PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

LECTURE - 2
● Origin of Continents & Oceans
● Plate Boundary Movement
 ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS & OCEANS
● The relative position of landmass and ocean basins is referred to
as the distribution of continents and oceans. The movement of
tectonic plates causes these to shift over millions of years.
Tectonic plates move at a rate of 2-10 cm per year, but these slow
shifts translate into movements of hundreds to tens of thousands
of kilometers over tens to hundreds of millions of years, changing
the size, shape, and depth of ocean basins and the distribution of
oceans and continents on the Earth, affecting global climate and
ecosystems.
 Continental Drift Theory
● This theory was put forth by Alfred Wegener in 1912, it was also
termed as displacement hypothesis. The Continental Drift Theory
ʻgrew out of the need of explaining the major variations of climate
in the pastʼ. These changes may be explained in two ways.
Continental Drift Theory
Sea Floor Spreading Theory
 Sea Floor Spreading Theory
● This theory was propounded by Prof. Harry Hess. His concept was
based on multiple research findings. Later on he surveyed long
stretch of the sea floor of the Pacific Ocean from Mexico to British
Columbia along the Western coast of North America, after the data
of magnetic anomalies obtained during the survey, there emerged
a well defined pattern of stripes. On the basis of these
information, Harry Hess established that MoR is situated on the
rising limb of thermal convectional currents coming up from the
Mantle.
 Sea Floor Spreading Theory
● The oceanic crust is moving in the opposite direction from MoR
and thus there is continuous upwelling of Magma which cools
down, solidify and forms new crust along the MoR. This proves the
fact that Sea floor spreads and expanding crust gets destroyed
along the trenches. These facts prove that the continents and
ocean basins are in constant motion.
 Evidences supporting Sea-floor
spreading theory
● The rocks equidistant on either side of crest of mid- oceanic ridges
show remarkable similarities in terms of period of formation and
chemical composition. The age of the rocks increases as one moves
away from the crest.
● Rocks on either side of the MoR have similar magnetic properties in
terms of magnetic anomaly and time sequence of magnetic epochs.
● The ocean crust rocks are much younger than the Continental rocks.
The age of rocks in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than 100 million
years old. Some continental rock formations are as old as 3,200 million
years.
 PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
● This theory was propounded by McKenzie and Parker. According to
this theory, A tectonic plate is a massive, irregularly – shaped slab of
solid rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic
lithosphere.
● A Plate may be referred to as the Continental plate or Oceanic plate
depending on which of the two occupy a larger portion of the Plate.
These plates move horizontally over asthenosphere as rigid units.
● Forces responsible for the movement of these plates is the heat
beneath Earth if generated because of two prime factors:
○ Radioactive Decay
○ Residual Heat
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
 Types of Plate Boundaries
● There are in total three ways in which the plates interact. Major
geomorphological features such as fold and block mountains,
mid-oceanic ridges, trenches, volcanism, earthquakes etc. are
consequence of the interaction between various Tectonic Plates
(lithospheric plates).
 Divergent Plate Boundaries
● Where new crust is generated (Constructive margins) as plates
pull away from each other and new crust is formed because of
‘Force of Tension’ and solidification of upwelling molten
material, also called spreading sites. E.g. Mid Atlantic Ridge
(American plate being separated from African and Eurasian
Plates), Great African Rift valley System.
Divergent Plate Boundaries
 Name of the Hosting Ocean Details
Mid-Ocean Ridge

Galapagos Ridge Pacific Ocean Located in the East Pacific Ocean between
Cocos Plate to the north and Nazca Plate to the
south. The volcanically active Galapagos
hotspot is situated above the Galapagos ridge.
The hotspot is responsible for the creation of the
Galapagos Islands along with the aseismic ridge
systems Carnegie, Cocos, and Malpelo.

Juan de Fuca Pacific Ocean Located off the coast of the Pacific Northwest
Ridge region of North America, it separates the
eastern Juan de Fuca Plate and western the
Pacific Plate.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge Atlantic Ocean This divergent plate boundary is part of the
longest mountain range in the world. It
separates Eurasian and North American Plate in
North Atlantic. It also separates African and South
American Plate in the South Atlantic.
 Convergent Plate Boundary
● Where crust is destroyed (Destructive margins) as plates
push against each other and one plate subducts under
another because of ʻForce of Compressionʼ, also known as
ʻconsuming plate marginʼ.

● E.g. Indo Australian Plate & Eurasian Plate, Philippine Island

Arc system is formed due to subduction of Philippine Sea plate
under the Sunda Plate
 Ocean-Ocean Convergence
● Ocean-Ocean Convergence is responsible for formation of
Island Arcs (Japanese Island Arc, Philippines Island Arc) &
Archipelago (Indonesian Archipelago), in this type of
Convergence, denser oceanic plate subducts below a less
dense oceanic plate forming a trench along the boundary.
 Ocean-Ocean Convergence
● As the Crust subducts, the rocks in the subduction zone become
metamorphosed under high pressure and temperature. After reaching a
depth of about 100 km, the plates melt. Magma (metamorphosed
sediments and the melted part of the subducting plate) has lower
density and is at high pressure. It rises upwards due to the buoyant
force offered by surrounding denser medium. The magma flows out to the
surface which creates constant volcanic eruptions at the ocean floor. As
this process continues for millions of years, a volcanic landform is created
which in some cases rises above the ocean waters. Such volcanic
landforms all along the boundary form a chain of volcanic
islands which are collectively called as Island Arcs (Indonesian Island
Arc or Indonesian Archipelago, Philippine Island Arc, Japanese Island
Arc etc.).
 Ocean-Ocean Convergence

● Philippines island arc system: Philippine Island Arc system is formed due to
subduction of Philippine Sea plate under the Sunda Plate.
● Indonesian Archipelago: In the case of Indonesian Archipelago, the
Indo-Australian plate is subducting below Sunda Plate (part of Eurasian
Plate). The trench formed here is called Sunda trench (Java Trench is a major
section of Sunda trench).
● Japanese Island Arc: Northern arc is formed due to the subduction of the
Pacific Plate under the Eurasian Plate. The trench formed is Japan Trench.
Southern Arc is formed due to the subduction of the Philippine Plate under
the Eurasian Plate. The trench formed is Ryukyu Trench.
Ocean-Ocean Convergence
 Continent-Ocean Convergence
● The concept of Continent-Ocean Convergence is
important to understand the formation of the
Rockies, the Andes and other similar fold mountain
systems. Continent-Ocean Convergence is also
called Cordilleran Convergence because this kind of
convergence gives rise to extensive mountain systems. A
cordillera is an extensive chain of mountains or mountain
ranges. Mountain ranges in North America and South
America are called cordilleras. E.g. Andes Cordillera etc.
 Continent-Ocean Convergence
● When oceanic and continental plates collide or converge, the
oceanic plate (denser plate) subducts or plunges below the
continental plate (less dense plate) forming a trench along the
boundary.
● As the oceanic plate loaded with sediments subducts into the
softer Asthenosphere, the rocks on the continental side in the
subduction zone under high pressure and temperature become
Metamorphosed.
● E.g. Southern Arc is formed due to the subduction of the
Philippine Plate under the Eurasian Plate. The trench formed is
Ryukyu Trench.
 Continent-Ocean Convergence

● After reaching a certain depth, plates melt into the

Asthenosphere. Magma, which has lower density rises due to
the buoyant force offered by surrounding denser medium.
The magma flows out such regular upward movement of
magma creates constant volcanic eruptions at the surface of
the continental plate along the margin which is responsible
for formation of Volcanic mountains chain, collectively called
Continental Arc. E.g. the Cascade Range (parallel to the
Rockies), the Western Chile range (parallel to the Andes)
 Continent-Continent Convergence
● Continent-Continent (C-C) convergence is formed
between two continental plates. When the plates
converge, oceanic sediments are squeezed and
upthrust between the plates and these squeezed
sediments appear as fold mountains along the plate
margins. The Himalayan Mountains are an example of
this type of convergent plate.
 Transform Plate Boundary
● Where Crust is neither produced nor destroyed as
plates slide horizontally past each other. They are
generally perpendicular to Mid Oceanic Ridges. They
are formed due to differential movement. Also,
rotation of the Earth has its effect on separated blocks
of plate portions.
● E.g. : San Andreas Fault