NUCLEAR ENERGY PART 2 (final)

NUCLEAR FUSION -
If light nuclei are forced together, they will fuse with a yield of energy because the mass
of the combination will be less than the sum of the masses of the individual nuclei. If
the combined nuclear mass is less than that of iron at the peak of the binding energy
curve, then the nuclear particles will be more tightly bound than they were in the lighter
nuclei, and that decrease in mass comes off in the form of energy according to the
Einstein relationship. For elements heavier than iron, fission will yield energy. For
potential nuclear energy sources for the Earth, the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction
contained by some kind of magnetic confinement seems the most likely path. However,
for the fueling of the stars, other fusion reactions will dominate.

Reactions and decays

Two general kinds of nuclear reactions are nuclear decay reactions and nuclear
transmutation reactions. In a nuclear decay reaction, also called radioactive decay, an
unstable nucleus emits radiation and is transformed into the nucleus of one or more
other elements. The resulting daughter nuclei have a lower mass and are lower in
energy (more stable) than the parent nucleus that decayed. In contrast, in a nuclear
transmutation reaction, a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle or another nucleus
to form a product nucleus that is more massive than the starting material. As we shall
see, nuclear decay reactions occur spontaneously under all conditions, but nuclear
transmutation reactions occur only under very special conditions, such as the collision
of a beam of highly energetic particles with a target nucleus or in the interior of stars.
Nuclear Decay Reactions
Just as we use the number and type of atoms present to balance a chemical equation,
we can use the number and type of nucleons present to write a balanced nuclear
equation for a nuclear decay reaction. This procedure also allows us to predict the
identity of either the parent or the daughter nucleus if the identity of only one is known.
Regardless of the mode of decay, the total number of nucleons is conserved.

There are six fundamentally different kinds of nuclear decay reactions, and each
releases a different kind of particle or energy. The most common are alpha and beta
decay and gamma emission, but the others are essential to an understanding of nuclear
decay reactions.

Alpha decay -
Alpha decay results in the emission of a particle, and produces a daughter
nucleus with a mass number that is lower by 4 and an atomic number that
is lower by 2 than the parent nucleus.
XAZ —------>XZ-2A-4 + a24
Beta Decay-
Beta decay converts a neutron to a proton and emits a high energy
electrons, producing a daughter nucleus with the same mass number as
the parent and an atomic number that is higher by 1.
XAZ —------>XZ+1A + ẞ-10
Nuclei that contain too many neutrons often undergo beta (β) decay, in
which a neutron is converted to a proton and a high-energy electron that is
ejected from the nucleus as a ẞ particle
Positron Emission-
Because a positron has the same mass as an electron but opposite charge,
positron emission is the opposite of beta decay. Thus positron emission is
characteristic of neutron-poor nuclei, which decay by transforming a proton to a
neutron and emitting a high-energy positron.
XZA —--------> XZ-1A + ẞ+10

Electron Capture
A neutron-poor nucleus can decay by either positron emission or electron capture
(EC), in which an electron in an inner shell reacts with a proton to produce a
neutron.
XZA + e-10—--------> XZ-1A + X ray

Gamma Emission
Many nuclear decay reactions produce daughter nuclei that are in a nuclear
excited state, which is similar
to an atom in which an electron has been excited to a higher-energy orbital to
give an electronic excited state. These high-energy photons are y rays.
XZA —--------> XZA + Y00
Spontaneous Fission
Only very massive nuclei with high neutron-to-proton ratios can undergo spontaneous
fission, in which the nucleus breaks into two pieces that have different atomic numbers
and atomic masses. This process is most important for the transactinide elements, with
Z >= 104 Spontaneous fission is invariably accompanied by the release of large
amounts of energy, and it is usually accompanied by the emission of several neutrons
as well.
Nuclear fission-
Nuclear fission takes place when a large, somewhat unstable isotope (atoms with the same
number of protons but different number of neutrons) is bombarded by high-speed particles,
usually neutrons. These neutrons are accelerated and then slammed into the unstable isotope,
causing it to fission, or break into smaller particles. During the process, a neutron is accelerated
and strikes the target nucleus, which in the majority of nuclear power reactors today is
Uranium-235. This splits the target nucleus and breaks it down into two smaller isotopes (the
fission products), three high-speed neutrons, and a large amount of energy. This resulting
energy is then used to heat water in nuclear reactors and ultimately produces electricity. The
high-speed neutrons that are ejected become projectiles that initiate other fission reactions, or
chain reactions.
The word fusion means "a merging of separate elements into a unified whole". Nuclear fusion
refers to the "union of atomic nuclei to form heavier nuclei resulting in the release of enormous
amounts of energy". Fusion takes place when two low-mass isotopes, typically isotopes of
hydrogen, unite under conditions of extreme pressure and temperature.
Example - U92235+n10—--------->Ba14156+Kr3692+3n01+Q
In this reaction
Am 0.2153amu
Hence, energy released per fission of Uranium-235 -0.2153 x 931 MeV =200.4MeV(Q-value)
This energy appears in the form of y rays, KE of fission fragments and the released neutrons.
This process is used in nuclear reactors and atom bombs.
Fusion is what powers the sun. Atoms of Tritium and Deuterium (isotopes of hydrogen,
Hydrogen-3 and Hydrogen-2, respectively) unite under extreme pressure and temperature to
produce a neutron and a helium isotope. Along with this, an enormous amount of energy is
released, which is several times the amount produced from fission -

process heat or for district heating. Some reactors are used produce isotopes for
medical and industrial use, or for production of weapons-grade plutonium. Fission to
When a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 absorbs a
neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more
lighter nuclei, (the fission products). releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free
neutrons.
How nuclear reactor works:
A nuclear reactor, formerly known as an atomic pile, is a device used to initiate and
control a self-sustained nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear reactors are used at nuclear
power plants for electricity generation and in nuclear marine propulsion. Heat from
nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid (water or gas), which in turn runs through
steam turbines. These either drive a ship's propellers or turn electrical generators'
shafts. To control such a nuclear chain reaction, neutron poisons and neutron
moderators can change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission.
Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission
reaction down if monitoring detects unsafe conditions.
• Heat generation
The reactor core generates heat in a number of ways:
The kinetic energy of fission products is converted to thermal energy when these nuclei collide
with nearby atoms.The reactor absorbs some of the gamma rays produced during fission and
converts their energy into heat.Heat is produced by the radioactive decay of fission products
and materials that have been activated by neutron absorption. This decay heat source will
remain for some time even after the reactor is shut down.A kilogram of uranium-235 (U-235)
converted via nuclear processes releases approximately three million times more energy than a
kilogram of coal burned conventionally.
Cooling
A nuclear reactor coolant usually water but sometimes a gas or a liquid metal (like liquid
sodium) or molten salt is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates.
The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate steam. Most reactor
systems employ a cooling system that is physically separated from the water that will be boiled
to produce pressurized steam for the turbines, like the pressurized water reactor. However, in
some reactors the water for the steam turbines is boiled directly by the reactor core; for
example the boiling water reactor.
Reactivity control
The rate of fission reactions within a reactor core can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of
neutrons that are able to induce further fission events. Nuclear reactors typically employ several
methods of neutron control to adjust the reactor's power output. Some of these methods arise
naturally from the physics of radioactive decay and are simply accounted for during the reactor's
operation, while others are
mechanisms engineered into the reactor design for a distinct purpose. The fastest method for
adjusting levels of fission-inducing neutrons in a reactor is via movement of the control rods.
Control rods are made of neutron poisons and therefore tend to absorb neutrons. When a
control rod is inserted deeper into the reactor, it absorbs more neutrons than the material it
displaces often the moderator. This action results in fewer neutrons available to cause fission
and reduces the reactor's power output. Conversely, extracting the control rod will result in an
increase in the rate of fission events and an increase in power.control rods must be further
inserted to replace the neutron absorption of the lost xenon-135.
Electrical power generation
The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be converted into
usable energy. A common method of harnessing this thermal energy is to use it to boil water to
produce pressurized steam which will then drive a steam turbine that turns an alternator and
generates electricity. el is called its burn up, which is expressed in terms of the heat energy
produced per initial unit of fuel weight. Burn up is commonly expressed as megawatt days
thermal per metric ton of initial heavy metal.
Nuclear fission reactor design, safety, operation and fuel cycles
A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of
certain elements. In a nuclear power reactor, the energy released is used as heat to make steam
to generate electricity. (In a research reactor the main purpose is to utilize the actual neutrons
produced in the core. In most naval reactors, steam drives a turbine directly for propulsion.)
The principles for using nuclear power to produce electricity are the same for most types of
reactor. The energy released from continuous fission of the atoms of the fuel is harnessed as
heat in either a gas or water, and is used to produce steam. The steam is used to drive the
turbines which produce electricity (as in most fossil fuel plants).
Main Components of a Nuclear Reactor:
The Core: It contains all the fuel and generates the heat required for energy production. through
the core, absorbing the heat and transferring into turbines
The Coolant: It passes The Turbine: Transfers energy into the mechanical form
The Cooling Tower: It eliminates the excess heat that is not converted or transferred
The Containment: The enveloping structure that separated the nuclear reactor from the
surrounding environment.

What is the safest nuclear reactor design? what are the four main
components of a fission reactor. Explain briefly (AKTU 2021)

Thorium-based nuclear power generation is fueled primarily by the nuclear fission of the isotope
uranium-233 produced from the fertile element thorium.
.1. A thorium fuel cycle offers several potential advantages over a uranium fuel cycle-including
much greater abundance of thorium found on Earth, superior physical and nuclear fuel
properties,
and reduced nuclear waste production.
2.Though development of thorium power has significant start-up costs.
3.The low weaponization potential is also an advantage of thorium due to how difficult it is to
weaponize the specific uranium-233/232 and plutonium-238 isotopes produced by thorium
reactors,
Types of Nuclear Reactors:
Based on general use, there are two types of Nuclear Reactor
1.Nuclear Research Reactors: Exclusively for the purpose of research and testing
methodologies.
2.Nuclear Power Reactors: Established for the solitary purpose of producing energy and
electricity
Nuclear Reactors can also be classified according to the type of fuel used
1. Uranium fuelled, namely U-235 isotope as U-238 is not fissionable
2.plutonium fuelled
Based on the design, there are other types of a nuclear reactor like
1.Pressurized water reactors
2.Boiling water reactors
Components of a nuclear reactor
There are several components common to most types of reactors:
Fuel. Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO:) are arranged in tubes to
form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core. In a 1000 MWe
class PWR there might be 51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets.
In a new reactor with new fuel a neutron source is needed to get the reaction going. Usually this
is beryllium mixed with polonium, radium or other alpha-emitter. Alpha particles from the decay
cause a release of neutrons from the beryllium as it turns to carbon-12. Restarting a reactor with
some used fuel may not require this, as there may be enough neutrons to achieve criticality
when control rods are removed.
Moderator. Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that
they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.
Control rods. These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or
boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it. In
some PWR reactors, special control rods are used to enable the core to sustain a low level of
power efficiently. (Secondary control systems involve other neutron absorbers, usually boron in
the coolant its concentration can be adjusted over time as the fuel burns up.) PWR control rods
are inserted from the top, BWR cruciform blades from the bottom of the core.
*In fission, most of the neutrons are released promptly, but some are delayed. These are crucial
in enabling a chain reacting system (or reactor) to be controllable and to be able to be held
precisely critical.
Coolant. A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water
reactors the water moderator functions also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is
secondary coolant circuit where the water becomes steam. (See also later section on primary
coolant characteristics.) A PWR has two to four primary coolant loops with pumps, driven either
by steam or electricity.
Pressure vessel or pressure tubes. Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core
and moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the
coolant through the surrounding moderator.
Steam generator. Part of the cooling system of pressurised water reactors (PWR & PHWR)
where the high-pressure primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam
for the turbine, in a secondary circuit. Essentially a heat exchanger like a motor car radiator
Reactors have up to six 'loops', each with a steam generator.
Safety Measures at Nuclear Power Plants
Nuclear power plants need multiple safety measures, which are designed on the assumption
that they must ensure the safety of the neighbouring communities so that there will be no
adverse impacts on their health. Nuclear power plants are designed to prevent abnormal
incidents from occurring. Even if abnormal incidents occur, nuclear plants are also designed to
prevent the potential spreading of abnormal incidents and leakage of radioactive materials
around plants, which may cause adverse impacts on the surrounding environment.
Measures to be put into action in order to ensure safety during unusual events can be
summarized in the following three points:
1. To shut down operating reactors
2. To cool down reactors so as to remove heat from nuclear fuel
3. To contain radioactive materials
Nuclear fuel cycle
The nuclear fuel cycle (chain) is a series of differetit stages that a nuclear fuel progresses
through from its creation to its safe disposal. It includes the front end steps (preparing the fuel),
service period steps (usage of the fuel during the reactor process), and the back end steps
(steps needed to safely dispose of or reprocess the fuel).
It describes industrial processes that describe uranium throughout its life cycle: from mining to
processing to generatingelectricity and finally to its reprocessing and waste. Essentially all
activities involved with nuclear power from its beginning to end are considered to be part of the
nuclear fuel cycle.
The cycle is split into two parts:
(i) the front end
(ii) the back end.
Front end includes mining, milling, processing, enrichment, and nuclear fuel fabrication. The
back end includes the primary goal of the fuel cycle, the generation of electricity, along with
temporary storage, reprocessing, recycling, and wastes.

The following are the steps of the nuclear fuel cycle:

1.Mining and Milling
2.Conversion
3.Enrichment
4.Deconversion
5.Fuel Fabrication
5.Power Generation
The nuclear fuel cycle has both frontend and backend steps. To prepare uranium for use in a
nuclear reactor, it undergoes the steps of mining and milling, conversion, enrichment and fuel
fabrication. Uranium takes almost three years to in the reactor to produce electricity.
Concept of Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Fissionable material that can sustain a chain reaction with neutrons is what nuclear power relies
on. Uranium and Plutonium are examples of such materials. In order to increase the chances of
a fission event to happen, some, if not most, nuclear reactors will use a moderator to lower the
kinetic energy of the neutrons. This allows reactors to use material with a far lower
concentration of fissile isotopes than are needed for nuclear weapons. Materials such as
graphite and heavy water are the most commonly known effective moderator materials because
they slow the neutrons through collisions without absorbing them. Reactors using heavy water
or graphite as the moderator can operate using natural uranium.
Types of Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Some of the most common types of Nuclear Fuel Cycles are highlighted below:
1.Once-through nuclear fuel cycle
Not a nuclear fuel cycle in the true sense, fuel is used once and then sent to storage without
further use save additional packaging to provide for better isolation from the biosphere. This
method is favoured by six countries: the United States, Canada, Sweden, Finland, Spain and
South Africa. Some countries, notably Finland, Sweden and Canada, have designed repositories
to permit future recovery of the material
should the need arise.
2.Plutonium cycle
Here, the fission products, minor actinides, activation products, and reprocessed uranium are
separated from the reactor-grade plutonium, which can then be fabricated into MOX fuel. There
are no current plans to reuse MOX fuel-based plutonium in a thermal reactor as the proportion
of the non-fissile even-mass isotopes of plutonium rises with each pass through the cycle.
3.Minor actinides recycling
There are proposals minor actinides could be used in a power reactor that needs immediate
attention along with using plutonium. Tests are already being conducted in which americium is
being used as a fuel. In principle, it should be possible to derive energy from the fission of any
actinide nucleus. With a careful reactor design, all the actinides in the fuel can be consumed,
leaving only lighter elements with short half- lives. Whereas this has been done in prototype
plants, no such reactor has ever been operated on a large scale.
Thorium Cycle
In the thorium fuel cycle, thorium-232 absorbs a neutron in either a fast or thermal reactor. The
thorium- 233 beta decays to protactinium-233 and then to uranium-233, which in turn is used as
fuel. Hence, like uranium-238, thorium-232 is a fertile material.