Ebook PDF Business Statistics in Practice 3rd Canadian Edition PDF

(eBook PDF) Business Statistics in
Practice 3rd Canadian Edition

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/ebook-pdf-business-statistics-in-practice-3rd-cana
dian-edition/
5.2 The Uniform Distribution vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE xi
GUIDED TOUR xiv

3.3 Some Elementary Probability Rules 95
CHAPTER 1 3.4 Conditional Probability and
An Introduction to Business Statistics 1 Independence 103
1.1 Populations and Samples 2 3.5 Bayes’ Theorem (Optional) 112
1.2 Sampling a Population of Existing Units 3
1.3 Sampling a Process 9
CHAPTER 4
1.4 Levels of Measurement: Nominal, Ordinal,
Interval, and Ratio 14
Discrete Random Variables 120
4.1 Two Types of Random Variables 121
1.5 A Brief Introduction to Surveys 16
4.2 Discrete Probability Distributions 122
1.6 An Introduction to Survey Sampling 18
4.3 The Binomial Distribution 134
Appendix 1.1 Getting Started with Excel (See Connect)
4.4 The Poisson Distribution 146
Appendix 1.2 Getting Started with MegaStat
(See Connect) 4.5 The Hypergeometric Distribution 151
Appendix 4.1 Binomial, Poisson and Hypergeometric
CHAPTER 2 Probabilities Using Excel (See Connect)
Descriptive Statistics 25 Appendix 4.2 Binomial, Poisson and Hypergeometric
Probabilities Using MegaStat
2.1 Describing the Shape of a Distribution 26 (See Connect)
2.2 Describing Central Tendency 38
2.3 Measures of Variation 46
2.4 Percentiles, Quartiles, and Box-and-Whiskers
CHAPTER 5
Displays 57 Continuous Random Variables 157
2.5 Describing Qualitative Data 63 5.1 Continuous Probability Distributions 158
2.6 Using Scatter Plots to Study Relationships 5.2 The Uniform Distribution 159
between Variables 69 5.3 The Normal Probability Distribution 163
2.7 Misleading Graphs and Charts 72 5.4 Approximating the Binomial Distribution by
2.8 Weighted Means and Grouped Data 75 Using the Normal Distribution 182
2.9 The Geometric Mean (Optional; see Connect) 5.5 The Exponential Distribution 186
2.10 Box-and-Whiskers Displays (Optional; Appendix 5.1 Normal Distribution Using Excel
see Connect) (See Connect)
Appendix 2.1 Tabular and Graphical Methods Using Appendix 5.2 Normal Distribution Using MegaStat
Excel (See Connect) (See Connect)
Appendix 2.2 Tabular and Graphical Methods Using
MegaStat (See Connect)
CHAPTER 6
Appendix 2.3 Numerical Descriptive Statistics Using Sampling Distributions 193
Excel (See Connect)
6.1 The Sampling Distribution of the
Appendix 2.4 Numerical Descriptive Statistics Using Sample Mean 194
6.2 The Sampling Distribution of the Sample
Proportion 207
CHAPTER 3 Appendix 6.1 Generating Random Numbers Using
Probability 84 Excel (See Connect)
3.1 The Concept of Probability 85 Appendix 6.2 Generating Random Numbers Using
3.2 Sample Spaces and Events 86 MegaStat (See Connect)
viii Table of Contents
CHAPTER 7
9.5 Confidence Intervals for a Difference of Two
Population Means 321
Hypothesis Testing 214 9.6 Confidence Intervals for a Difference of Two
7.1 The Null and Alternative Hypotheses and Errors Population Proportions 326
in Hypothesis Testing 215
9.7 Confidence Intervals for Parameters of Finite
7.2 Single-Sample Tests of a Population Mean When Populations (Optional; see Connect)
s Is Known 221
9.8 A Comparison of Confidence Intervals and
7.3 Single-Sample Tests of a Proportion 232 Tolerance Intervals (Optional; see Connect)
7.4 Two-Sample Tests of Mean Differences When s Appendix 9.1 Confidence Intervals Using Excel
Is Known 237 (See Connect)
7.5 Two-Sample Tests of a Difference between Appendix 9.2 Confidence Intervals Using MegaStat
Proportions 242 (See Connect)
7.6 Type II Error Probabilities and Sample Size
Determination 246
7.7 Standardized Effect Size Estimation for Mean CHAPTER 10
Difference 253 Experimental Design and Analysis of
Appendix 7.1 One-Sample Hypothesis Testing Using Variance 332
Excel (See Connect) 10.1 Basic Concepts of Experimental Design 333
Appendix 7.2 One-Sample Hypothesis Testing Using 10.2 One-Way Analysis of Variance 337
MegaStat (See Connect) 10.3 The Randomized Block Design 350
10.4 Two-Way Analysis of Variance 358
CHAPTER 8 Appendix 10.1 Experimental Design and Analysis of
Comparing Population Means and Variance Using Excel (See Connect)
Variances Using t Tests and F Ratios 260 Appendix 10.2 Experimental Design and Analysis of
Variance Using MegaStat
8.1 Single-Sample Tests of a Population Mean When
(See Connect)
s Is Unknown 261
8.2 Comparing Two Population Means by Using
Independent Samples: Variances Unknown 270 CHAPTER 11
8.3 Paired Difference Experiments 278 Correlation Coefficient and Simple Linear
8.4 Comparing Two Population Variances by Using Regression Analysis 376
Independent Samples 285 11.1 Correlation Coefficient 377
Appendix 8.1 Two-Sample Hypothesis Testing Using 11.2 Testing the Significance of the Population
Excel (See Connect) Correlation Coefficient 381
Appendix 8.2 Two-Sample Hypothesis Testing Using 11.3 The Simple Linear Regression Model 382
11.4 Model Assumptions 386
Appendix 8.3 A Two-Sample Hypothesis Test for the
11.5 The Least Squares Estimates, and Point
Equality of Two Variances Using Excel
Estimation and Prediction 388
(See Connect)
11.6 Testing the Significance of the Slope and y
Appendix 8.4 One- and Two-Sample Hypothesis Tests
Intercept 398
for Variances Using MegaStat
(See Connect) 11.7 Confidence and Prediction Intervals 403
11.8 Simple Coefficients of Determination and
Correlation 407
CHAPTER 9 11.9 An F Test for the Model 409
Confidence Intervals 295 11.10 Residual Analysis 413
9.1 Confidence Intervals for a Population Mean
11.11 Some Shortcut Formulas 430
When s Is Known 296
Appendix 11.1 Simple Linear Regression Analysis
9.2 Confidence Intervals for a Population Mean
Using Excel (See Connect)
When s Is Unknown 305
Appendix 11.2 Simple Linear Regression Analysis
9.3 Sample Size Determination 310
Using MegaStat (See Connect)
9.4 Confidence Intervals for a Population
Proportion 313
Table of Contents ix
CHAPTER 12 Appendix 14.1 Chi-Square Tests Using Excel

(See Connect)
Multiple Regression 435
Appendix 14.2 Chi-Square Tests Using MegaStat
Part 1 Basic Multiple Regression
(See Connect)
12.1 The Multiple Regression Model 436
12.2 Model Assumptions and the Standard Error 442
12.3 Multicollinearity 444 CHAPTER 15
12.4 The Least Squares Estimates, and Point Decision Theory 548
Estimation and Prediction 447 15.1 Introduction to Decision Theory 549
2 2 15.2 Decision Making Using Posterior
12.5 R and Adjusted R 451
12.6 The Overall F Test 453 Probabilities 555
12.7 Testing the Significance of an Independent 15.3 Introduction to Utility Theory 562
Variable 457
12.8 Confidence and Prediction Intervals 461 CHAPTER 16
Part 2 Using Squared and Interaction Terms Time Series Forecasting 568
(Optional)
16.1 Time Series Components and Models 569
12.9 The Quadratic Regression Model 464
16.2 Time Series Regression: Basic Models 570
12.10 Interaction 473
16.3 Time Series Regression: More
Part 3 Dummy Variables and Advanced Statistical Advanced Models 576
Inferences (Optional)
16.4 Multiplicative Decomposition 581
12.11 Using Dummy Variables to Model Qualitative
16.5 Exponential Smoothing 589
Independent Variables 481
16.6 Forecast Error Comparisons 595
12.12 The Partial F Test: Testing the Significance of a
Portion of a Regression Model 491 16.7 Index Numbers 597
12.13 Residual Analysis in Multiple Regression Appendix 16.1 Time Series Analysis Using Excel
(Optional; see Connect) (See Connect)
12.14 Diagnostics for Detecting Outlying and Appendix 16.2 Time Series Analysis Using MegaStat
Influential Observations (Optional; see Connect) (See Connect)
12.15 Logistic Regression (Optional; see Connect)
Appendix 12.1 Multiple Regression Analysis Using GLOSSARY GL-1
Excel (See Connect)
Appendix 12.2 Multiple Regression Analysis Using
MegaStat (See Connect) APPENDIX A
Statistical Tables AP-1
CHAPTER 13
Nonparametric Methods 502 ANSWERS TO MOST ODD-
13.1 The Sign Test: A Hypothesis Test about the NUMBERED EXERCISES AN-1
Median 503
13.2 The Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test 507 REFERENCES RE-1
13.3 The Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test 512
13.4 Comparing Several Populations Using the PHOTO CREDITS CR-1
Kruskal–Wallis H Test 517
13.5 Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient 520
Appendix 13.1 Nonparametric Methods Using
INDEX IN-1
CHAPTER 14
Chi-Square Tests 527
14.1 Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Tests 528
14.2 A Chi-Square Test for Independence 538
x Table of Contents
Appendices all available on
APPENDIX B APPENDIX F
Counting Rules Using Matrix Algebra to Perform
Regression Calculations
APPENDIX C (PART 1)
The Normal Probability Plot APPENDIX G
The Regression Approach to Two-Way
Analysis of Variance
APPENDIX C (PART 2)
Properties of the Mean and the Variance of
a Random Variable, and the Covariance APPENDIX H
Factor Analysis, Cluster Analysis, and
Multidimensional Scaling
APPENDIX C (PART 3)
Derivations of the Mean and Variance
of x and pˆ APPENDIX I
The Box–Jenkins Methodology
APPENDIX D
Holt–Winters’ Models APPENDIX J
Individuals Charts and c Charts
APPENDIX E (PART 1)
Stratified Random Sampling APPENDIX K
Model Building and Model Diagnostics
APPENDIX E (PART 2)
Cluster Sampling and Ratio Estimation APPENDIX L
Process Improvement Using Control Charts
PREFACE
In Business Statistics in Practice, Third Canadian Edition, we provide a modern, practical, and
unique framework for teaching the first course in business statistics. As in previous editions,
we employ real or realistic examples and data, while we incorporate a business improvement
theme. In addition, we have endeavoured to make this book the most clearly written, motivat-
ing, and easy-to-use business statistics resource available.
What’s New in Business Statistics in Practice, Third Canadian Edition?

• “Theory to Practice” boxed features: This new pedagogical feature shows students how
statistics are used in a practical way by different business units, such as marketing, sales,
and finance.
• “Roadblock” boxed features: This new pedagogical feature provides tips and tricks for
students becoming accustomed to new material.
• New continuing examples have been added and, as with the previous editions, each time a
continuing example is revisited, there is no need to flip back to previous pages or computer
outputs, as all of the necessary data and information are included in the current discussion.
• In addition to a thorough update and refreshing of the examples, data sets, and end-of-chapter
material, more exercises and problems have been added throughout this new edition.
CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER CHANGES
Chapter 1
• Enhanced introduction
• Examples added in Section 1.4: Levels of Measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval,
and Ratio
• The terms parameter and statistic are introduced in Section 1.1: Populations and Samples
Chapter 2
• Clarified percentiles in Section 2.4: Percentiles, Quartiles, and Box-and-Whiskers Displays
• Levels of measurement brought to the major examples
Chapter 3
• New lottery example (Example 3.6)
Chapter 4
• Two new lottery expected value questions
• Index fund example added in Section 4.5: The Hypergeometric Distribution
Chapter 6
• New “Roadblock” feature provides direct linkage and contrast between the sample distribution
and the sampling distribution
• Introduction of the idea of effect size estimation and the importance of establishing substantive
significance
xii Preface
Chapter 7
• Chapters 7 and 8 completely reorganized—z tests are in Chapter 7 and t tests are in
Chapter 8
• Added emphasis throughout Chapter 7 on the importance of effect size estimates and prac-
tical significance
• New Section 7.7: Standardized Effect Size Estimation for Mean Differences
• Addresses possible confusion over “null” versus “nil” hypotheses, through the use of “Road-
block” feature
• Substantial information added throughout the chapter, reminding the reader that p-values
are not a substitute for effect size estimates
• The issue of confusing p with alpha (a frequent problem for students and researchers)
addressed in a “Roadblock” feature
• Foreshadows the importance of confidence intervals in the interpretation of effects, preparing
the student for the context in which Chapter 9 will be presented
Chapter 8
• As mentioned above, Chapters 7 and 8 completely reorganized—z tests are in Chapter 7
and t tests are in Chapter 8
• Augmented information presented on the difference between the equal variances t test and
the unequal variances t test
Chapter 9
• Content rearranged throughout Chapters 7 and 8 so that all confidence intervals (CIs) are
presented in Chapter 9
• Chapter rearranged so that the general form of CIs is presented at the outset
• Increased emphasis on confidence intervals as methods for interpreting statistically significant
effects
• Information from the Canadian census provided in the “Internet Exercise”
• Decreased emphasis on z-based intervals; rationale for this decision presented
• Updated statistical analysis section
Chapter 10
• Concept of quasi-experimental designs introduced
• Increasing of sample size discussed as one method of reducing within-group variance
Chapter 11
• Used example data to further demonstrate residuals
• Use of the chi-square statistic to test the assumption of normality of error terms demonstrated
Chapter 12
• Content on multicollinearity now in a separate section, immediately following the section
on assumptions
• Further information provided on stepwise regression and backward elimination, with instruc-
tions to turn to Appendix K for further detailed information
• Information added regarding the link between ANOVA and regression
Preface xiii
Chapter 13
• Emphasis on how sample size shapes influence hypothesis testing
Chapter 14
• Multiple changes made to Section 14.1 to clarify how expected frequencies are calculated
Chapter 15
• Highlights the fact that expected payoffs may not be the same as real payoffs
• Concept of “perfect information” discussed
Chapter 16
• Updated Canadian Consumer Price Index (CPI) information
• Further information on error calculations
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Bruce Bowerman, Richard O’Connell, and Emily Murphree, authors
of the U.S. edition, for providing the foundation on which this third Canadian adaptation has
been built. We would also like to thank the following people at McGraw-Hill Ryerson for their
support: Senior Product Manager Kimberley Veevers, Product Developer Sarah Fulton May,
Copy Editor June Trusty, and Supervising Editor Stephanie Gay.
Reviewers for the Third Canadian Edition

Edward Acquah, Athabasca University
Les Barnhouse, Grant MacEwan University
Imad Hasan, Algonquin College
Ali Hassanlou, Kwantlen Polytechnic Institute
Kalinga Jagoda, Mount Royal University
Peggy Ng, York University
Mahmut Parlar, McMaster University
Steven Schecter, University of British Columbia
Samie Li Shang Ly, Concordia University
Jill Simmons, University of Victoria
Don St. Jean, George Brown College
John W. Walker, Brock University
Marty Yalovsky, McGill University
Cleusa Yamamoto, Douglas College
Victor Yu, University of Toronto at Scarborough
Kate Zhang, University of Guelph
GUIDED TOUR
Business Statistics in Practice, Third Continuous Examples and Business
Canadian Edition, was written with
students’ needs in mind. Its clear and Improvement Conclusions
understandable explanations and use of The text provides a unique use of examples that span
real-world examples present content in a individual chapters and groups of chapters. Examples are
way that business students can relate to. used to introduce the concepts, to demonstrate the methods,
and to provide students with motivating exercises. These
continuous examples help students see how statistics is
used in business and can be instrumental in improving
Chapter Introductions
bow39604_ch02_025-083.indd Page 41 19/11/13 1:21 PM f-479 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles
processes.
Each chapter opens with chapter learning
objectives and a list of the section topics
that are covered in each chapter, along Example 2.7 DVD Recorder Satisfaction
with a brief introduction discussing how The manufacturer of a DVD recorder randomly selects a sample of 20 purchasers who have
the statistical topics to be discussed apply owned the recorder for one year. Each purchaser in the sample is asked to rank his or her
satisfaction with the recorder on the following ten-point interval scale:
to real business problems.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Not Fairly Extremely

satisfied satisfied satisfied
bow39604_ch01_001-024.indd Page 1 21/10/13 5:39 PM f-w-512 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles

Suppose that the following rankings, arranged in increasing order, are obtained:
1 3 5 5 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10
Because the number of satisfaction ratings is even, the median of this sample is the average IM PR O
S
of the two middle ratings. Both of these ratings are 8—they are circled. Therefore, the median
INE S
VE
BI
MEN
of this sample is 8, and we estimate that the median satisfaction rating of all the DVD recorder
US
T
owners is 8. This estimated median satisfaction rating seems relatively high. Note, however,
B
that there are four rather low individual satisfaction ratings: 1, 3, 5, and 5. This suggests that
CHAPTER 1 some DVD recorders may be of low quality. If the manufacturer wishes to satisfy all of its
customers, it must investigate the situation.
An Introduction Comparing the mean, median, and mode To compare the mean, median, and mode, look
to Business Statistics at Figure 2.16. Part (a) of this figure depicts a population described by a symmetrical relative
frequency curve. For such a population, the mean (m), median (Md), and mode (Mo) are all
equal. Note that in this case, all three of these quantities are located under the highest point DVD Prices
of the curve. It follows that when the frequency distribution of a sample of measurements is 29 8
approximately symmetrical (normal or mound-shaped), then the sample mean, median, and 30 1344
30 5666889
mode will be nearly the same. For instance, consider a sample of 49 DVD price points, and
31 001233444
note that the stem-and-leaf display of these prices is given in the margin of this page. Because 31 555 6 6777889
the number of prices is odd, the median is the middle price, the 25th price. Counting 25 prices 32 0001122344
L E A RN I N G OBJECTI VES C HAPTER OUTLINE from the top of the stem-and-leaf display, we find that the median is 31.6. Furthermore, since 32 556788
After reading this chapter, you should be able to 1.1 Populations and Samples the stem-and-leaf display is fairly symmetrical, this sample median is approximately equal to 33 3
LO1 Explain the function of research samples 1.2 Sampling a Population of Existing the sample mean, which is 31.55.
Units
LO2 Define the term random sample
1.3 Sampling a Process
LO3 Explain how a random sample can be generated FIGURE 2.16 Relationships among the Mean (m), the Median (Md), and the Mode (Mo)
1.4 Levels of Measurement: Nominal,
LO4 Describe how a process is sampled
Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio
LO5 Identify the four levels of measurement
1.5 A Brief Introduction to Surveys (a) A symmetrical curve (b) A positively skewed curve (c) A negatively skewed curve
LO6 List some of the potential problems associated with surveys (to the right) (to the left)
1.6 An Introduction to Survey Sampling
The subject of statistics involves the study of how to collect, data on unemployment and inflation to make policy decisions.
m Mo
summarize, and interpret data. Data are numerical facts Financial planners use recent trends in stock market prices to
Md Md
and figures from which conclusions can be drawn. Data are make investment decisions. Businesses decide which products
typically collected from a sample in order to make an inference to develop and market by using data that reveal consumer
Mo m
about a population. This process is important for making preferences. Production supervisors use manufacturing data Mo
decisions in many professions and organizations. For example, to evaluate, control, and improve product quality. All aspects
government officials use conclusions drawn from the latest of businesses rely on collecting and interpreting data.
Md
m
To emphasize the text’s theme of business

improvement, icons are placed in
IM PR O
the page margins to identify when S
INE S
VE
statistical analysis has led to an BI

MEN
US
important business improvement B T
conclusion.
Student-Friendly Greater Accessibility of
Presentation Continuing Examples
The authors make learning easier for Each time a continuing example is revisited, any needed computer
students. The following examples output and, whenever possible, relevant background information
highlight some of these improvements. is included with the current example discussion. Consequently,
students seldom need to refer back to previously covered material
in order to grasp the content included in a given example segment.
bow39604_ch02_025-083.indd Page 50 19/11/13 1:21 PM f-479 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow3960
Figures and Tables • In Chapter 2 (Descriptive Statistics), in the “DVD Price Points”
example, a consumer uses the empirical rule to find estimates of
Throughout the text, charts, graphs, the “typical,” “lowest,” and “highest” price points on individual
tables, and Excel and MegaStat DVD purchases. The following are used to help explain the
outputs are used to illustrate statistical empirical rule.
concepts. For example:
FIGURE 2.22 The Empirical Rule
68.26% of the population

measurements are within
(plus or minus) one standard
deviation of the mean.
m2s m m 1s

(plus or minus) two standard
deviations of the mean.
m 2 2s m m 1 2s

30
(plus or minus) three standard 26.5
A sample of 49 DVD price points 25 24.5
deviations of the mean.
30.8 30.9 32.0 32.3 32.6 20 18.4 18.4

Percent
31.7 30.4 31.4 32.7 31.4 15

30.1 32.5 30.8 31.2 31.8
m 2 3s m m 1 3s 31.6 10
30.3 32.8 30.6 31.9 6.1 6.1
32.1 31.3 32.0 31.7 32.8 5
33.3 32.1 31.5 31.4 31.5
0
31.3 32.5 32.4 32.2 31.6
5
31.0 31.8 31.0 31.5 30.6

.7
.3
.9
.5
.1
.7
.3
29
30
30
31
32
32
33
32.0 30.4 29.8 31.7 32.2

DVD Price Class Boundary
32.4 30.5 31.1 30.6
bow39604_ch06_193-213.indd Page 195 19/11/13 2:22 AM f-512 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles
• In Chapter 6 (Sampling Distribu- FIGURE 6.1 A Comparison of Individual Fuel Efficiencies and
Sample Means
FIGURE 6.2 The Normally Distributed Population of All Individual Fuel Efficiencies and the Normally Distributed Population
of All Possible Sample Means
tions), the figures shown below (and (a) A graph of the probability distribution describing the
population of six individual fuel efficiencies
others) are used to help explain the The normally distributed

population of all individual
fuel efficiencies
sampling distribution of the sample 0.20

1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6
7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8
Scale of fuel
0.15
m
mean and central limit theorem. In 6.8 8.0
Probability
efficiencies
0.10 x1 5 7.8
addition, the figures describe differ- 0.05

Sample
mean
x¯ 5 7.5
x2 5 7.1
x3 5 7.3
x4 5 7.6
x1 5 7.9
x2 5 7.5
x3 5 7.6
Sample
mean
5 f-512
bow39604_ch06_193-213.indd Page 202 19/11/13 2:22x5AM x4 5 7.8
/203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles
ent applications of random sampling 0.00
6.9 7.1 7.3 7.5 7.7 7.9
7.7 x¯ 5 7.7
x5 5 7.7
Individual Car Fuel Efficiency x1 5 7.1

in the “Fuel Efficiency” example, so (b) A graph of the probability distribution describing the
Sample
mean
x2 5 6.9
x3 5 7.6 The normally distributed
population of 15 sample means x¯ 5 7.3 x4 5 7.5 population of all possible
this example is used as an integra- x5 5 7.4 sample means
3/15
tive tool to help students understand 0.20
0.15
sampling distributions.
2/15 2/15 2/15 2/15
m
Probability
Scale of sample means, x̄
0.10 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7
1/15
bow39604_ch06_193-213.indd Page 200 19/11/13 2:22 AM 1/15
f-512 1/15 1/15 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles
0.05
0.00
6.9 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9
Sample Mean
FIGURE 6.3 A Comparison of (1) the Population of All Individual Fuel Efficiencies, (2) the Sampling
Distribution of the Sample Mean x When n 5 5, and (3) the Sampling Distribution of the
Sample Mean x When n 5 50
(a) The population of individual fuel efficiencies

The normal distribution describing the
population of all individual fuel efficiencies,
which has mean m and standard deviation s 5 0.1
Scale of fuel efficiencies

m
¯ when n 5 5
(b) The sampling distribution of the sample mean x
FIGURE
The normal distribution describing the 6.5 The Central Limit Theorem Says That the Larger the Sample Size Is, the More Nearly Normally
population
of all possible sample means when the sample Distributed Is the Population of All Possible Sample Means
s 0.1
size is 5, where m¯x 5 m and s¯x 5 5 5 0.0447
n 5
Scale of sample means, x¯ x x x x

m (a) Several sampled populations
(c) The sampling distribution of the sample mean x

¯ when n 5 50 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=2
x x x x
The normal distribution describing the population

of all possible sample means when the sample size n=6 n=6 n=6 n=6
s 0.1
is 50, where m¯x 5 m and s¯x 5 5 5 0.0141
n 50
x x x x
n = 30 n = 30 n = 30 n = 30
Scale of sample means, x¯
m

x x x x
(b) Corresponding populations of all possible sample means for
different sample sizes
• In Chapter 7 (Hypothesis Testing), a FIGURE

bow39604_ch07_214-259.indd Page 230 19/11/13 2:22 AM f-512
7.3 Testing H0: m 5 19.5 versus Ha: m , 19.5 by Using Critical Values and the p-Value
five-step hypothesis testing procedure,

(a) A left tailed
hypothesis testing summary boxes, critical value rule
a 5 0.01
and many graphics are used to show 2z0.01 0 FIGURE 7.5 A Summary Box for Testing a Hypothesis about a Population Mean and the Five-Step
how to carry out hypothesis tests.
5
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

22.33
If z , 22.33, reject H0: m 5 19.5 Testing a Hypothesis about a Population Mean When S Is Known
Define the test statistic
x 2 m0
(b) The test statistic z5
sy 1n
and p-value
and assume that the population sampled is normally distributed or that the sample size n is large. We can
p-value 5 0.0038 test H0: m 5 m0 versus a particular alternative hypothesis at level of significance a by using the appropriate
critical value rule, or equivalently, the corresponding p-value.
z
0 Alternative Critical Value Rule:
5
22.67 Hypothesis Reject H0 if p-Value (Reject H0 if p-Value , A)

Ha: m . m0 z . za The area under the standard normal curve to the right of z
Ha: m , m0 z , 2za The area under the standard normal curve to the left of z
Ha: m fi m0 ||
z . zay2—that is, Twice the area under the standard normal
z . zay2 or z , 2zay2 ||
curve to the right of z
The Five Steps of Hypothesis Testing

1 State the null hypothesis H0 and the alternative hypothesis Ha.
2 Specify the level of significance a.
3 Select the test statistic.
Using a critical value rule:
4 Use the summary box to find the critical value rule corresponding to the alternative hypothesis.
Use the specified value of a to find the critical value given in the critical value rule.
5 Collect the sample data, compute the value of the test statistic, and decide whether to reject H0.
Interpret the statistical results.
Using a p-value:
4 Collect the sample data, compute the value of the test statistic, and compute the p-value.
(Use the summary box to find the p-value corresponding to the alternative hypothesis.)
5 Reject H0 at level of significance a if the p-value is less than a. Interpret the statistical results.
bow39604_ch11_376-434.indd Page 400 22/11/13 8:11 AM f-w-512 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles
• In Chapter 9 (Confidence Intervals), FIGURE 9.5 Three 95 Percent Confidence Intervals for m
the figure shown below is one of the bow39604_ch12_435-501.indd Page 436 22/11/13 8:13 AM f-w-512 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles
illustrations used to help explain the The probability is 0.95 that

x will be within plus or minus
1.96sx 5 7.84 of m
meaning of a 95 percent confidence
interval for the population mean.
Population of 0.95
Furthermore, in the “Estimating all retail
stores
Samples of n 5 100
retail stores
m
Demand for a Seasonal Box of m
s n 5 100 329 2 7.84 329
x
329 1 7.84
x 5 324
Chocolates” example, a confectioner 324
316.16 331.84
uses a confidence interval procedure n 5 100
n 5 100
x 5 330 330
x 5 320 322.16 337.84
to determine the fiscal responsibility 320
of increasing production by predict- 312.16 327.84
ing surpluses and shortfalls at a

variety of retail locations.
• In Chapter 11 (Correlation Coeffi- bow39604_ch12_435-501.indd Page 444 22/11/13 8:13 AM f-w-512
FIGURE 11.13 MegaStat Output of a Simple Linear Regression Analysis of the QHIC Data
cient and Simple Linear Regression Regression r 2 0.889 9 n 40

Analysis r 0.943 k 1
Analysis) and Chapter 12 (Multiple Std. Error 146.897 8 Dep. Var. Upkeep
ANOVA table
Regression), a substantial number of Source SS df MS F 13 p-value 14
Regression 6,582,759.6972 10 1 6,582,759.6972 305.06 9.49E-20
data plots and Excel and MegaStat Residual 819,995.5427 11 38 21,578.8301
Total 7,402,755.2399 12 39
output and other graphics are used Regression output confidence interval
variables coefficients std. error t (df=38) p-value 7 95% lower 95% upper
to teach simple and multiple regres- Intercept 2348.3921 1 76.1410 3 24.576 5 4.95E-05 2502.5314 2194.2527
Value 7.2583 2 0.4156 4 17.466 6 9.49E-20 6.4170 19 8.0995 19
sion analysis. Predicted values for: Upkeep
95% Confidence Interval 16 95% Prediction Interval 17
Value Predicted 15 lower upper lower upper Leverage 18
220 1,248.42597 1,187.78944 1,309.06251 944.92879 1,551.92315 0.042
1 b0 5 point estimate of the y intercept 2 b1 5 point estimate of the slope 3 sb0 5 standard error of the estimate b0 4 sb1 5 standard error of the estimate b1
5 t for testing significance of the y intercept 6 t for testing significance of the slope 7 p values for t statistics 8 s 5 standard error 9 r 2 (eta2)
10 Explained variation 11 SSE 5 unexplained variation 12 Total variation 13 F(model) statistic 14 p value for F(model) 15 ŷ 5 point prediction when x 5 220
16 95% confidence interval when x 5 220 17 95% prediction interval when x 5 220 18 Distance value 19 95% confidence interval for the slope b1
FIGURE 12.1 Plot of y versus x1 FIGURE 12.2 Plot of y versus x2
y y
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
x1 x2
20 28.0 32.5 39.0 45.9 57.8 58.1 62.5 70 0 5 10 15 20 25
FIGURE 12.5 A Correlation Matrix for the Sales Territory Performance Data
Sales Time MktPoten Adver MktShare Change Accts WkLoad

Time 0.623
0.001
MktPoten 0.598 0.454 Cell Contents: Pearson correlation
0.002 0.023 P-Value
Adver 0.596 0.249 0.174
0.002 0.230 0.405
MktShare 0.484 0.106 20.211 0.264
0.014 0.613 0.312 0.201
Change 0.489 0.251 0.268 0.377 0.085
0.013 0.225 0.195 0.064 0.685
Accts 0.754 0.758 0.479 0.200 0.403 0.327
0.000 0.000 0.016 0.338 0.046 0.110
WkLoad 20.117 20.179 20.259 20.272 0.349 20.288 20.199
0.577 0.391 0.212 0.188 0.087 0.163 0.341
Rating 0.402 0.101 0.359 0.411 20.024 0.549 0.229 20.277
0.046 0.631 0.078 0.041 0.911 0.004 0.272 0.180
bow39604_ch02_025-083.indd Page 34 19/11/13 1:21 PM f-479 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles
Exercises
Many of the exercises in the text Exercises for Section 2.1
CONCEPTS 2.5 THE BANK CUSTOMER WAITING TIME EXAMPLE
require the analysis of real data. Data 2.1 What does each population shape look like? Describe Table 2.8 presents the waiting times for teller service
each shape and then draw a picture to illustrate. during peak business hours of 100 randomly selected
sets are identified by an icon in the text a. Symmetrical and bell-shaped.
b. Double-peaked.
bank customers. Figure 2.13 gives the Excel output
of a frequency histogram of the 100 waiting times.
and are included on Connect. Exercises c. Negatively skewed (with a tail to the left).
d. Positively skewed (with a tail to the right).
a. Verify that the class boundaries and the class
frequencies (see Figure 2.13) are those obtained by
2.2 Explain each of the following: using the histogram construction method discussed
in each section are broken into two a. How to construct a stem-and-leaf display, a
histogram, and a dot plot.
in this section.
b. Using Figure 2.13, infer the shape of the relative
parts—“Concepts” and “Methods and b. How class limits, class boundaries, and class
midpoints differ.
frequency distribution describing the population of
all possible customer waiting times during peak
c. What outliers are and how they are handled. business hours.
Applications”—and there are supple- METHODS AND APPLICATIONS
2.6 THE TRASH BAG EXAMPLE
Table 2.9 presents the breaking strengths of 40 trash
mentary exercises and an Internet 2.3 Given in Table 2.6 are the median total incomes by
metropolitan areas for Canada for 2006 through 2010 as
bags selected during a 40-hour pilot production run.
Figure 2.14 gives the MegaStat output of a relative
exercise at the end of each chapter. reported by Statistics Canada. Construct stem-and-leaf
plots for 2006 and 2010 (using a stem unit of $10,000).
frequency histogram and Figure 2.15 gives the
MegaStat output of a stem-and-leaf display of the
Comparing the two plots, what can you say about the 40 breaking strengths.
The methods and applications exercises 2.4
median income values?
THE VIDEO GAME SATISFACTION RATING
a. Verify that the classes and class relative frequencies
given in Figure 2.14 are those obtained by using the
vary in rigour from routine calculations EXAMPLE

Table 2.7 presents the satisfaction ratings for the
histogram construction method discussed in this
section.
b. Using Figures 2.14 and 2.15, infer the shape of the
to fairly sophisticated analysis. XYZ-Box video game system that have been given
by 65 randomly selected purchasers. Figure 2.11 gives
relative frequency distribution describing the
population of all possible trash bag breaking
the MegaStat output of a stem-and-leaf display, and
strengths.
Figure 2.12 gives the Excel output of a frequency
histogram of the 65 satisfaction ratings. 2.7 Babe Ruth’s record of 60 home runs in a single year
a. Verify that the classes and was broken by Roger Maris, who hit 61 home runs in
class frequencies given in 1961. The yearly home run totals for Ruth in his career
Figure 2.12 are those obtained as a New York Yankee are (arranged in increasing order)
by using the histogram 22, 25, 34, 35, 41, 41, 46, 46, 46, 47, 49, 54, 54, 59, and
construction method discussed 60. The yearly home run totals for Maris over his career
in this section. in the American League are (arranged in increasing
b. Using Figures 2.11 and 2.12, infer the shape of the order) 8, 13, 14, 16, 23, 26, 28, 33, 39, and 61.
relative frequency distribution describing the Compare Ruth’s and Maris’s home run totals by
population of all possible customer satisfaction constructing a back-to-back stem-and-leaf display.
ratings for the XYZ-Box video game system. What would you conclude about Maris’s record-
c. Construct a relative frequency histogram of the breaking year?
65 satisfaction ratings.
Excel and MegaStat Appendix 1.1 ■ Getting Started with Excel

Because Excel 2007 may be new to some readers, and because the Excel 2007 window looks quite different from
Tutorials previous versions of Excel, we will begin by describing some characteristics of the Excel 2007 window. Previous ver-
sions of Excel employed many drop-down menus. This meant that many features were “hidden” from the user,
which resulted in a steep learning curve for beginners. In Excel 2007, Microsoft tried to reduce the number of fea-
tures that are hidden in drop-down menus. Therefore, Excel 2007 displays all of the applicable commands needed
The end-of-chapter appendices (available for a particular type of task at the top of the Excel window. These commands are represented by a tab-and-group
arrangement called the ribbon—see the right side of the illustration of an Excel 2007 window below. The com-
on Connect) contain helpful tutorials mands displayed in the ribbon are regulated by a series of tabs located near the top of the ribbon. For example, in
the illustration below, the Home tab is selected. If we selected a different tab, say, for example, the Page Layout tab,
the commands displayed by the ribbon would be different.
that teach students how to carry out We now briefly describe some basic features of the Excel 2007 window:
1
statistical analysis using Excel and Office button: By clicking on this button, the user obtains a menu of often used commands—for example,
Open, Save, Print, and so forth. This is very similar to the “File menu” in older versions of Excel. However,
some menu items are unique to Excel 2007. This menu also provides access to a large number of Excel
MegaStat. These tutorials include options settings.
2 Tabs: Clicking on a tab results in a ribbon display of features, commands, and options related to a particular
step-by-step instructions for performing type of task. For example, when the Home tab is selected (as in the figure below), the features, commands,
and options displayed by the ribbon are all related to making entries into the Excel worksheet. As another
almost every type of statistical method example, if the Formula tab is selected, all of the features, commands, and options displayed in the ribbon
relate to using formulas in the Excel worksheet.
presented in the book. 3 Quick access toolbar: This toolbar displays buttons that provide shortcuts to often used commands. Initially,
this toolbar displays Save, Undo, and Redo buttons. The user can customize this toolbar by adding shortcut
buttons for other commands (such as, New, Open, Quick Print, and so forth). This can be done by clicking on
the arrow button directly to the right of the Quick access toolbar and by making selections from the
“Customize” drop-down menu that appears.
Supplements xix
SUPPLEMENTS
CONNECT
McGraw-Hill Connect™ is a Web-based assignment and assessment platform that gives stu-
dents the means to better connect with their coursework, with their instructors, and with the
important concepts that they will need to know for success now and in the future.
With Connect, instructors can deliver assignments, quizzes, and tests online. Select in-text
questions are presented in an autogradable format and tied to the text’s learning objectives.
Instructors can edit existing questions and author entirely new problems—track individual
student performance (by question, by assignment, or in relation to the class overall) with
detailed grade reports—integrate grade reports easily with Learning Management Systems
(LMS) such as WebCT and Blackboard—and much more.
By choosing Connect, instructors are providing their students with a powerful tool for im-
proving academic performance and truly mastering course material. Connect allows students
to practise important skills at their own pace and on their own schedule. Importantly, students’
assessment results and instructors’ feedback are all saved online—so students can continually
review their progress and plot their course to success.
Connect also provides 24/7 online access to an eBook—an online edition of the text—to
aid students in successfully completing their work, wherever and whenever they choose.
LEARN SMART
No two students are alike. Why should their learning paths be? LearnSmart uses revolutionary
adaptive technology to build a learning experience unique to each student’s individual needs.
It starts by identifying the topics a student knows and does not know. As the student progresses,
LearnSmart adapts and adjusts the content based on his or her individual strengths, weaknesses,
and confidence, ensuring that every minute spent studying with LearnSmart is the most efficient
and productive study time possible.
SMARTBOOK
As the first and only adaptive reading experience, SmartBook is changing the way students
read and learn. SmartBook creates a personalized reading experience by highlighting the most
important concepts a student needs to learn at that moment in time. As a student engages with
SmartBook, the reading experience continuously adapts by highlighting content based on what
each student knows and doesn’t know. This ensures that he or she is focused on the content
needed to close specific knowledge gaps, while it simultaneously promotes long-term learning.
INSTRUCTOR’S SUPPLEMENTS
Instructor’s Solutions Manual Prepared by the authors and adapted to reflect this latest
Canadian edition, this manual includes worked-out solutions to all of the exercises in the text.
Technical checkers for the ISM and textbook were David Roberts of Southern Alberta Institute
of Technology and Les Barnhouse of MacEwan University.
Computerized Test Bank Prepared by Wayne Horn of Carleton University, the computerized
test bank has been extensively revised and technically checked for accuracy. The computerized
test bank contains a variety of questions, including true/false, multiple-choice, and short-answer
questions requiring analysis and written answers. The computerized test bank is available through
EZ Test Online—a flexible and easy-to-use electronic testing program that allows instructors to
create tests from book-specific items. EZ Test accommodates a wide range of question types and
allows instructors to add their own questions. Test items are also available in Word format (rich
text format). For secure online testing, exams created in EZ Test can be exported to WebCT and
Blackboard. EZ Test Online is supported at mhhe.com/eztest, where users can download a Quick
Start Guide, access FAQs, or log a ticket for help with specific issues.
xx Supplements
Microsoft®PowerPoint® Lecture Slides Prepared by Kalinga Jagoda of Mount Royal

University, the PowerPoint slides draw on the highlights of each chapter and provide an
opportunity for the instructor to emphasize the most relevant visuals in class discussions.
ONLINE TECHNOLOGY
Excel and MegaStat Business Statistics in Practice, Third Canadian Edition, features a
modern use of the statistical capabilities of the software package Excel and its add-in MegaStat.
Throughout the book, we provide abundant outputs from both applications in both examples
and exercises that allow students to concentrate on statistical interpretations. This use of outputs
is particularly prominent in statistical areas where manual calculations are impractical and
where having students run their own programs (while theoretically optimal) would, because of
time constraints, not allow them to see a wide variety of applications. These areas include
descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, regression, and time series forecasting. In addition,
appendixes for each chapter (available on Connect) show in detail how to use Excel and Mega-
Stat to implement the statistical techniques discussed in the chapter. MegaStat is a comprehen-
sive, accurate, and easy-to-use Excel add-in application. In addition to remedying most of the
computational problems associated with Excel data analysis tools, MegaStat is specifically
designed to enhance the use of Business Statistics in Practice, Third Canadian Edition.
In addition, MegaStat is fully capable of performing analyses related to discrete and con-
tinuous probability distributions, time series forecasting, nonparametric statistics, and chi-
square tests—virtually all topics covered by Business Statistics in Practice, Third Canadian
Edition.
SUPERIOR LEARNING SOLUTIONS AND SUPPORT

The McGraw-Hill Ryerson team is ready to help you assess and integrate any of our products,
technology, and services into your course for optimal teaching and learning performance.
Whether it’s helping your students improve their grades or putting your entire course online,
the McGraw-Hill Ryerson team is here to help you do it. Contact your Learning Solutions
Consultant today to learn how to maximize all of McGraw-Hill Ryerson’s resources!
For more information on the latest technology and learning solutions offered by McGraw-Hill
Ryerson and its partners, please visit us online: mcgrawhill.ca/he/solutions
CHAPTER 1
An Introduction
to Business Statistics
LE A RN IN G OBJ ECTIV E S C HAP T E R O UT LI N E

After reading this chapter, you should be able to 1.1 Populations and Samples
LO1 Explain the function of research samples 1.2 Sampling a Population of Existing
Units
LO2 Define the term random sample
1.3 Sampling a Process
LO3 Explain how a random sample can be generated
1.4 Levels of Measurement: Nominal,
LO4 Describe how a process is sampled
Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio
LO5 Identify the four levels of measurement
1.5 A Brief Introduction to Surveys
LO6 List some of the potential problems associated with surveys
1.6 An Introduction to Survey Sampling
The subject of statistics involves the study of how to collect, data on unemployment and inflation to make policy decisions.
summarize, and interpret data. Data are numerical facts Financial planners use recent trends in stock market prices to
and figures from which conclusions can be drawn. Data are make investment decisions. Businesses decide which products
typically collected from a sample in order to make an inference to develop and market by using data that reveal consumer
about a population. This process is important for making preferences. Production supervisors use manufacturing data
decisions in many professions and organizations. For example, to evaluate, control, and improve product quality. All aspects
government officials use conclusions drawn from the latest of businesses rely on collecting and interpreting data.
2 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Business Statistics
1.1 POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES

Statistical methods are very useful for learning about populations. Population can be defined
in various ways, including the following:
A population is a set of units (usually people, objects, or events).
Examples of populations are (1) all of last year’s graduates of the Sauder School of Business
at the University of British Columbia, (2) all consumers who bought a vacuum cleaner last
year, (3) all potential consumers who might purchase a house next year, (4) all accounts receiv-
able invoices accumulated last year by Procter & Gamble, (5) all Toyota Corollas produced
last year, and (6) all fires reported last month to the Ottawa fire department.
We usually focus on studying one or more characteristics of the population units.
Any characteristic of a population unit is called a variable.
For instance, if we study the starting salaries of last year’s graduates of an MBA program,
the variable of interest is starting salary. If we study the fuel efficiency obtained in city
driving by last year’s Toyota Corolla, the variable of interest is litres per 100 km of city
driving.
We carry out a measurement to assign a value of a variable to each population unit. For
example, we might measure the starting salary of an MBA graduate to the nearest dollar. Or
we might measure the fuel efficiency obtained by a car in city driving to the nearest litre per
100 km by conducting a test on a driving course prescribed by the Ministry of Transportation.
If the possible measurements are numbers that represent quantities (that is, “how much” or
“how many”), then the variable is said to be a quantitative variable. For example, starting salary
and fuel efficiency are both quantitative. However, if we simply record into which of several
categories a population unit falls, then the variable is said to be a qualitative or categorical
variable. Examples of categorical variables are (1) a person’s sex, (2) the make of an automobile,
(3) the aisle number where soup is located in a grocery store, and (3) whether a person who
purchases a product is satisfied with the product.1
If we measure each and every population unit, we have a population of measurements
(sometimes called observations). If the population is small, it is reasonable to do this. For
instance, if 150 students graduated last year from an MBA program, it might be feasible to
survey the graduates and to record all of their starting salaries. In general, we have the
following:
If we examine all of the population measurements, we say that we are conducting a census of
the population, and we can therefore generate population parameters (statistics based on the
entire population).
LO1 The population that we want to study is often very large, and it is too time-consuming or
costly to conduct a census. In such a situation, we select and analyze a sample (or portion) of
the population.
A sample is a subset of the units in a population.
For example, suppose that 8,742 students graduated last year from a large university. It
would probably be too time-consuming to take a census of the population of all of their
starting salaries. Therefore, we would select a sample of graduates, and we would obtain
and record their starting salaries. When we measure the units in a sample, we say that we
have a sample of measurements. These measurements can then be used to calculate sample
statistics.
1
In Section 1.4, we discuss two types of quantitative variables (ratio and interval) and two types of qualitative variables
(ordinal and nominative). To remember the difference between quantitative and qualitative, remember that quantitative
has the letter “n” and “n is for number.” Qualitative has an “l” and “l is for letter,” so you have to use words to
describe the data.
1.2 Sampling a Population of Existing Units 3
We often want to describe a population or sample. The science of describing the important
aspects of a set of measurements is called descriptive statistics. As an example, if we are
studying a set of starting salaries, we might want to describe (1) how large or small they tend
to be, (2) what a typical salary might be, and (3) how much the salaries differ from each other
(how to calculate these descriptive statistics is introduced in Chapter 2).
When the population of interest is small and we can conduct a census of the population, we can
directly describe the important aspects of the population measurements. However, if the population
is large and we need to select a sample from it, then we use what is called statistical inference.
Statistical inference is the science of using a sample of measurements to make generalizations
about the important aspects of a population of measurements.
For instance, we might use a sample of starting salaries to estimate the important aspects of a
population of starting salaries. In the next section, we begin to look at how statistical inference
is carried out.
1.2 SAMPLING A POPULATION OF EXISTING UNITS

Random samples If the information contained in a sample is to accurately reflect the popu- LO2
lation under study, the sample should be randomly selected from the population. To intuitively LO3
illustrate random sampling, suppose that a small company employs 15 people and wants to
randomly select two of them to attend a convention. To make the random selections, we num-
ber the employees from 1 to 15, and we place in a hat 15 identical slips of paper numbered
from 1 to 15. We thoroughly mix the slips of paper in the hat and, blindfolded, choose one.
The number on the chosen slip of paper identifies the first randomly selected employee. Then,
still blindfolded, we choose another slip of paper from the hat. The number on the second slip
identifies the second randomly selected employee.
Of course, it is impractical to carry out such a procedure when the population is very large.
It is easier to use a random number table or a computerized random number generator. To
show how to use such a table, we must more formally define random sample.2
A random sample is selected so that, on each selection from the population, every unit re-
maining in the population on that selection has the same chance of being chosen.
To understand this definition, first note that we can randomly select a sample with or with-
out replacement. When sampling with replacement, we place the unit chosen on any par-
ticular selection back into the population, giving this unit a chance to be chosen again on
any succeeding selection. In such a case, all of the units in the population remain as candi-
dates to be chosen for every selection. Randomly choosing two employees with replacement
to attend a convention would make no sense because we want to send two different employ-
ees to the convention. When sampling without replacement, we do not place the unit
chosen on a particular selection back into the population, so we do not give this unit a chance
to be selected on any succeeding selection. In this case, the units remaining as candidates
for a particular selection are all of the units in the population except those that have previ-
ously been selected.
It is best to sample without replacement. Intuitively, because we will use the sample to learn
about the population, sampling without replacement will give us the fullest possible look at
the population. This is true because choosing the sample without replacement guarantees that
all of the units in the sample will be different (and that we are looking at as many different
units from the population as possible).
In Example 1.1, we illustrate how to use a random number table, or computer-generated
random numbers, to select a random sample.
2
There are several different kinds of random samples. The type we will define is sometimes called a simple random sample.
For brevity’s sake, however, we will use the term random sample.
4 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Business Statistics
Example 1.1 Estimating Cellphone Costs

Businesses and students have at least two things in common—both find cellphones to be nearly
indispensable because of their convenience and mobility, and both often rack up unpleasantly
high cellphone bills. Students’ high bills are usually the result of overage—students use more
minutes than their plans allow. For example, the television program Marketplace on CBC
broadcasts a segment entitled, “Canada’s Worst Cellphone Bill.” According to the presenters,
many Canadians claim that their bill warrants the title of the “worst” bill. Businesses also lose
money due to overage and, in addition, lose money due to underage, when some employees
do not use all of the (already-paid-for) minutes allowed by their plans. Because cellular carri-
ers offer a very large number of rate plans, it is nearly impossible for a business to intelligently
choose calling plans that will meet its needs at a reasonable cost. Rising cellphone costs have
forced companies with large numbers of cellular users to hire services to manage their cellular
and other wireless resources. These cellular management services use sophisticated software
and mathematical models to choose cost-efficient cellphone plans for their clients.
In this example, we will demonstrate how a bank can use a random sample of cellphone
users to study its cellphone costs. Based on this cost information, the bank will decide whether
to hire a cellular management service to choose calling plans for the bank’s employees. While
the bank has over 10,000 employees on a variety of calling plans, a study of the calling pat-
terns of cellular users on 500-minute plans may help the bank accurately assess whether its
cellphone costs can be substantially reduced.
The bank has 2,136 employees on a 500-minute-per-month plan, with a monthly cost of
$50. The overage charge is 40 cents per minute, and there are additional charges for long
distance and roaming. The bank will estimate its cellular cost per minute for this plan by ex-
amining the number of minutes used last month by each of 100 randomly selected employees
on this 500-minute plan. According to the cellular management service, if the cellular cost per
minute for the random sample of 100 employees is over 18 cents per minute, the bank should
benefit from automated cellular management of its calling plans.
In order to randomly select the sample of 100 cellphone users, the bank will make a num-
bered list of the 2,136 users on the 500-minute plan. This list is called a frame. The bank can
then use a random number table, such as Table 1.1(a), to select the needed sample. To see how
this is done, note that any one-digit number in the table is assumed to have been randomly
selected from the digits 0 to 9. Any two-digit number in the table is assumed to have been
TABLE 1.1 Random Numbers

(a) A portion of a random number table (b) Excel output of 100 different four-digit
random numbers between 1 and 2,136
33276 85590 79936 56865 05859 90106 78188
03427 90511 69445 18663 72695 52180 90322 1968 1766 1350 1340 1585 1943
92737 27156 33488 36320 17617 30015 74952 1717 545 974 1492 1843 647
85689 20285 52267 67689 93394 01511 89868 845 1842 1575 462 1868 319
08178 74461 13916 47564 81056 97735 90707 259 180 398 792 454 1147
51259 63990 16308 60756 92144 49442 40719 64 321 974 2074 2026 1941
60268 44919 19885 55322 44819 01188 55157 431 531 312 36 1971 1496
94904 01915 04146 18594 29852 71585 64951 1863 1275 380 229 2068 1778
58586 17752 14513 83149 98736 23495 35749 2024 1914 587 1772 341 77
09998 19509 06691 76988 13602 51851 58104 171 1259 801 1533 380 252
14346 61666 30168 90229 04734 59193 32812 517 2079 1181 1064 1648 1863
74103 15227 25306 76468 26384 58151 44592 170 69 1790 1644 97 1678
24200 64161 38005 94342 28728 35806 22851 207 2005 662 73 102 1129
87308 07684 00256 45834 15398 46557 18510 1350 1690 99 1858 1017 56
07351 86679 92420 60952 61280 50001 94953 1523 255 384 1714 2126 1220
1942 1335 503 1536 484 2041
73 1067 1344 666 2119
785 2095 1703 1510 1940
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
assured by a gunner residing at New Orleans, that as many as one
hundred and twenty had been killed by himself at a single discharge;
and I myself saw a friend of mine kill eighty-four by pulling together
the triggers of his double-barrelled gun!
The Blue-winged Teal is easily kept in captivity, and soon becomes
very docile. In this state it feeds freely on coarse corn meal, and I
have no doubt that it could readily be domesticated, in which case,
so tender and savoury is its flesh that it would quickly put the merits
of the widely celebrated Canvass-backed Duck in the shade.
In the course of my stay in East Florida, at General Hernandez’s,
and Mr Bulow’s, I have observed this Teal in company with the Red-
breasted Snipe, the Tell-tale Godwit, and the Yellow-shank Snipe. I
observed the same circumstance in Texas.
During the time of their residence on the Delaware River, they feed
principally on the seeds of the wild oats, which I also found them to
do whilst at Green Bay. I have been assured by persons residing on
the island of Cuba, that the Blue-winged Teal is abundant, and
breeds there.
The old males lose the spring plumage of the head almost entirely
during a great portion of the autumn and winter, but it is reassumed
sometimes as early as the beginning of January. The young of both
sexes in their first plumage resemble the females, but the males
acquire their full beauty before they are a year old.
Anas discors, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol i. p. 205.—Lath. Ind. Orn. vol. ii. p. 854.
Blue-winged Teal, Anas discors, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. viii. p. 74. pl. 68.
fig. 4.—Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 397.
Anas discors, Ch. Bonap. Synopsis of Birds of the United States, p. 385.
Anas discors, Blue-winged Teal, Richards. and Swains. Fauna Bor. Amer.
vol. ii. p. 444.
Adult Male. Plate CCCXIII. Fig. 1.
Bill almost as long as the head, deeper than broad at the base,
depressed towards the end, its breadth nearly equal in its whole
length, being however a little enlarged towards the rounded tip.
Upper mandible with the dorsal line at first sloping, then nearly
straight, on the unguis decurved, the ridge broad and flat at the
base, suddenly narrowed over the nostrils, broader and convex
towards the end; the sides erect at the base, afterwards sloping and
convex; the narrow membranous margins a little broader towards the
end. Nostrils sub-basal, near the ridge, rather small, elliptical,
pervious. Lower mandible flattened, straight, with the angle very long
and rather narrow, the dorsal line very short, and slightly convex, the
sides internally erect, with about a hundred and twenty lamellæ.
Head of moderate size, oblong, compressed. Neck of moderate
length, rather slender. Body full, depressed. Feet short, placed rather
far back; tarsus short, compressed, at its lower part anteriorly with
two series of scutella, the rest covered with reticulated angular
scales. Toes with numerous scutella above; first toe very small and
with a narrow membrane beneath; third longest, fourth about a
quarter of an inch shorter; the anterior toes united by reticulated
webs, of which the outer is deeply sinuate; claws small, curved,
compressed, acute, the hind one smaller and more curved, that of
the third toe largest, and with the inner margin sharp.
Plumage dense, soft, and blended. Feathers of the head and neck,
very small and slender, of the back and lower parts in general broad
and rounded. Wings of moderate length, rather narrow and acute;
primaries strong, slightly curved, tapering, the first scarcely longer
than the second, the rest rapidly decreasing; secondaries broad, the
outer obliquely rounded, the inner elongated and acuminate, as are
the scapulars. Tail short, rounded and acuminate, of fourteen rather
narrow, acuminate feathers.
Bill bluish-black. Iris dark hazel. Feet dull yellow, webs dusky, claws
brownish-black, with the tips greyish-yellow. Upper part of the head
black; a semilunar patch of pure white on the side of the head before
the eye, margined before and behind with black. The rest of the
head, and the anterior parts of the neck of a deep purplish-blue, with
purplish-red reflections; the lower hind neck and fore part of back,
brownish-black, glossed with green, each feather with a curved band
of pale reddish-buff, and a line or band of the same in the centre; the
hind part of the back greenish-brown, the feathers edged with paler.
The smaller wing-coverts of a rich ultramarine blue, silky with almost
metallic lustre. Alula, primary coverts, and primary quills, greyish-
brown, edged with pale bluish; outer secondaries of the same colour,
those of the speculum duck-green, changing to blue and bronze,
with a narrow line of white along their terminal margin; the inner
greenish-black on the outer web, greenish-brown on the inner, with a
central line and narrow external margin of pale reddish buff, the
more elongated scapulars similar, but some of them margined with
greenish-blue. Secondary coverts brown, with their terminal portion
white. Tail-feathers chocolate brown, slightly glossed with green,
their margins buffy. The lower parts are pale reddish-orange, shaded
on the breast with purplish-red, and thickly spotted with black, the
number of roundish or elliptical spots on each feather varying from
ten to twenty-five, those on the upper and hind parts of the sides
running into transverse bars. Axillar feathers, some of the lower
wing-coverts, and a patch on the side of the rump pure white; lower
tail-coverts brownish-black.
Length to end of tail 16 inches, to end of claws 14 1/4, to end of
wings also 14 1/4; extent of wings 31 1/4; wing from flexure 7 4/12; tail
3 5/12; bill along the back 1 1/4, from frontal process to tip 1 1/2; tarsus
1 2/12; first toe and claw 5/12; middle toe and claw 1 10/12; outer toe
and claw 1 8/12. Weight 12 1/2 oz.
Adult Female. Plate CCCXIII. Fig. 2.
Bill greenish-dusky; iris hazel; feet of a duller yellow than those of
the male, the head and neck are pale dull buff, longitudinally marked
with brownish-black lines, which are broader and darker on the top of
the head; the fore part of the cheeks and the throat whitish, without
markings. The upper parts are dark brown, the feathers margined
with brownish-white; the smaller wing-coverts coloured as in the
male, but less brilliantly; no blue on the scapulars, which are also
less elongated. On the lower parts, the feathers are dusky brown,
broadly margined with light brownish-grey, of which there is a streak
or spot in the centre. The axillary feathers, and some of the lower
wing-coverts are white, but the patch of that colour so conspicuous
in the male is wanting.
Length to end of tail 15 inches, to end of wings 14 1/2, to end of
claws 15 1/2; extent of wings 24; wing from flexure 7 1/4; tail 2 7/12;
bill along the ridge 2 2/12. Weight 10 1/2 oz.
The young birds are similar to the female, but paler, and without the
green speculum.
In a male, the roof of the mouth is deeply concave, with a prominent
middle ridge, on which are a few blunt papillæ; on the upper
mandible are 50 lamellæ, on the lower about 65 below, and 85
above. The tongue, 8 twelfths long, large and fleshy, has two rows of
lateral bristles. The œsophagus is 8 1/2 inches long, 4 twelfths in
diameter until the middle of the neck, when it enlarges gradually to
half an inch. The proventriculus is 1 1/4 inch in length, with oblong
glandules. The stomach is a strong roundish gizzard, 1 inch and 2
twelfths long, 1 1/2 inch broad; its left muscle 7 twelfths thick, the
right 6 1/2 twelfths; its cuticular lining or epithelium of moderate
thickness and longitudinally rugous. The intestine, 5 feet 1 inch long,
varies in diameter from 3 to 2 twelfths; the cœca are 2 inches 10
twelfths long, cylindrical and rounded, their diameter 3 twelfths; the
cloaca globular. The contents of the stomach were gravel and seeds
of plants.
The trachea is 6 inches and 2 twelfths long; its diameter at the top 4
twelfths, at the middle 2 twelfths, at the lower part 3 1/2 twelfths. The
inferior larynx is formed of three or four united rings, and has an
irregular roundish bony expansion on the left side. The number of
rings of the trachea is 98, of the bronchi about 25. The contractor
muscles are large; cleido-tracheales and sterno-tracheales.
BLACK-HEADED, OR LAUGHING GULL.
Larus Atricilla, Linn.

PLATE CCCXIV. Male in spring, and Young.
Before entering upon the peculiar habits of this Gull, allow me, good-
natured Reader, to present you with some general observations on
the genus to which it belongs.
At the approach of autumn, it frequently happens that the young
birds of several species associate together, congregating at times in
vast numbers, and especially during low tides, on the outer margins
of sand-bars situated in estuaries. There you may hear them keeping
up an almost incessant cackle, and see them running about dressing
their plumage, or patiently waiting the rising of the waters, on which
much desired event taking place, they generally disperse, and fly off
to search for food. If disturbed while thus reposing, they shew
greater shyness, perhaps, than at any other time, and the loud note
of alarm from one of the group soon reaches your ear. Look at them
now, Reader, as they simultaneously spread their wings, and after a
step or two launch into the air, gradually ascend, and in silence rise
to a great height, performing extended gyrations, and advancing
toward the open sea.
It seldom happens that when one of the larger species is shot, its
companions will come to the rescue, as is the case with the smaller,
such as the Kittiwake, and the present species. I have thought it
remarkable how keenly and aptly Gulls generally discover at once
the intentions towards them of individuals of our own species. To the
peaceable and industrious fisherman they scarcely pay any regard,
whether he drags his heavy net along the shore, or patiently waits
until his well-baited hook is gulped below the dancing yet well-
anchored bark, over the side of which he leans in constant and
anxious expectation. At such a time indeed, if the fisher has had
much success, and his boat displays a good store, Gulls will almost
assail him like so many beggars, and perhaps receive from him a
trifling yet dainty morsel. But, on the opposite side of the bay, see
how carefully and suspiciously the same birds are watching every
step of the man who, with a long gun held in a trailing position, tries
to approach the flock of sleeping Widgeons. Why, not one of the
Gulls will go within three times the range of his murderous engine;
and, as if to assure him of their knowledge of his designs, they
merely laugh at him from their secure station.
When congregated during the love-season, their loquacity has never
failed to remind me of the impetuous, unmusical, and yet not
unpleasant notes of our thieving Red-winged Starlings. But when
apart, and at all times excepting the periods of pairing or breeding, or
while some of the smaller species are chased by their vigilant
enemies the Jagers, they are usually silent birds, especially when on
wing. In rainy or squally weather, they skim low over the water, or the
land, always against the wind, passing at times within a few feet of
the surface. Again, at such times, I have observed Gulls of every
species with which I am acquainted, suddenly give a shake or two to
their wings, and stop as it were for a moment in their flight, as if they
had espied something worthy of their attention below; but, on closely
observing them, I have become convinced that such manœuvres
were performed only with the view of readjusting their whole
plumage, which had perhaps been disarranged by a side current of
wind.
All Gulls are wonderfully tenacious of life. When wounded or closely
pursued, they are very apt to disgorge their food, or to sustain
themselves against the agonies of death with uncommon vigour.
They appear indeed to be possessed of extraordinary powers of
respiration, through means of which they revive at the very moment
when you might conceive them to have actually reached the last
gasp. I have seen cases in which individuals of this tribe, after
having been strongly squeezed for several minutes across the body,
and after their throats had been crammed with cotton or tow,
recovered as soon as the pressure was remitted, and immediately
attempted to bite with as much eagerness as when first seized,
when, by the by, they are wont to mute, as well as when suddenly
surprised and taking to wing. In certain states of the atmosphere,
Gulls, as well as other birds, appear much larger than they actually
are; and on such occasions, they, of course, seem nearer than you
would find them to be; for which reason, I would advise you, Reader,
to be on your guard, for you may be strangely misled as to the
distance at which you suppose the bird to be, and pull your trigger
merely to send your shot into the sand, far short from the Gulls or
other light-coloured birds in view.
Much confusion appears to exist among authors regarding our
Laughing Gull, and this, in my humble opinion, simply because not
one of them has studied it, in its native haunts, and at all seasons,
since the period when it was briefly characterized by our great
master Linnæus, who, after all that has been said against him, has
not yet had his equal. Alexander Wilson, who, it seems, knew
something of the habits of this bird, thought it however identical with
the Larus ridibundus of Europe as is shewn by the synonyms which
he has given. Others, who only examined some dried skins, without
knowing so much as the day or even the year in which they had
been shot, or their sex, or whether the feathers before them had
once belonged to a bird that was breeding, or barren, when it was
procured, described its remains perhaps well enough for their own
purpose, but certainly not with all the accuracy which is necessary to
establish once and for ever a distinct species of bird. Others, not at
all aware that most Gulls, and the present species in particular,
assume, in the season of pairing, and in a portion of the breeding
time, beautiful rosy tints in certain parts of their plumage, which at
other periods are pure white, have thought that differences of this
sort, joined to those of the differently-sized white spots observable in
particular specimens, and not corresponding with the like markings
in other birds of the same size and form, more or less observable at
different periods on the tips of the quills, were quite sufficient to
prove that the young bird, and the breeding bird, and the barren bird,
of one and the same species, differed specifically from the old bird,
or the winter-plumage bird. But, Reader, let us come to the point at
once.
At the approach of the breeding season, or, as I like best to term it,
the love season, this species becomes first hooded, and the white
feathers of its breast, and those of the lower surface of its wings,
assume a rich blush of roseate tint. If the birds procured at that time
are several years old and perfect in their powers of reproduction,
which is easily ascertained on the spot, their primary quills shew little
or no white at their extremities, and their hood descends about three
quarters of an inch lower on the throat than on the hind part of the
head, provided the bird be a male. But should they be barren birds,
the hood will be wanting, that portion of their plumage remaining as
during winter, and although the primaries will be black, or nearly so,
each of them will be broadly tipped, or marked at the end, with a
white spot, which in some instances will be found to be fully half an
inch in size; yet the tail of these birds, as if to prove that they are
adults, is as purely white to its extreme tip, as in those that are
breeding; but neither the breast, nor the under wing-coverts, will
exhibit the rosy tint of one in the full perfection of its powers.
The males of all the Gulls with which I am acquainted, are larger
than the females; and this difference of size is observable in the
young birds even before they are fully fledged. In all of these,
however, putting aside their sex, I have found great differences of
size to exist, sometimes as much as two inches in length, with
proportional differences in the bills, tarsi, and toes; and this, in
specimens procured from one flock of these gulls at a single
discharge of the gun, and at different seasons of the year. The colour
of their bills too is far from being always alike, being brownish-red in
some, purplish or of a rich and deep carmine in others. As to the
white spots on the extremities of the primary quills of birds of this
family, I would have you, Reader, never to consider them as
affording essential characters. Nay, if you neglect them altogether,
you will save yourself much trouble, as they will only mislead you by
their interminable changes, and you may see that the spots on one
wing are sometimes different in size and number from those on the
other wing of the same specimen. If all this be correct, as I assure
you it must be, being the result of numberless observations made in
the course of many years, in the very places of resort of our different
Gulls, will you not agree with me, Reader, that the difficulty of
distinguishing two very nearly allied species must be almost
insuperable when one has nothing better than a few dried skins for
objects of observation and comparison?
The Black-headed Gull may be said to be a constant resident along
the southern coast of the United States, from South Carolina to the
Sabine River; and I have found it abundant over all that extent both
in winter and in summer, but more especially on the shores and keys
of the Floridas, where I found it breeding, as well as on some islands
in the Bay of Galveston in Texas. A very great number of these birds
however remove, at the approach of spring, towards the Middle and
Eastern Districts, along the shores of which they breed in
considerable numbers, particularly on those of New Jersey and Long
Island, as well 15 1/2; extent of wings 24; wing from flexure 7 1/4; tail
2 7/12; bill along the ridge 2 2/12. Weight 10 1/2 oz.
The young birds are similar to the female, but paler, and without the
green speculum.
In a male, the roof of the mouth is deeply concave, with a prominent
middle ridge, on which are a few blunt papillæ; on the upper
mandible are 50 lamellæ, on the lower about 65 below, and 85
above. The tongue, 8 twelfths long, large and fleshy, has two rows of
lateral bristles. The œsophagus is 8 1/2 inches long, 4 twelfths in
diameter until the middle of the neck, when it enlarges gradually to
half an inch. The proventriculus is 1 1/4 inch in length, with oblong
glandules. The stomach is a strong roundish gizzard, 1 inch and 2
twelfths long, 1 1/2 inch broad; its left muscle 7 twelfths thick, the
right 6 1/2 twelfths; its cuticular lining or epithelium of moderate
thickness and longitudinally rugous. The intestine, 5 feet 1 inch long,
varies in diameter from 3 to 2 twelfths; the cœca are 2 inches 10
twelfths long, cylindrical and rounded, their diameter 3 twelfths; the
cloaca globular. The contents of the stomach were gravel and seeds
of plants.
The trachea is 6 inches and 2 twelfths long; its diameter at the top 4
twelfths, at the middle 2 twelfths, at the lower part 3 1/2 twelfths. The
inferior larynx is formed of three or four united rings, and has an
irregular roundish bony expansion on the left side. The number of
rings of the trachea is 98, of the bronchi about 25. The contractor
muscles are large; cleido-tracheales and sterno-tracheales. to
reproduce out of season, as it were. On some such occasions, when
I was at St Augustine, in the month of December, I have observed
four or five males of the present species paying their addresses to
one female, who received their courtesies with evident welcome. Yet
the females in that country did not deposit eggs until the 20th day of
April. The most surprising fact of all was, that, although these birds
were paired, and copulated regularly, by the 1st of February, not one
had acquired the spring or summer plumage, or the dark coloured
hood, or the rosy tint of the breast, nor lost the white spots on the
tips of their primary quills. This change, however, was apparent by
the 5th of March, became daily stronger, and was perfected by the
15th of that month. A few exceptions occurred among the numbers
procured at these periods, but the generality of the birds were as
above described.
Whilst at Great Egg Harbour, in May 1829, shortly after my return
from England, I found this species breeding in great numbers on the
margins of a vast salt marsh, bordering the sea-shore, though
separated from the Atlantic by a long and narrow island. About
sunrise every morning, an immense number of these birds would
rise in the air, as if by common consent, and wing their way across
the land, probably intent on reaching the lower shores of the
Delaware River, or indeed farther towards the head waters of
Chesapeake Bay. They formed themselves into long straggling lines,
following each other singly, at the distance of a few yards. About an
hour before sunset, the same birds were seen returning in an
extended front, now all silent, although in the morning their cries
were incessant, and lasted until they were out of sight. On arriving at
the breeding ground, they immediately settled upon their nests. On a
few occasions, when it rained and blew hard, the numbers that left
the nests were comparatively few, and those, as I thought, mostly
males. Instead of travelling high, as they were wont to do in fair and
calm weather, they skimmed closely over the land, contending with
the wind with surprising pertinacity, and successfully too. At such
times they were also quite silent. I now and then observed some of
them whilst on wing, and at a considerable height, suddenly check
their course, as if to examine some object below; but on none of
these occasions did I see one attempt to alight, for it soon resumed
its wonted course, and rejoined its companions.
Now, Reader, though I am growing old, I yet feel desirous of
acquiring knowledge regarding the habits of our birds, and should
much like to learn from you the reasons why these gulls went off in
lines from their breeding grounds, and returned in an extended front?
Was it, in the latter case, because they were afraid of passing their
nests unknowingly; or, in the former, under the necessity of following
an experienced leader, who, under the stimulus of an empty maw,
readily undertook the office, but who, like many other bon-vivants,
became in the evening too dull to be of use to his companions?
This species breeds, according to the latitude, from the 1st of March
to the middle of June; and I have thought that on the Tortuga Keys, it
produced two broods each season. In New Jersey, and farther to the
eastward, the nest resembles that of the Ring-billed Gull, or
Common American Gull, Larus zonorhynchus, being formed of dried
sea-weeds, and land plants, two and sometimes three inches high,
with a regular rounded cavity, from four and a half to five inches in
diameter, and an inch and a half in depth. This cavity is formed of
finer grasses, placed in a pretty regular circular form. I once found a
nest formed as it were of two; that is to say, two pairs had formed a
nest of nearly double the ordinary size, and the two birds sat close to
each other during rainy weather, but separately, each on its own
three eggs. I observed that the males, as well as the females, thus
concerned in this new sort of partnership, evinced as much mutual
fondness as if they were brothers. On the Tortugas, where these
Gulls also breed in abundance, I found their eggs deposited in slight
hollows scooped in the sand. Whilst at Galveston, in Texas, I found
their nests somewhat less bulky than in the Jerseys, which proved to
me how much birds are guided in these matters by differences in
atmospheric temperature and locality.
I never found more than three eggs in a nest. Their average length is
two inches and half an eighth, their greatest breadth a trifle more
than an inch and a half. They vary somewhat in their general tint, but
are usually of a light earthy olive, blotched and spotted with dull
reddish-brown and some black, the markings rather more abundant
towards the larger end. As an article of food, they are excellent.
These gulls are extremely anxious about their eggs, as well as their
young, which are apt to wander away from the nest while yet quite
small. They are able to fly at the end of six weeks, and soon after
this are abandoned by their parents, when the old and young birds
keep apart in flocks until the following spring, when, I think, the latter
nearly attain the plumage of their parents, though they are still
smaller, and have the terminal band on the tail.
The Black-headed Gull frequently associates with the Razor-billed
Shearwater, Rhynchops nigra, in winter; and I can safely say that I
have seen more than a thousand of each kind alight on the same
points of estuaries and mouths of rivers; the Gulls standing or sitting
by themselves, at no great distance from the Razor-bills. Now and
then they would all suddenly rise on wing as if frightened, perform a
few evolutions in the air, and again settle on the very same spot, still,
however, keeping separate. While thus in the company of the Razor-
bills, the Gulls are with great difficulty approached, the former being
exceedingly wary, and almost always rising when a person draws
near, the Gulls immediately following them, and the two great flocks
making off to some distant point, generally not very accessible. If
taken up on being wounded, these gulls are apt to bite severely. If,
on being shot at, they fall on the water, they swim fast and lightly,
their companions all the while soaring above, and plunging towards
them, as if intent on rescuing them. This great sympathy often
proves fatal to them, for, if the gunner is inclined, he may shoot them
down without any difficulty, and the more he kills the more his
chances are increased.
On the 10th of May 1832, it was my good fortune to be snugly on
board the “Lady of the Green Mantle,” or, in other words, the fine
revenue cutter the Marion. The Gulls that laughed whilst our anchors
were swiftly descending towards the marvellous productions of the
deep, soon had occasion to be sorrowful enough. As they were in
great numbers, officers and men, as well as the American
Woodsman, gazing upon them from the high decks of the gallant
bark, had ample opportunities of observing their motions. They were
all busily engaged on wing, hovering here and there around the
Brown Pelicans, intent on watching their plunges into the water, and
all clamorously teasing their best benefactors. As with broadly
extended pouch and lower mandible, the Pelican went down
headlong, so gracefully followed the gay rosy-breasted Gull, which,
on the brown bird’s emerging, alighted nimbly on its very head, and
with a gentle stoop instantly snatched from the mouth of its purveyor
the glittering fry that moment entrapped!
Is this not quite strange, Reader? Aye, truly it is. The sight of these
manœuvres rendered me almost frantic with delight. At times,
several gulls would attempt to alight on the head of the same
Pelican, but finding this impossible, they would at once sustain
themselves around it, and snatch every morsel that escaped from
the pouch of the great bird. So very dexterous were some of the
Gulls at this sport, that I have seen them actually catch a little fish as
it leaped from the yet partially open bill of the Pelican. And now,
Reader, I will conclude this long article with some fragments from my
journals.
Tortugas, May 1832.—Whilst here, I often saw the Black-headed
Gull of Wilson, sucking the eggs of Sterna fuliginosa, and Sterna
stolida. Our sailors assured me that these gulls also eat the young of
these two species of Terns when newly hatched.
Great Egg Harbour, May 1829.—Like all other gulls, the Larus
Atricilla disgorges its food when attacked by a Lestris, or when
wounded, or suddenly surprised; but on all occasions of respite this
gull is apt to return to it, and vulture-like to swallow it anew. It differs
however from the larger species of gulls, by never, as far as I have
observed, picking up bivalve shells, for the purpose of letting them
fall to break them, and afterwards feed on their contents. On the
ground they walk with considerable alertness, and not without a
certain degree of elegance, especially during the love season. Whilst
floating or swimming on the water, they are graceful in a high
degree, and when seen, as they oftentimes are, in groups of many
pairs, rising with, or sinking amidst the billows, which ever and anon
break on the sandy shores of the coast, their alternate appearance
brings to the mind of the bystander ideas connected with objects
altogether different from the simple yet beautiful Laughing Gull.
April 1, 1837.—South-west pass of the Mississippi. L. Atricilla
abundant here at this season, as well as at New Orleans. Saw some
floating on logs during a heavy breeze. Not noisy yet, though they
and L. zonorhynchus are in full spring dress (the old birds).
Barataria Bay, April 1837.—This species is abundant, following the
porpoises, whilst the latter are fishing, and attending on them, as
they do on the Brown Pelicans, which I saw here tormented by these
birds, as in the Floridas. These Gulls follow the Brown Pelicans to
their roosts, and along with them sit on grounded logs, at some
distance from the shores, to avoid the attacks of racoons and other
carnivorous animals.
Galveston Bay, April 26, 1837.—Black-headed Gulls are not
unfrequently seen hovering over the inner ponds of these islands, as
if in search of food. They are now all paired, and very noisy.
May 4.—I observed to-day that at the single cry of a Black-headed
Gull, all others within hearing at once came towards the caller, and
this never failed when any of them had found floating garbage on
which to feed. These, as well as all other gulls, pat the water with
their feet, their legs being partially extended, whilst assisting
themselves with the bill to pick up any floating food. At this time the
whole group emit a more plaintive single note than usual. They come
not unfrequently within a few yards of our vessel at anchor, and
when the food thrown to them is exhausted, they separate, and at
once renew their repeated cries. I observed that the few immature
birds among the old ones, were quite silent even when in the
company of the adults. When the young are nearly able to fly, they
are by no means bad eating.
Larus Atricilla, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 225.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p.
812.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of the United States, p. 359.
Black-headed Gull, Larus ridibundus, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. ix. p. 89. pl.
74. fig. 4.
Black-headed Gull, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 291.
Adult Male in spring. Plate CCCXIV. Fig. 1.

Bill rather shorter than the head, nearly straight, moderately stout,
compressed. Upper mandible with its dorsal outline straight to the
middle, then curved and declinate, the ridge convex, the sides
rapidly sloping, the edges sharp and direct, the tip rather obtuse but
sharp-edged. Nasal groove rather long and narrow; nostrils in its fore
part, longitudinal, submedial, large, linear-oblong, broader anteriorly,
pervious. Lower mandible with the angle long and pointed, the
outline of its crura decurved anteriorly, that of the ridge slightly
concave and ascending, the sides erect and nearly flat.
Head of moderate size. Neck of ordinary length. Body compact. Feet
rather long, stoutish; tibia bare below for three-fourths of an inch,
covered behind with narrow scutella; tarsus compressed, anteriorly
covered with numerous curved scutella, laterally with small oblong
scales, posteriorly with small scutella. Toes slender, of moderate
length, covered above with numerous scutella; first extremely small,
second much shorter than fourth, third two-twelfths of an inch longer
than the latter; anterior toes connected by reticulated webs, the outer
and inner slightly marginate; claws small, slightly arched,
compressed, thin-edged, that of the middle toe with an expanded
inner margin.
Plumage close, soft, and blended. Wings very long and pointed;
primaries tapering to a rounded point; first longest, second a twelfth
of an inch shorter, the rest rapidly diminishing; secondaries broad,
incurvate, and obliquely rounded, the inner straight and more
elongated. Tail of moderate length, even, of twelve broad, rounded
feathers.
Bill and feet, as well as the margin of eyelids, and the inside of the
mouth, of a rich deep carmine; claws brownish-black. Iris bluish-
black. The head and a portion of the upper part of the neck all round,
blackish lead-grey, darker on the upper part of the head and along
the posterior margin, which descends lower in front, or to the extent
of about two inches and a half from the base of the lower mandible;
two narrow white bands bordering the upper and lower eyelids.
Lower neck all round, the whole lower surface, the rump and tail,
pure white; but the fore part of the neck and the breast, down to the
legs, of a beautiful light rosy tint. The back and wings are greyish-
blue, with a very slight tinge of purple, excepting a large terminal
portion of the secondaries, and the tips of the primaries, which are
white. The first primary is black, with a tinge of grey on the inner web
at the base; the second and third similar, with the grey more
extended; on the fourth it extends over two-thirds; the fifth is black
only for an inch and a half; and on the sixth the black is reduced to
two spots near the end; the other parts and the remaining primaries
of the same general colour as the back.
Length to end of tail 17 inches, to end of wings 20, to end of claws
17; extent of wings 40 3/4; wing from flexure 12 10/12; tail 5 2/12; bill
along the ridge 1 11/12, along the edge of lower mandible 2 1/4; tarsus
2; hind toe and claw 4/12; middle toe and claw 1 9/12; outer toe and
claw 1 1/2; inner toe and claw 1 3/12.
The female is precisely similar to the male, but considerably smaller.
In winter the head is white, the feathers on its upper part and on the
nape more or less brownish-grey in their concealed part, that colour
appearing in slight patches here and there, and especially along the
posterior margin of the part that is coloured in summer, as well as on
a small space before the eye. The rosy tint of the breast disappears
after the breeding season. In other respects the plumage is as in
summer.
Young fully fledged. Plate CCCXIV. Fig. 2.
Bill, feet, inside of mouth, and edges of eyelids, olivaceous brown.
The upper parts are brownish-grey, the feathers edged with paler;
the hind part of the back light bluish-grey; upper tail-coverts nearly
white; tail pale greyish-blue, with a broad band of brownish-black at
the end, the extreme tips narrowly edged with white, the outer
margin of the lateral feathers of the same colour. The first four
primaries are destitute of white at the tip. A smaller patch before the
eye, two slight bands on the eyelids, and the throat, greyish-white;
the lower part of the neck brownish-grey, the rest of the lower parts
greyish-white, the sides darker, the axillars ash-grey, the lower
surface of the wing dusky-grey.
In an adult male, the tongue is 1 1/4 inch long, slender, tapering,

emarginate at the base, with minute papillæ, the tip horny along the
back. The œsophagus is 6 1/2 inches long, 5 twelfths in diameter
until it enters the thorax, then dilates to 1 inch and 5 twelfths; its
walls are extremely thin, its inner coat longitudinally plaited.
Proventriculus very short, the belt of oblong glandules being only 7
twelfths in breadth. Stomach rather small, oblong, 1 1/2 inch long, 10
twelfths broad; its lateral muscles rather thick, the tendons large; the
inner coat thick, horny, and thrown into very prominent longitudinal
rugæ, its upper margin abrupt, and manifestly not continuous with
the inner coat of the proventriculus, as some have supposed the
epithelium to be in all birds. In the stomach remains of fishes.
Intestines 1 foot 9 1/2 inches long, its general diameter 1/4 inch.
Rectum 1 1/2 inch; cœca extremely small, 2 1/2 twelfths long, 1/2
twelfth in diameter.
Trachea 5 1/2 inches long; its rings 110, extremely thin and feeble; its
diameter at the top 4 1/2 twelfths, at the lower part 2 1/2 twelfths. The
lateral muscles are scarcely perceptible, the sterno-tracheal very
slender; the inferior larynx small; the bronchi of moderate length and
width, with 25 half-rings.

Ebook PDF Business Statistics in Practice 3rd Canadian Edition PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Ebook PDF Business Statistics in Practice 3rd Canadian Edition PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook PDF Business Statistics in Practice 3rd Canadian Edition PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(eBook PDF) Business Statistics in

Practice 3rd Canadian Edition

GUIDED TOUR xiv

CHAPTER 12 Appendix 14.1 Chi-Square Tests Using Excel

Appendices all available on

What’s New in Business Statistics in Practice, Third Canadian Edition?

Reviewers for the Third Canadian Edition

Not Fairly Extremely

bow39604_ch01_001-024.indd Page 1 21/10/13 5:39 PM f-w-512 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles

To emphasize the text’s theme of business

statistical analysis has led to an BI

important business improvement B T

FIGURE 2.22 The Empirical Rule

68.26% of the population

95.44% of the population

99.73% of the population

30.8 30.9 32.0 32.3 32.6 20 18.4 18.4

31.7 30.4 31.4 32.7 31.4 15

31.0 31.8 31.0 31.5 30.6

32.0 30.4 29.8 31.7 32.2

bow39604_ch06_193-213.indd Page 197 19/11/13 2:22 AM f-512 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles

others) are used to help explain the The normally distributed

sampling distribution of the sample 0.20

addition, the figures describe differ- 0.05

Individual Car Fuel Efﬁciency x1 5 7.1

tive tool to help students understand 0.20

(a) The population of individual fuel efﬁciencies

Scale of fuel efﬁciencies

Scale of sample means, x¯ x x x x

(c) The sampling distribution of the sample mean x

The normal distribution describing the population

bow39604_ch07_214-259.indd Page 227 19/11/13 2:22 AM f-512 /203/MHR00232/bow39604_disk1of1/0071339604/bow39604_pagefiles

• In Chapter 7 (Hypothesis Testing), a FIGURE

five-step hypothesis testing procedure,

Hypothesis Testing Procedure

22.67 Hypothesis Reject H0 if p-Value (Reject H0 if p-Value , A)

The Five Steps of Hypothesis Testing

illustrations used to help explain the The probability is 0.95 that

of increasing production by predict- 312.16 327.84

ing surpluses and shortfalls at a

cient and Simple Linear Regression Regression r 2 0.889 9 n 40

FIGURE 12.1 Plot of y versus x1 FIGURE 12.2 Plot of y versus x2

Sales Time MktPoten Adver MktShare Change Accts WkLoad

vary in rigour from routine calculations EXAMPLE

Excel and MegaStat Appendix 1.1 ■ Getting Started with Excel

Microsoft®PowerPoint® Lecture Slides Prepared by Kalinga Jagoda of Mount Royal

SUPERIOR LEARNING SOLUTIONS AND SUPPORT

LE A RN IN G OBJ ECTIV E S C HAP T E R O UT LI N E

1.1 POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES

1.2 SAMPLING A POPULATION OF EXISTING UNITS

Example 1.1 Estimating Cellphone Costs

TABLE 1.1 Random Numbers

Larus Atricilla, Linn.

Adult Male in spring. Plate CCCXIV. Fig. 1.

In an adult male, the tongue is 1 1/4 inch long, slender, tapering,

You might also like