance to the

Medusae of Hydrozoa, can be readily distinguished from them by
several important characters. The absence of a velum in all of them
(except the Cubomedusae) is an important and conspicuous
character which gave to the class the name of Acraspeda. The
velum of the Cubomedusae can, however, be distinguished from that
of the Craspedote Medusae (i.e. the Medusae of the Hydrozoa) by
the fact that it contains endodermal canals.
Sense-organs are present in all Scyphozoa except some of the
Stauromedusae, and they are in the form of statorhabs
(tentaculocysts), bearing statoliths at the extremity, and in many
species, at the base or between the base and the extremity, one or
more eyes. These organs differ from the statorhabs of the Hydrozoa
in having, usually, a cavity in the axial endoderm; but as they are
undoubtedly specially modified marginal tentacles, they are strictly
homologous in the two classes. In nearly all the Scyphozoa these
organs are protected by a hood or fold formed from the free margin
of the umbrella, and this character, although not of great
morphological importance, serves to distinguish the common species
from the Craspedote Medusae. It was owing to this character that
Forbes gave the name Steganophthalmata, or "covered-eyed
Medusae," to the class.

Another character of some importance is the presence in the

coelenteric cavity of all Scyphozoa of clusters or rows of delicate
filaments called the "phacellae." These filaments are covered with a
glandular epithelium, and are usually provided with numerous
nematocysts. They have a considerable resemblance to the acontia
of certain Anthozoa, and are probably mainly digestive in function.
These three characters, in addition to the very important character of
the position and method of discharge of the sexual cells already
referred to, justify the separation of the Scyphozoa from the
Medusae of the Hydrozoa as a distinct class of Coelenterata.

The umbrella of the Scyphozoa varies a good deal in shape. It is

usually flattened and disc-like (Discophora), but it may be almost
globular (Atorella), conical (some species of Periphylla), or cubical
(Cubomedusae). It is divided into an aboral and a marginal region by
a circular groove in the Coronata. The margin may be almost entire,
marked only by notches where the statorhabs occur, or deeply lobed
as in the Coronata and many Discophora. Marginal tentacles are
present in all but the Rhizostomata, and may be few in number, four
in Charybdea, eight in Ulmaris (Fig. 143), or very numerous in
Aurelia and many others. The tentacles may be short (Aurelia), or
very long as in Chrysaora isosceles, in which they extend for a
length of twenty yards from the disc.

The manubrium of the Scyphozoa is usually quadrangular in section,

and in those forms in which the shape is modified in the adult
Medusa the quadrangular shape can be recognised in the earlier
stages of development. The four angles of the manubrium are of
importance in descriptive anatomy, as the planes drawn through the
angles to the centre of the manubrium are called "perradial," while
those bisecting the perradial planes and passing therefore through
the middle line of the flat sides of the manubrium are called
"interradial."

The free extremity of the manubrium in many Scyphozoa is provided

with four triangular perradial lips, which may be simple or may
become bifurcated or branched, and have frequently very elaborate
crenate edges beset with batteries of nematocysts. In Pelagia and
Chrysaora and other genera these lips hang down from the
manubrium as long, ribbon-like, folded bands, and according to the
size of the specimen may be a foot or more in length, or twice the
diameter of the disc.

In the Rhizostomata a peculiar modification of structure takes place

in the fusion of the free edges of the lips to form a suture perforated
by a row of small apertures, so that the lips have the appearance of
long cylindrical rods or tubes attached to the manubrium, and then
frequently called the "oral arms." The oral arms may be further
provided with tentacles of varying size and importance. In many
Rhizostomata branched or knobbed processes project from the outer
side of the upper part of the oral arms. These are called the
"epaulettes."
 Fig. 143.—Ulmaris prototypus. g, Gonad; I, interradial canal; M, the fringed lip of
the manubrium; P, perradial canal; S, marginal sense-organ; t, tentacle. × 1.
(After Haeckel.)

The lumen of the manubrium leads into a large cavity in the disc,
which is usually called the gastric cavity, and this is extended into
four or more interradial or perradial gastric pouches. The number of
these pouches is usually four, but in this, as in other features of their
radial symmetry, the jelly-fish frequently exhibit duplication or
irregular variation of the radii.[350]

The gastric pouches may extend to the margin of the disc, where
they are united to form a large ring sinus, or they may be in
communication at the periphery by only a very narrow passage
(Cubomedusae). In the Discophora the gastric pouches, however, do
not extend more than half-way to the margin, and they may be
connected with the marginal ring-canal by a series of branched
interradial canals. Between the gastric pouches in these forms
branched perradial canals pass from the gastric cavity to the
marginal ring canal, and the system of canals is completed by
unbranched "adradial" canals passing between the perradials and
interradials from the sides of the gastric pouches to the ring-canal
(Fig. 143).

In the Discophora there are four shallow interradial pits or pouches

lined by ectoderm on the under side of the umbrella-wall. As these
pits correspond with the position of the gonads in the gastric
pouches they are frequently called the "sub-genital pits." In the
Stauromedusae and Cubomedusae they are continued through the
interradial gastric septa to the aboral side of the disc, and they are
generally known in these cases by the name "interradial funnels."
The functions and homologies of these ectodermic pits and funnels
are still uncertain.

The Scyphozoa are usually dioecious, but Chrysaora and Linerges

are sometimes hermaphrodite. The female Medusae can usually be
distinguished from the male by the darker or brighter colour of the
gonads, which are band-shaped, horseshoe-shaped, or circular
organs, situated on the endoderm of the interradial gastric pouches.
They are, when nearly ripe, conspicuous and brightly coloured
organs, and in nearly all species can be clearly seen through the
transparent or semi-transparent tissues of the disc. The reproductive
cells are discharged into the gastric cavity and escape by the mouth.
The eggs are probably fertilised in the water, and may be retained in
special pouches on the lips of the manubrium until the segmentation
is completed.[351] Asexual reproduction does not occur in the free-
swimming or adult stage of any Scyphozoa. In some cases (probably
exceptional) the development is direct. In Pelagia, for example, it is
known that the fertilised egg gives rise to a free-swimming Medusa
similar in all essential features to the parent.

In many species, however, the planula larva sinks to the bottom of

the sea, develops tentacles, and becomes attached by its aboral
extremity to a rock or weed, forming a sedentary asexual stage of
development with a superficial resemblance to a Hydra. This stage is
the "Scyphistoma," and notwithstanding its simple external features it
is already in all essential anatomical characters a Scyphozoon.

The Scyphistoma may remain as such for some time, during which it
reproduces by budding, and in some localities it may be found in
great numbers on seaweeds and stones.[352]
In the course of time, however, the Scyphistoma exhibits a ring-like
constriction of the body just below the crown of tentacles, and as this
deepens the general features of a Scyphomedusa are developed in
the free part above the constriction. In time this free part escapes as
a small free-swimming jelly-fish, called an "Ephyra," while the
attached part remains to repeat the process. In many species the
first constriction is followed by a second immediately below it, then a
third, a fourth, and so on, until the Scyphistoma is transformed into a
long series of narrow discs, each one acquiring, as it grows, the
Ephyra characters. Such a stage has been compared in form to a
pile of saucers, and is known as the "Strobila."

The Ephyra differs from the adult in many respects. The disc is thin
and flat, the manubrium short, the margin of the umbrella deeply
grooved, while the statorhabs are mounted on bifid lobes which
project outwards from the margin. The stabilisation of the
Scyphistoma is a process of reproduction by transverse fission, and
in some cases this is supplemented by gemmation, the Scyphistoma
giving rise to a number of buds which become detached from the
parent and subsequently undergo the process of strobilisation.

Fig. 144.—The perisarc tubes of a specimen of Spongicola fistularis (N)

ramifying in the skeleton of the Sponge Esperella bauriana (Sp.), as seen in
a macerated specimen, × 1. (After Schulze.)

The Scyphistoma of Nausithoe presents us with the most remarkable

example of this mode of reproduction (Fig. 144), as it forms an
elaborate branching colony in the substance of certain species of
sponges. The ectoderm secretes a chitinous perisarc, similar to that
of the hydrosome stage of many of the Hydrozoa, and consequently
Stephanoscyphus (Spongicola), as this Scyphistoma was called,
was formerly placed among the Gymnoblastea. It is remarkable that,
although the Scyphozoan characters of Spongicola were proved by
Schulze[353] in 1877, a similar Scyphistoma stage has not been
discovered in any other genus.

Order I. Cubomedusae.
Scyphozoa provided with four perradial statorhabs, each of which
bears a statolith and one or several eyes. There are four interradial
tentacles or groups of tentacles. The stomach is a large cavity
bearing four tufts of phacellae (Fig. 145, Ph), situated interradially.
There are four flattened perradial gastric pouches in the wall of the
umbrella which communicate with the stomach by the gastric ostia
(Go). These pouches are separated from one another by four
interradial septa; and the long leaf-like gonads are attached by one
edge to each side of the septa. In many respects the Cubomedusae
appear to be of simple structure, but the remarkable differentiation of
the eyes and the occurrence of a velum (p. 313) suggest that the
order is a highly specialised offshoot from a primitive stock.

Fig. 145.—Vertical section in the interradial plane of Tripedalia cystophora. Go,

Gastric ostia; Man, manubrium; Ph, group of phacellae; T, tentacles in four
groups of three; tent, perradial sense-organs; V, velum. (After Conant.)

Fam. 1. Charybdeidae.—Cubomedusae with four interradial

tentacles.
Charybdea appears to have a very wide geographical distribution.
Some of the species are usually found in deep water and come to
the surface only occasionally, but others (C. xaymacana) are only
found at the surface of shallow water near the shore. The genus can
be easily recognised by the four-sided prismatic shape of the bell
and the oral flattened expansion of the base of the tentacles. The
bell varies from 2-6 cm. in length (or height) in C. marsupialis, but a
giant form, C. grandis,[354] has recently been discovered off
Paumotu Island which is as much as 23 cm. in height. The colour is
usually yellow or brown, but C. grandis is white and C. xaymacana
perfectly transparent.

"Charybdea is a strong and active swimmer, and presents a very

beautiful appearance in its movements through the water; the quick,
vigorous pulsations contrasting sharply with the sluggish
contractions seen in most Scyphomedusae." It appears to be a
voracious feeder. "Some of the specimens taken contained in the
stomach small fish, so disproportionately large in comparison with
the stomach that they lay coiled up, head overlapping tail."[355]

Very little is known of the development, but it is possible that Tamoya

punctata, which lacks gonads, phacellae, and canals in the velum,
may be a young form of a species of Charybdea.

Fam. 2. Chirodropidae.—Cubomedusae with four interradial groups

of tentacles.

This family is represented by the genera Chirodropus from the

Atlantic and Chiropsalmus from the Indian Ocean and the coast of
North Carolina.

Fam. 3. Tripedaliidae.—Cubomedusae with four interradial groups

of three tentacles.
The single genus and species Tripedalia cystophora has only been
found in shallow water off the coast of Jamaica. Specimens of this
species were kept for some time by Conant in an aquarium, and
produced a number of free-swimming planulae which settled on the
glass, and quickly developed into small hydras with a mouth and four
tentacles. The further development of this sedentary stage is
unfortunately not known.

Order II. Stauromedusae.

This order contains several genera provided with an aboral stalk
which usually terminates in a sucker, by means of which the animal
is temporarily fixed to some foreign object. There can be little doubt
that this sedentary habit is recently acquired, and the wide range of
the characteristic features of the order may be accounted for as a
series of adaptations to the change from a free-swimming to a
sedentary habit.

It is difficult to give in a few words the characters of the order, but the
Stauromedusae differ from other Scyphozoa in the absence or
profound modification in structure and function of the statorhabs.
They are absent in Lucernaria and the Depastridae, and very
variable in number in Haliclystus.

The statorhab of Haliclystus terminates in a spherical knob, which is

succeeded by a large annular pad or collar bearing a number of
glandular cells which secrete a sticky fluid. At the base of the organ
there is a rudimentary ocellus. The number is very variable, and
sometimes they are abnormal in character, being "crowned with
tentacles." There can be little doubt that the principal function of
these organs is not sensory but adhesive, and hence they have
received the names "colletocystophores" and "marginal anchors,"
but they are undoubtedly homologous with the statorhabs of other
Scyphozoa.
The tentacles are short and numerous, and are frequently mounted
in groups on the summit of digitate outgrowths from the margin of the
umbrella. They are capitate, except in Tessera, the terminal swelling
containing a battery of nematocysts.

Very little is known concerning the life-history and development of

the Stauromedusae.

Fam. 1. Lucernariidae.—Marginal lobes digitate, bearing the

capitate tentacles in groups. Haliclystus auricula is a common form
on the shores of the Channel Islands, at Plymouth, and other
localities on the British coast. It may be recognised by the prominent
statorhabs situated in the bays between the digitate lobes of the
margin of the umbrella. Each of the marginal lobes bears from 15 to
20 capitate tentacles. It is from 2 to 3 cm. in length. The genus
occurs in shallow water off the coasts of Europe and North America,
extending south into the Antarctic region.

Lucernaria differs from Haliclystus in the absence of statorhabs. It

has the same habit as Haliclystus, and is often found associated with
it. L. campanulata is British.

Halicyathus is similar in external features to Haliclystus, but differs

from it in certain important characters of the coelenteric cavities. It is
found off the coasts of Norway, Greenland, and the Atlantic side of
North America.

In Capria, from the Mediterranean, the tentacles are replaced by a

denticulated membrane bearing nematocysts.

The rare genus Tessera, from the Antarctic Ocean, differs from all
the other Stauromedusae in having no stalk and in having only a few
relatively long non-capitate tentacles. If Tessera is really an adult
form it should be placed in a separate family, but, notwithstanding
the presence of gonads, it may prove to be but a free-swimming
stage in the history of a normally stalked genus.

Fam. 2. Depastridae.—The margin of the umbrella is provided with

eight shallow lobes bearing one or more rows of tentacles.
Statorhabs absent.

Depastrum cyathiforme occurs in shallow water at Plymouth, Port

Erin, and in other localities on the coasts of Britain and Norway. The
tentacles are arranged in several rows on the margin of the umbrella.
In Depastrella from the Canaries there is only one row of marginal
tentacles.

Fam. 3. Stenoscyphidae.[356]—Stauromedusae with simple

undivided umbrella margin. The eight principal tentacles are
converted into adhesive anchors. Secondary tentacles arranged in
eight adradial groups. Stenoscyphus inabai, 25 cm., Japan.

Order III. Coronata.[357]

The external surface of the umbrella is divided into two regions, an
aboral region and a marginal region, by a well-marked circular
groove (the coronal groove). The aboral region is usually smooth
and undivided, but it is an elongated dome, thimble- or cone-shaped,
in marked contrast to the flattened umbrella of the Discophora. The
margin is divided into a number of triangular or rounded lobes, and
these are continued as far as the coronal groove as distinct areas
delimited by shallow grooves on the surface of the umbrella. The
tentacles arise from the grooves between the marginal areas, and
are provided with expanded bases called the pedalia. The
manubrium may be short or moderately long, but it is never provided
with long lips.

Fam. 1. Periphyllidae.[358]—Coronata with four or six statorhabs.

In Pericolpa (Kerguelen) there are only four tentacles and four
statorhabs. In Periphylla, a remarkable deep-sea genus from 700 to
2000 fathoms in all seas, but occasionally found at the surface, there
are twelve tentacles and four statorhabs. The specimens from deep
water have a characteristic dark red-brown or violet-brown colour.
They are usually small Medusae, but the umbrella of P. regina is
over 21 cm. in diameter. Atorella has six tentacles and six
statorhabs.

Fam. 2. Ephyropsidae.—Coronata with eight or more than eight

statorhabs.

Nausithoe punctata is a small, transparent jelly-fish, not exceeding

10 mm. in diameter, of world-wide distribution. Its Scyphistoma stage
is described on p. 317. N. rubra, a species of a reddish colour found
at a considerable depth in the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans, is
probably an abysmal form. Palephyra differs from Nausithoe in
having elongated instead of rounded gonads. Linantha and Linuche
differ from the others in having subdivided marginal lobes.

Fam. 3. Atollidae.—Atolla is a deep-sea jelly-fish of very wide

geographical distribution. It is characterised by the multiplication of
the marginal appendages, but the number is very irregular. There
may be double or quadruple the usual number of marginal lobes, or
an indefinite number. There may be sixteen to thirty-two statorhabs,
and the number of tentacles is quite irregular. Some of the species
attain a considerable size, the diameter of the umbrella of A.
gigantea being 150 mm., of A. valdiviae sometimes 130 mm., and of
A. bairdi 110 mm.

Order IV. Discophora.

This order contains not only by far the greater number of the species
of Scyphozoa, but those of the largest size, and all those that are
familiar to the seaside visitor and the mariner under the general term
jelly-fish.

They may be distinguished from the other Scyphozoa by several

well-marked characters. The umbrella is flattened and disc-shaped
or slightly domed, but not divided by a coronary groove. The
perradial angles of the mouth are prolonged into long lips, which may
remain free (Semaeostomata) or fuse to form an elaborate proboscis
(Rhizostomata).

Sub-Order I. Semaeostomata.
In this sub-order the mouth is a large aperture leading into the cavity
of the manubrium, and is guarded by four long grooved and often
tuberculated lips. The margin of the umbrella is provided with long
tentacles.

Fam. 1. Pelagiidae.—Semaeostomata with wide gastric pouches,

which are not united by a marginal ring sinus. Pelagia, which forms
the type of this family, has eight long marginal tentacles. It develops
directly from the egg, the fixed Scyphistoma stage being eliminated.
[359] It is probably in consequence of this peculiarity of its
development and independence of a shore for fixation that Pelagia
has become a common and widespread inhabitant of the high seas.
In the Atlantic and Indian Oceans P. phosphora occurs in swarms or
in long narrow lines many miles in length. It is remarkable for its
power of emitting phosphorescent light. In the Atlantic it extends
from 50° N. to 40° S., but is rare or absent from the colder regions. P.
perla is found occasionally on the west coast of Ireland. Chrysaora
differs from Pelagia in the larger number of tentacles. There are, in
all, 24 tentacles and 8 statorhabs, separated by 32 lobes of the
margin of the umbrella. C. isosceles is occasionally found off the
British coast. It passes through a typical Scyphistoma stage in
development. Dactylometra, a very common jelly-fish of the
American Atlantic shores, differs from Chrysaora in having sixteen
additional but small tentacles arranged in pairs at the sides of the
statorhabs.

Fam. 2. Cyanaeidae.—Semaeostomata with eight radial and eight

adradial pouches, which give off ramifying canals to the margin of
the umbrella; but these canals are not united by a ring-canal. The
tentacles are arranged in bundles on the margin of the deeply lobed
umbrella.

The yellow Cyanaea capillata and the blue C. lamarcki are

commonly found on the British coasts.

Fam. 3. Ulmaridae.—The gastric pouches are relatively small, and

communicate with a marginal ring-canal by branching perradial and
interradial canals and unbranched adradial canals.

In Ulmaris prototypus (Fig. 143, p. 315) there are only eight long
adradial tentacles, and the lips of the manubrium are relatively short.
It is found in the South Atlantic.

Aurelia is a well-known and cosmopolitan genus, which may be

recognised by the eight shallow lobes of the umbrella-margin beset
with a fringe of numerous small tentacles.

Sub-Order II. Rhizostomata.

In this sub-order the lips are very much exaggerated in size, and are
fused together by their margin in such a manner that the mouth of
the animal is reduced to a number of small apertures situated along
the lines of suture. Tentacles are absent on the margin of the
umbrella. This sub-order contains some of the largest known jelly-
fishes, and exhibits a considerable range of structure. The families
are arranged by Maas[360] in three groups.
Group I. Arcadomyaria.—Musculature of the disc arranged in
feather-like arcades. Oral arms pinnate.

Fam. Cassiopeidae.—There are no epaulettes on the arms. Labial

tentacles present. Cassiopea is common in the Indo-Pacific seas,
and extends into the Red Sea. It includes a great many species
varying in size from 4 to about 12 cm. in diameter.

Group II. Radiomyaria.—Musculature arranged in radial tracts. Oral

arms bifid.

Fam. Cepheidae.—The genera included in this family differ from the

Cassiopeidae in the characters of the group. Cephea is found in the
Indo-Pacific Oceans and Red Sea. Cotylorhiza is common in the
Mediterranean Sea and extends into the Atlantic Ocean.

Group III. Cyclomyaria.—The group contains the majority of the

Rhizostomata. Musculature arranged in circular bands round the
disc. Oral arms primarily trifid, but becoming in some cases very
complicated. The principal families are:—

Fam. Rhizostomatidae.—With well-marked epaulettes, and sixteen

radial canals passing to the margin of the umbrella.

Rhizostoma pulmo (= Pilema octopus), a widely distributed species,

is often found floating at the surface off the western coasts of
Scotland and Ireland, and sometimes drifts up the English Channel
into the German Ocean in the autumn. The umbrella is about two
feet in diameter, and the combined length of the umbrella and arms
is four feet. The colour varies considerably, but that of a specimen
obtained off Valencia in 1895 was described as follows: "The colour
of the umbrella was pale green, with a deep reddish margin. Arms
bright blue."[361]

The family includes Stomolophus, of the Pacific and Atlantic coasts

of America, in which the oral arms are united at the base, and
Rhopilema, the edible Medusa of Japan and China.

Fam. Lychnorhizidae.—Here there are only eight radial canals

reaching as far as the margin of the umbrella, and eight terminating
in the ring-canal. There are no epaulettes, and the oral tentacles are
often very long. The family includes Lychnorhiza from the coast of
Brazil, Crambione from the Malay Archipelago, and Crambessa from
the Atlantic shores of France and Spain and from Brazil and
Australia. The last-named genus has been found in brackish water at
the mouth of the Loire.

In the families Leptobrachiidae and Catostylidae there are eight

radial canals reaching the margin of the umbrella, and between them
a network of canals with many openings into the ring-canal. In a few
of the Leptobrachiidae the intermediate canal-network has only eight
openings into the ring-canal, as in the Lychnorhizidae.

CHAPTER XIII

COELENTERATA (CONTINUED): ANTHOZOA = ACTINOZOA—GENERAL

CHARACTERS—ALCYONARIA

CLASS III. ANTHOZOA = ACTINOZOA

Among the familiar objects included in this class are the Sea-
anemones, the Stony Corals (Madrepores), the Flexible Corals, the
Precious Coral, and the Sea-pens. With the exception of a few
species of Sea-anemone, Anthozoa are not commonly found on
British sea-shores; but in those parts of the tropical world where
coral reefs occur, the shore at low tide is carpeted with various forms
of this class, and the sands and beaches are almost entirely
composed of their broken-down skeletons.

The majority of the Anthozoa are colonial in habit, a large number of

individuals, or zooids as they are called, being organically connected
together by a network of nutritive canals, and forming a communal
gelatinous or stony matrix for their protection and support. Whilst the
individuals are usually small or minute, the colonial masses they
form are frequently large. Single colonies of the stony corals form
blocks of stone which are sometimes five feet in diameter, and reach
a height of two or three feet from the ground. From the tree or shrub-
like form assumed by many of the colonies they were formerly
included in a class Zoophyta or animal-plants.

But whether the individual polyps are large or small, whether they
form colonies in the adult condition or remain independent, they
exhibit certain characters in common which distinguish them not only
from the other Coelenterata, but from all other animals. When an
individual zooid is examined in the living and fully expanded
condition, it is seen to possess a cylindrical body, attached at one
end (the aboral end) to the common colonial matrix or to some
foreign object. At the opposite or free extremity it is provided with a
mouth surrounded by a crown of tentacles. In these respects,
however, they resemble in a general way some of the Hydrozoa. It is
only when the internal anatomy is examined that we find the
characters which are absolutely diagnostic of the group.

In the Hydrozoa the mouth leads directly into the coelenteric cavity;
in the Anthozoa, however, the mouth leads into a short tube or
throat, called the "stomodaeum," which opens into the coelenteric
cavity. Moreover, this tube is connected with the body-wall, and is
supported by a series of fleshy vertical bands called the mesenteries
(Fig. 146). The mesenteries not only support the stomodaeum, but
extend some distance below it. Where the mesenteries are free from
the stomodaeum their edges are thickened to form the important
digestive organs known as the mesenteric filaments (mf). It is in the
possession of a stomodaeum, mesenteries, and mesenteric
filaments that the Anthozoa differ from all the other Coelenterata.
There is one character that the Anthozoa share with the Scyphozoa,
and that is, that the gonads or sexual cells (G) are derived from the
endoderm. They are discharged first into the coelenteric cavity, and
then by way of the mouth to the exterior. In the Anthozoa the gonads
are situated on the mesenteries.

Fig. 146.—Diagram of a vertical section through an Anthozoan zooid. B, Body-

wall; G, gonads; M, mesentery; mf, mesenteric filament; St, stomodaeum;
T, tentacle.

Nearly all the Anthozoa are sedentary in habit. They begin life as
ciliated free-swimming larvae, and then, in a few hours or days, they
become attached to some rock or shell at the bottom and
immediately (if colonial) start the process of budding, which gives
rise to the colonies of the adult stage. Many of the Sea-anemones,
however, move considerable distances by gliding over the rocks or
seaweeds, others habitually burrow in the sand (Edwardsia,
Cerianthus), and one family (the Minyadidae) are supported by a gas
bladder, and float at the surface of the sea. The Sea-pens, too,
although usually partly buried in the sand or mud, are capable of
shifting their position by alternate distension and contraction of the
stalk.[362] The Anthozoa are exclusively marine. With the exception
of a few Sea-anemones that are found in brackish or almost fresh
water in river estuaries, they only occur in salt sea water. The
presence of a considerable admixture of fresh water, such as we find
at the mouths of rivers, seems to interfere very materially with the
development and growth of all the reef-forming Corals, as will be
noticed again in the chapter on coral reefs. A few genera descend
into the greatest depths of the ocean, but the home of the Anthozoa
is pre-eminently the shallow seas, and they are usually found in
great abundance in depths of 0-40 fathoms from the shores of the
Arctic and Antarctic lands to the equatorial belt.

The only Anthozoa of any commercial importance are the Precious

Corals belonging to the Alcyonarian family Coralliidae. The hard pink
axis of these corals has been used extensively from remote times in
the manufacture of jewellery and ornaments. Until quite recently the
only considerable and systematic fishery for the Precious Corals was
carried on in the Mediterranean Sea, and this practically supplied the
markets of the world. In more recent times, however, an important
industry in corals has been developed in Japan. In 1901 the value of
the coral obtained on the coasts of Japan was over £50,000, the
greater part of which was exported to Italy, a smaller part to China,
and a fraction only retained for home consumption. The history of the
coral fishery in Japan is of considerable interest. Coral was
occasionally taken off the coast of Tsukinada in early times. But in
the time of the Daimyos the collection and sale of coral was
prohibited, for fear, it is said, that the Daimyo of Tosa might be
compelled to present such precious treasure to the Shogun. After the
Meiji reform, however (1868), the industry revived, new grounds
were discovered, improved methods employed, and a large export
trade developed.

There is evidence, however, in the art of Japan, of another coral

fishery in ancient times, of which the history is lost. Coral was
imported into Japan at least two hundred years ago, and used
largely in the manufacture of those exquisite pieces of handicraft for
which that country is so justly famous. On many of the carved