Physics 12B

① In 1733 ,
Charles-Francois de Cisternay Du Fay (1698-1739) discovered

that electrified bodies could repel as well as attract. That led him that there

must be two types of electricity

.

$ In 1747 , Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) proposed that one of these two types of

electricity is actually transferred. In his model , electricity (we now call charge)
is actually transferred by exchange of electrons
.

$ In 1785 ,
Charles -
Augustine de Coulomb (1736-1806) discovered the law that

describes the electric force between charged particle.

ELECTRON THEORY/MODERN THEORY

All atom is neutral because the number of protons is

equal to the number of electrons . However an atom

,

under some circumstances (rubbing , chemical reaction

,

and radioactive decay) may gain electrons and

becomes negatively charged and the atom becomes a

negative ion called an anion or lose electrons and

becomes positively charged and the atum becomes a

positive ion called a cation

.

During this circumstance , the electrons are simply transferred from one body to

another
. One body acquires a positive charge and the other body an equal but negative

charge . Mathematically ,
the sum
of the positive and negative charges during this process

is ZERO
. This statement is called the
conservation of electric charge .
 TRARGES
Electric charge comes in two types, positive (t) and negative (1). Protons carry a positive

charge and electrons carry a negative charge .

An atom has a zero net charge

. They are electrically neutral because they have equal
number of electrons and protons
. But electrons do not always stay in atom
. They can be

moved . Benjamin Franklin described

by rubbing these charges as positive and negative.

LAW OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

* The law of electric charges states "that the like charges repel each other while unlike charges
attract " .

* Objects are said to be electrically neutral or uncharged when their positive charge is

balanced by an equal negative charge .

$ The Sl unit of charge is Colomb , abbreviated as .

C The charge of an electron is

1 6
.
x10-19 C and the charge of a proton is + 1 6
. x10'192
. The value 1 6
. x 10"9C is

usually designated by the letter e Thus , has a

. an electron charge of -e , while a
proton has
a charge of te
.

DMTIALS (based on allowing flow of charges)

=
Conductors are substances usually metals that allows the electric charges to readily
pass through .
it The valence electrons are loosely bound as a result , they can easily be

removed from the atom and moved Metals

about in the conductor
. are good conductors

because they have plenty of electrons (valence) that can move about the
free
material .

= Insulators such as dry gases , glass , mica , hard rubber are materials that electrical

charges have great difficulty to pass through . The valence

it electrons are tightly bound
or strongly attracted to the nucleus of the parent atom ,
so the electric charge cannot

more about the material .

= Semiconductors are intermediate between a conductor and an insulator . Semiconductor

is an insulator in the crystalline

Form
. The addition of atoms of different element
in a very small amount
, 1ppm
that is or even less makes it a conductor. Semiconduc -

fors pared the way of the development of miniaturized electronic devices ,

like

transistors and integrated circuits

. Silicon and germanium are semiconductors
.
 L
,M2)
(ax10 /
N
(5 x10- () (2x10 e
d =

100
d = 3x10- m

Conomb's Fac is Nentors Law on Universal Grantation

The electric force and the gravitational Force are two fundamental forces in nature
.

law
Newton's law on universal gravitation gives the gravitational Force , while Coulomb's

gives the electric .

Force

Both Forces in the two laws vary inversely as the square of the distance between the

charges or masses
.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #
1 .

Compare the electric force and gravitational Force between the lone electron and proton in a

hydrogen atom
. The average distance between them is 5 0 x 10-1/m
.
.

Given :
ELECTRIC FORCE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

K =
9 X109 N . m2/22 G= 6 67 X10
.
-

"N . M2/kq2
6 x10 "9C
charge electron
= -
1 .
mass of electron =
9 11 x .

10-"kg
charge proton = +1 .
6x10"9C mass of proton =
1 .
67x10-2"Kg
& "M "M
-

5 0 X 10
-

= .
↓ = 5 0 X10
.

Required : * only attractive forces in gravitational .

Solution :

19x109) (1 19) (1 6x10-19) ") (9 ) (1 67 X10 24)

- -
- -

. 6 x 10 .
(6 67.
x 10 . 11 < 10 .

= =

(5 . 0 x0
-

")2 (5x10 - ")2

= 9 22. X 10
-
N = 4 06
.
X10-44 N
 Given :
9= 5X10 - C d = 30cm = 0 3m.

Required : a) electric field K = 9X10"N .

m2/C2
b) direction of the field at
point P

Solution : E =
kq/d2
E (9x109 NM2) (5 3 C)/(0 -
-

= X 10 . 3m

a) E =
5 X10 ° N/C
b) direction of the field is to the right of point P

.
3 A uniform 5 N/C
.
electric field is directed downward and has a magnitude of

Find the magnitude and direction -6 C

,
of the force experienced by a charge of

placed in this field.

Given : E = 5 N/C directed downward

q = -

62

Required 2) : F b) direction of Force

Solution : F =
GE
F =
(6C)(5N/C)
a) F = 30 N

b) direction of Force is directed upward because the charge is

negative , so the direction of Force is opposite the direction of

Field

4. How strong an electric field is needed to support a proton against gravity at sea

level ?

Given : Protons mass = 1 673

.
x10-2 " Kg
Protons charge = 1 6 . x10-19 C

Gravitational acceleration = 9 8 . m/s2

Required : E =?

Solution : F =
ma

(1 673 2"ka) (9 8m/s2)

-

F = .
X 10 .

F = 1 64
.
X 10-26 N

E =
F/q
E = 1 . 64x10-20 N/1 . 6 X 10
-
19
C

E = 1 02 X
.
10 N/C
A capacitor is a device used to store an electric charge and energy. A capacitor consists of two conductors
separated by an insulator. In capacitors the conductors are called plates and the insulator is called as
dielectric. The simplest type of capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates separated by a thin
sheet of material or dielectric. When a capacitor is connected to a battery (charging a capacitor), the
battery supplies electric energy so that equal but opposite charges are placed on the capacitor plates. The
plate connected to the battery’s negative terminal will receive a charge of -q. The plate connected to the
battery’s positive terminal will receive a charge +q.

- A potential difference develops between the two plates; + plate is at higher potential. The work done
to separate the charge ends up as electric potential energy. The stored potential energy is associated
with this electric field.

- The amount of charge increases as the voltage increases.

- Capacitors are used in computer motherboards, electronic photoflash units, electric motors,
automobile ignition units, fluorescent lamp starters and in television and radio circuits.

The ability of a capacitor is to store energy in the form of an electric charge is called its
capacitance. The total charge q that is transferred to each plate of the capacitor is proportional
to R

Dq
Dd
Capacitor charge is the flow of electrons on to one plate and away from the other, resulting in a
negative charge on one plate and a positive charge on the other.

To charge the plate is to connect the positive terminal to a battery to one end and the negative
terminal to the other. The battery removes electrons from the plate, leaving it positively charged,
and put them on the other plate, leaving it with an equal magnitude of negative charge.

To recover the stored charge, convert it into some other forms of energy, by letting the charge come
together again.

Capacitor discharge is the flow of electrons from a negatively charged plate of a capacitor to the
positively charged plate eliminating the charge on the plate.

Discharging the capacitor is to connect one plate of a charged wire, charge moves along the wire until
there is no longer difference in potential between the plates.

The battery has to do work: Chemical energy , Electric potential energy

Plate area is a basic factor in determining the amount of capacitance. A large plate area has room for
more excess electrons than a small area and thus it can hold a greater charge. Similarly, the large
plate area has more electrons to give up and will hold a much larger positive charge than a small
 plate area. Therefore an increase in plate area increases capacitance and a decrease in plate area
decreases the capacitance.

The capacitance between two plates increases as the plates are brought closer together and
decreases as the plates are moved farther apart. Therefore, the closer the plates are to each
other, the greater the effect a charge on one plate will have on the charge of the other plate.

When the plates have fixed area and a certain distance apart, then the capacitance will change if
different insulating materials are used for the dielectric.

When a capacitor stores charge, it also stores energy. In charging up a capacitor, for example, a battery does
work in transferring an increment of charge from one plate of the capacitor to the other plate. The work
done is equal to the product of the charge increment and the potential difference between the plates. This
work does not disappear but is stored as electric potential energy in the capacitor.
1. A small capacitor (6uF) is charged by a 12 V car battery. A) How much energy is stored in the capacitor?
B) How much stored energy did the battery lose?

2. A parallel plate capacitor having a plate area of 0.70 m and a plate separation of 1.0 mm is connected to
a source with a voltage of 50 V. Find the capacitance, the charge on the plates, and the energy of the
capacitor a) when there is air between the plates and b) when the capacitor contains polystyrene.

3. What would be the plate area of a 1.0 F parallel plate capacitor if the plate separation were 1.0 mm?
1. Two capacitors, one 2.5 uF and the other 5.0 uF. What is the charge on each and the total charge store if they
are connected across a 12.0 V battery. (a) in a series (b) in parallel.
2. Find the total capacitance of three capacitors whose capacitances are 10 uF, 20 uF and 30 uF if they are
connected in a) series b) parallel.

For a series combination of capacitors, the magnitude of the charge must be the same on all the plates.
To understand this principle, consider the charge transfer process in some detail. When a battery is
connected to the circuit, electrons with total charge -q are transferred from the left plate of C to
the right plate of C through the battery, leaving the left plate of C with a charge of +q. As a
consequence, the magnitudes of the charges on the left plate of C and the right plate of C must be
the same. Now consider the right plate of C and the left plate of C in the middle. These plates are not
connected to the battery (because of the gap across the plates) and, taken together, are electrically
neutral. The charge of +q on the left plate of C , however, attracts negative charges to the right
plate of C . These charges will continue to accumulate until the left and right places of C , taken
together, become electrically neutral, which means the charge on the right plate of C is -q. This
negative charge could only have come from the left plate of C , so C has a charge of +q.
Therefore, regardless of how many capacitors are in series or what their capacitances are, all of the right
plates gain charges of -q and all the left plates have charges of +q. (This is a consequence of the
conservation of charge.)

Total capacity of capacitor connected in series: 1/C(total) = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

The charge (magnitude q) is the same on all the plates: qT = q1 = q2 = q3

The sum of the individual voltage drop across all the capacitors is equal to the voltage of the source.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + …

The left plate of each capacitor is connected to the positive terminal of the battery by a conducting wire, so
the left plates are at the same potential. In the same way, the right plates both connected to the negative
terminal of the battery, are also at the same potential. This means that capacitors in parallel both have the
same potential difference across them.

When the capacitors are first connected in the circuit, electrons are transferred from the left plates
through the battery to the right places, leaving the left plates positively charged and the right places
negatively charged. The energy source for this transfer is the internal chemical energy stored in the
battery, which is converted to electrical energy. The flow of charge stops when the voltage across the
capacitors equals the voltage of the battery, at which time the capacitors have their maximum charges.

Total capacity of capacitors connected in parallel: CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + … + C

The voltage across the capacitors are the same with each individual voltage equal to that of the battery:
VT = V1 = V2 = V3

The total charge stored is equal to the sum of the charges on the individual capacitors. qT = q1 + q2 + q3
The science of electrodynamics deals with electrical charges in motion. A closed conducting path where charges
flow is called an electric circuit. There are 3 essential elements in an electric circuit. These are the electric
current, resistance, and voltage or potential difference.

Electric current is the flow of charged particles in a specified direction. Charged particles are often referred
to as current carriers. In a common conductor such as Cu, the current is due to the motion of negatively
charged electrons, so the direction of the current is opposite to the direction of motion of the electrons. The
flow of the charged particles may be through a solid, a gas, a liquid, or a vacuum.

In order for charges to flow there must be an electric circuit. An electric circuit is a complete or closed path
through which charges can flow from one terminal of an electrical source to its other terminal. A simple
circuit consists of the following:
1. Source of electrical energy to drive the electric charge around the circuit; example: battery.
2. Load which uses the electrical energy; example: bulb
3. Switch to break or complete the circuit.

The amount of current I is measured in terms of the number of charges q passing through a given point along a
conductor in a unit of time. In equation form: current I = charge q / time t
I = q/t ; q = It ; t = q/I ; N = q/e

Where:

The Ampere was chosen as the SI base unit of current in honor of Andre Marie Ampere, a French scientist who
made significant contributions in the field of electricity.

The amount of current in a circuit is measured with an ammeter. This instrument must be connected in series to
the circuit.
 Electric current is produced when there is a flow of charge, but what causes the flow of charge?

In an electric circuit, the free electrons in a wire will not flow unless they are forced to do so. A battery or
generator connected across the wire can provide a force which causes electrons to flow. This fore is called
the electromotive force. The electromotive force creates an electrical “pressure” difference across the wire.

The electrical pressure difference caused by the battery is called potential difference or voltage. Potential
difference V, between two points is the work done W in taking one coulomb of positive charge from a point of
lower potential to a point of higher potential.

The voltage across two points in a circuit can be measured with a voltmeter. The voltmeter must be connected
in parallel to the component across which the voltage is being measured.

As electrons flow along the conductor, the material offers opposition to the current. Every part of a circuit
offers opposition to the current. Every part of a circuit offers opposition to the motion of the charges. An
opposition to the electron flow along a conductor is called resistance. The resistance of a piece of wire
depends on its length, cross-sectional area or thickness and temperature. The longer the wire is, the greater
its resistance. A thicker wire, however, has less resistance because a thick wire offers more room for an
electric current to pass through than a thin wire does. The higher the temperature of a wire the greater its
resistance and the lower the temperature of a wire, the lesser its resistance. Materials that offer a low
resistance to current are called conductors, while materials which offer a high resistance to current are
called as insulators.
Resistors has SI units of volts / ampere or Ohms ( ).
 How will an increase in potential difference (V) or an increase in resistance affect the current flowing through
the wire? These changes were investigated by a German physicist, Georg Simon Ohm, who was the first to
conduct a systematic study on electrical resistance. The results of his experiments are summarized in Ohm’s
law which states: The current flowing through a circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference
and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit.

The first part of the law may be represented as I (current) V (potential difference).
The second part may be represented as

Algebraically, Ohm’s law is

Where:
I = current ; the unit is A or V / or C/s
V = potential difference or voltage; the unit is V or A. or J/C
R = resistance ; the unit is or V/A

1. A current of 3.6 A flows through an automobile headlight. How many coulombs of charge flow through the headlight
in 3 hours?

2. A current of 80mA exists in a metal wire for 10 minutes. Calculate the a) magnitude of the charge b) number of
electrons that flow past the given cross section of wire.
 3. Each second 10 electrons flow from right to left across a cross section of wire attached to the two terminals
of a battery. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric current in the wire.

4. Find the resistance of a 120.0- V electric toaster that draws a current of 8.0 A.

5. A resistance of 11.0 will allow 10.0 A of current. Find the voltage.

6. A resistance of 18.0 is across a 3.0 V battery. What is the current in the circuit?

Batteries or generators contribute their electromotive force to a circuit. In reality, however, such devices
also add some resistance to the circuit. This resistance is called as internal resistance of the battery or
generator because it is located inside the device. In a battery, the internal resistance is due to the chemicals
within the battery. In a generator, the internal resistance is the resistance of wires and other components
within the generator.

When a source of electric energy is part of a complete circuit, a current I flows. The potential difference
across the terminals of the source is less than its emf owing to its internal resistance. Every electric source
has a certain amount of internal resistance r, which means a potential drop Ir occurs within the source. Hence,
 actual terminal voltage V across a source of emf and an internal resistance r is V = . If a battery
of emf is connected to a circuit is R plus the internal resistance r of the battery, so that the current I that
flows is .

The internal resistance of a functioning battery is typically small (several thousandths of an ohm for a new
car battery). Nevertheless, the effect of an internal resistance may not be negligible. One of the major
advantages of lead-acid batteries is their low internal resistances, which permit large currents to be drawn
for short periods to operate the starting motors of gasoline and diesel engines.

1. The emf of a cell is 1.56 V. When a current of 1.32 A flows through it, the potential difference across its terminal
is 1.45 V. Find its internal resistance.

2. A “D” cell of emf 1.5 V and internal resistance of 0.3 is connected to a flashlight bulb whose resistance is 3.0
. Find the current in the circuit and the terminal voltage.
Potential difference is directly proportional to electric current, as observed by Georg Ohm. Current that flows
through a conductor depend on the potential difference.

Electrical resistance, R is the ratio of the potential difference or voltage ( V) across a conductor to the
current (I) through the material:

This resistance encountered by the electrons is measured in ohms, named after Georg Simon Ohm, a German
physicist. One ohm ( ) is that resistance in which a potential difference of one volt produces a current of one
ampere. Electrical resistance is measured by an ohmmeter.

A greater electrical pressure or EMF will increase the current flowing through a conductor. This is true only if
the conductor is made of the same material, of the same length, of the same diameter, and if the temperature
remains constant. These four factors affect the amount of the current that flows through the conducting
wire. With the same potential difference, the current may increase or decrease depending on which of the factor
varies.

The current flowing through a wire will be reduced if the wire were made longer, using the same power source. The
resistance of a uniform conductor is directly proportional to its length,

where R is the resistance in ohms and L is the length of the conductor in meter.

The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the square of its diameter or its cross-sectional
area, that is

Where d is the diameter and A is the area of the wire.

 Wires of different materials offer different amounts of resistance. At the same temperature, a copper wire
offers only the resistance of an iron wire of the same length and diameter. Silver wire of the same size offers
even much less resistance. The resistivity of the wire is dependent on the material of which the wire
is made and its temperature.

Resistance depends on size and shape. In fluid flow, longer pipe offers more resistance to fluid flow than a
short Pipe and a wider pipe offers lesser resistance than a narrow one.

All substances, whether metal or nonmetal, register a change in electrical resistance as the temperature
changes. In pure metals and in most alloys, the resistance increases significantly as the temperature rises.
When temperature of a metal rises, its atomic activity increases due to an increase in kinetic energy. Its in this
increase in atomic movement in the metal which prevents electrons from moving smoothly through the
conductor. If the temperature is lowered, atomic activity decreases, reducing electrical resistance. Carbon,
silicon, and few electrolyte have lower electrical resistance at higher temperature.

1. What is the electrical resistance of a silver wire 0.50 m long with a diameter of 1.5 mm if the resistivity of silver
is 1.59x10
2. Jose wants to use a glass rod as an insulator. The rod’s diameter is 9 mm and its resistivity is 1x10 m. How long
must the rod be to offer a resistance of 9.1 x 10