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contents
1 Humans, Geology, case STUDY 3.1

Minerals, Cancer, and OSHA: Fact and Fiction 70
and the Environment 1
case STUDY 3.2
What Is Environmental Geology? 3 Exotic Terranes: A Continental Mosaic 72
Humans and the Geological Environment 4 case STUDY 3.3
Discovering Plate Tectonics 74
IPAT 4
Carrying Capacity 5 photo gallery A Rock Collection 80
Putting Ourselves at Risk 8 photo gallery Visions of How the Earth Works 82
Summary 84
The Environmental Geologist 8 Key Terms 85
Tools of the Trade 10 Study Questions 85
explorer’s perspective 12 References and Further Readings 86
Typical Projects in Environmental Geology 13
case STUDY 1.1
Exponential Growth, Wealth, Poverty, and Population 14 4 Earthquakes and Human
photo gallery Overpopulation Problems 16 Activities 89
Summary 18 The Nature of Earthquakes 91
Key Terms 18 Seismic Wave Periods 94
Study Questions 19 Locating the Epicenter 94
References and Further Readings 19
Earthquake Measurement Intensity Scales 96
Richter Magnitude Scale: The Best-Known Scale 96
Moment Magnitude: The Most Widely Used Scale 97
2 The Earth System
Fault Creep, the “Nonearthquake” 98
and Climate Change 21
Homeostasis and Feedback 23 Seismo-luminosity 98
Atmosphere, Hydrosphere 25 Forensic Use of Seismic Records 99

Makeup of Earth’s Atmosphere 25 Seismic Design Considerations 99
Atmospheric Circulation and Climate 26 Ground Shaking 99
Oceanic Circulation and Climate 28 Landslides 101
Natural Climate Change 29 Ground or Foundation Failure 102
The Human Contribution to Earth’s Climate System 33 Ground Rupture and Changes in Ground Level 103
case STUDY 2.1 Fires 103
Measuring Atmospheric Temperature 40 Tsunamis 103
photo gallery Earth’s Climate Regimes 42 Five Earthquakes That Make Important Points 104
Summary 44 Northridge, California, 1994 104
Key Terms 44 Gujarat, 2001 106
Study Questions 45 Sumatra-Andaman Islands, 2004 108
References and Further Readings 45 Tohoku-Oki, Japan 108
Christchurch, New Zealand, 2011 110
© 2009/MICHAEL MELFORD/National Geographic Image Collection
What We Can Learn 111

3 The Solid Earth 47 Earthquakes Far from Plate Boundaries 112
Earth Materials 49 Pacific Northwest 115
Elements, Atoms, and Atomic Structure 49
Prediction 116
Minerals 49
Rocks 52 Forecasts 116
Statistical Approach 116
Earth’s Deep Interior and Plate Tectonics 59 Geological Methods 117
Geological Time 64 Mitigation 118
Age of Earth 67
vi contents
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Survival Tips 119
Before an Earthquake 119
© 1996/MEDFORD TAYLOR/National Geographic Image

During an Earthquake 119
After an Earthquake 120
case STUDY 4.1
Earthquakes, Landslides, and Disease 122
case STUDY 4.2
Predictable “Future Shocks” 122
case STUDY 4.3
Rx for Failed Freeways 123
Collection
case STUDY 4.4
Depressed Tigers, Restless Turtles, and Earthquakes! 125
photo gallery Earthquakes Are Hard on Cars 126
© 2003/MICHAEL FAY/National Geographic Image

Summary 128
Key Terms 129
Study Questions 129
5 Volcanoes 133
Collection
Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics 135
Magma Ascent and Eruption 139
Types of Eruptions 140
© 2003/MICHAEL FAY/National Geographic Image

Hawaiian-style Eruptions 143
Strombolian Eruptions 144
Vulcanian Eruptions 146
Plinian Eruptions 147
Volcano Explosivity Index 149
Volcanic Hazards 153
Primary Eruption Hazards 153
Collection
Secondary Eruption Hazards 154
Volcanoes as Unstable Landforms 156
Benefits of Volcanoes 157
Living with Volcanoes 159
© 2009/JASON EDWARDS/National Geographic

explorer’s perspective 162
case STUDY 5.1
New Zealand’s Blast in the Past, a Skifield,
and Fluidization 164 Image Collection
case STUDY 5.2

Montserrat, Paradise Lost 166
case STUDY 5.3
Volcanoes and Earth’s Climate 167
case STUDY 5.4
Carbon Dioxide, Earthquakes, and the Los Angeles
Water Supply 168
contents vii
photo gallery Volcanic Wonders 170
Summary 172
Key Terms 173
Study Questions 173
© 2009/ENRIC SALA/National Geographic Image

6 Weathering, Soils,
and Erosion 177
Weathering 179
Collection
Physical Weathering 180
Chemical Weathering 180
The Rate of Weathering 183
Geological Features of Weathering 184
© 2009/TYRONE TURNER/National Geographic Image

Soils 185
Soil Genesis 185
Soil Profile 186
Residual Soils 186
Transported Soils 187
Soil Color and Texture 188
Soil Classification 189
Soil Problems 191
Collection
Soil Erosion 191

© 2009/JASON EDWARDS/National Geographic Image
The Impact of Cropland Loss on Humans 196

Mitigation of Soil Erosion 197
Expansive Soils 198
Permafrost 198
Settlement 199
Other Soil Problems 203
case STUDY 6.1
Salinization and Waterlogging 206
case STUDY 6.2
Collection
General Patton’s Soils Decades Later 206

case STUDY 6.3
Rx for Contaminated Soils 208
© 2009/RAYMOND GEHMAN/National Geographic
case STUDY 6.4

Climate Change: The Effects on Weathering and Erosion 209
photo gallery E
rosion Around the World and Through
Time 210
Summary 212
Key Terms 213
Study Questions 213
Image Collection
viii contents
7 Mass Wasting Freshwater Underground 264
Groundwater Supply 265
and Subsidence 215 Location and Distribution 265
Classifying Mass Movements 217 Static Water Table 266
Pressurized Underground Water 268
Flows 217 Groundwater Storage and Management 270
Types of Flows 217 Groundwater Mining 271
Causes, Behavior, and Prediction of Debris Flows 220 Groundwater–Saltwater Interaction 273
Landslides That Move as a Unit 221 Groundwater–Surface Water Interaction and Usage
Trends 273
Types 223 Geological Work by Underground Water 274
Lateral Spreading 226
The Mechanics of Slides: A Matter of Balance 227 Water Quality 275
Reducing Losses from Mass Wasting 228 Dissolved Substances 275
Water Pollutants 279
Landslide Hazard Zonation 228 Cleanup, Conservation, and Alternative Water Sources 280
Building Codes and Regulations 228
case STUDY 8.1
Control and Stabilization 229
Water Drainage and Control 230 Who Shrank the Aral Sea? 282
Excavation and Redistribution 230 case STUDY 8.2
Retaining Devices 230 Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 283
Mitigating Debris Flows 232
case STUDY 8.3
Snow Avalanches 232
Groundwater Law 284
Subsidence 235
case STUDY 8.4
Human-Induced Subsidence 235
The Edwards Aquifer, a Texas Bonanza 285
Natural Subsidence 235
Classification of Subsidence 236 case STUDY 8.5
Mitigation of Subsidence 239 Long Island, New York—Saltwater or Freshwater for the
case STUDY 7.1 Future? 286
Dynamic Real Estate in Oregon 242 photo gallery Everyone Needs Water 288
case STUDY 7.2 Summary 290
Colorado’s Slumgullion Landslide: Key Terms 291
A Moving Story 300 Years Old 242 Study Questions 292
case STUDY 7.3
When the Trees Come Down, So Do the Hills 244
case STUDY 7.4
A Rescue Plan for Venice? 246
9 Hydrologic Hazards at Earth’s
case STUDY 7.5
Surface 295
Water, Water Everywhere 247 Weather and Climate 297
photo gallery Slip, Slide, and Fall 250 Types of Floods 299
Summary 252
Key Terms 253 Impacts of Floods 300
Study Questions 253 River Systems 302
References and Further Readings 254 Stream Features 304
When There Is Too Much Water 307
Flood Measurement 309
8 Freshwater Resources 257 Flood Frequency 310
Water as a Resource 259 Flood Mitigation 311
Options 311
Freshwater at Earth’s Surface 260
Insurance, Flood-proofing,
Rivers 260 and Floodplain Management 313
Lakes 262
case STUDY 9.1
explorer’s perspective 263 When Ice Melts and Moves 316
contents ix
case STUDY 9.2
The Nile River—Three Cubits between
11 Glaciation and Long-Term
Security and Disaster 317 Climate Change 371
case STUDY 9.3 Glaciers and Society 373
New Orleans: The Flood Happens 318 Origin and Distribution of Glaciers 374
case STUDY 9.4 Glacier Budget 374
A Very Wet Fall 320 Glacial Features 377
Effects of Glaciation 380
case STUDY 9.5
The Impermeable Flood 322
Breaking the Ice: Evidence of Climate Change 387
photo gallery How We Cope with Floods 324 Glaciation and Climate Change 389
Summary 326 Today’s Global Warming 390

Key Terms 326 Evidence of Global Warming 390
Study Questions 327 Consequences of Global Warming 393
References and Further Readings 327 The Arctic Oscillation and Arctic Sea Ice 399
Causes of Today’s Global Warming 400
And What of the Future? 401
10 Coastal Environments explorer’s perspective 404
and Humans 329 Geoengineering and Climate Change 405

Multiple Strategies Needed to Combat Climate Change 409
Wind Waves 331 case STUDY 11.1
Waves in Deep Water and at the Shore 331 A Summer on Ice: Research on the Greenland Ice Sheet 410
Wave Refraction 333
case STUDY 11.2
Impulsively Generated Waves 335 Climate Data on Ice: The National Ice Core Laboratory 413
Tsunamis 335 case STUDY 11.3
Shorelines 340 Where Are the Wild Things? 414
Beaches 340 case STUDY 11.4
Barrier Islands 341 Cap-and-Trade 417
Beach Accumulation and Erosion: The River of Sand 341
case STUDY 11.5
Hurricanes, Nor’easters, and Coastal Effects 348 Medieval Warming, English Wine,
Hurricanes 348 and the Atlantic Flip-flop 418
Nor’easters 354 photo gallery Glaciers and Climate Change 420
El Niño and the Coast Zone 355
Summary 422
case STUDY 10.1 Key Terms 422
Tsunami: A Quarter Million Perish 356 Study Questions 422
case STUDY 10.2 References and Further Readings 423
Distant Tsunamis: The Silent Threat 357
case STUDY 10.3
A Moving Experience 359 12 Arid Lands, Winds,
case STUDY 10.4 and Desertification 425
Katrina: How Could It Be So Bad? 360 Wind as a Geological Agent in Deserts 427
photo gallery In Harm’s Way 364
Arid Lands, Dust Storms, and Human Health 428
Summary 366
Key Terms 367 Deserts 430
Study Questions 367 Kinds of Deserts 430
References and Further Readings 368 Desertification 432
Africa 434
United States 436
Southern Hemisphere 437
The Future? 437
x contents
case STUDY 12.1
Is Desertification Swallowing China? 440
case STUDY 12.2
© 2009/RAUL TOUZON/National Geographic Image

Geology, Qanats, and the Water Supply in Arid Regions 442
case STUDY 12.3
Arroyo Cutting and Environmental Change in the Western
United States: Climate or Overgrazing? 444
photo gallery Life and Death in Dry Places 446
Summary 448
Key Terms 448
Collection
Study Questions 448
© 2009/JAMES P. BLAIR/National Geographic Image

13 Mineral Resources
and Society 451
Mineral Abundances and Distribution 454
Economic Mineral Concentration 454
Factors That Change Reserves 455
Distribution of Mineral Resources 457
Collection
Origins of Mineral Deposits 457
Igneous Processes 459
Weathering Processes 460
Sedimentary Processes 462
© DAVID DOUBILET/National Geographic Image

Metamorphic Processes 463
Other 464
Metallic Mineral Reserves 464
The Abundant Metals 464
Nonmetallic Mineral Reserves 464
Mineral Resources for the Future 466
Mining and Its Environmental Impacts 469
Collection
Impacts of Coal Mining 470
Impacts of Underground Mining 473
Impacts of Surface Mining 474
Impacts of Mineral Processing 476
© 2009/BORGE OUSLAND/National Geographic

Mine-Land Reclamation 478
Surface-water and Groundwater Protection 479
Mill and Smelter Waster Contamination 480
Revegetation and Wildlife Restoration 481
The Future of Mining 482 Image Collection
Mining Legislation and Regulation 482

case STUDY 13.1
Porphyry Copper and Plate Tectonics 484
case STUDY 13.2
Cleaning Up a Mountain 485
case STUDY 13.3
Reclamation of Open-Pit Coal Mines 488
contents xi
case STUDY 13.4
Cleaning up a Century of Hard-Rock Mining: The Abandoned
Mine Lands Initiative 489
© 2010/STEVE AND DONNA O’MEARA/National

case STUDY 13.5
Rare Earths and Green Cars 494
photo gallery The Legacy of Mines & Mining 496
Summary 498
Geographic Image Collection

Key Terms 499
Study Questions 500
14 Energy and the

Environment 503
Petroleum 506
© 2010/PETE RYAN/National Geographic Image

Origin of Accumulation of Hydrocarbon Deposits 506
Geological Traps: Oil and Gas Stop Here 507
Oil Production 509
Quality and Price 510
U.S. Consumption, Production,
and Imports of Petroleum 510
Production, Reserves, and the Future for Oil 511
Collection
Energy Gases and the Future 515

Natural Gas 515
© 2010/PATRICK MCFEELEY/National Geographic Image
Unconventional Fossil Fuels 517

Coal-Bed Methane 517
Methane Hydrates 519
Hydrogen 519
Tar Sands 520
Oil Shale 521
Coal 522
Coalification and Rank 522
Reserves and Production 523
Collection
Clean Coal: IGCC and CCS 524

Problems of Fossil-Fuel Combustion 525
Air Pollution 525
Mine Collapse 528
© 2006/PETE RYAN/National Geographic Image
Beyond Petroleum: Alternatives for the Future 528

Kicking the Carbon Habit 529
Nuclear Energy 530

Hydroelectric Energy 532
Geothermal Energy 532
Direct Solar Energy 535
Collection
Indirect Solar Energy 537

Energy from the Sea 541
An Energy Conclusion 544
case STUDY 14.1
Industry Cracks Open a New Oil Source
in the Gulf of Mexico 546
xii contents
case STUDY 14.2 case STUDY 15.2
Tight Gas and Oil 548 The Highest Point between Maine and Florida 594
Fracking 549 Deep-Well Injection and Human-Caused Earthquakes 595
Geothermal Energy, Volcanoes, and Magma 552 Love Canal: A Precedent in Human-Caused
Environmental Pollution 596
case STUDY 14.5
Feed-in Tariffs 553 case STUDY 15.5
photo gallery Energy Is Where You Find It 554 Radon and Indoor Air Pollution 597
Summary 556 case STUDY 15.6

Key Terms 557 Waste and the Birth of the Environmental Justice
Study Questions 558 Movement 599
References and Further Readings 559 photo gallery Waste Disposal Then and Now 600
Summary 602
Key Terms 602
15 Waste Management Study Questions 603
and Geology 561
Principle Waste Management Approaches 566
Isolation 567
Incineration 568
Attenuation 570
APPENDIX 1
Periodic Table of the Elements 604
Some Special Situations 571
Sewage Sludge 571 APPENDIX 2
Landfill Instability 573 Some Important Minerals 605
Landfill Gas Generation 574
Leachate Pollution Patterns 574 APPENDIX 3
Recycling 575 Planes in Space: Dip and Strike 607
Composting 580
Multiple Land-Use Strategies 580 APPENDIX 4
Hazardous-Waste Disposal 580
Modified Mercalli Scale 608
The Problem with Coal 582
Superfund 584
APPENDIX 5
Nuclear-Waste Disposal 585
Calculating the Expiration Time
explorer’s perspective 591 for U.S. Coal Reserves 609
Private Sewage Disposal 593
case STUDY 15.1 GLOSSARY 610
The Sociology of Waste Disposal 594
INDEX 624
contents xiii
Preface
Our Changing Planet Sometimes disaster is simply a matter of poor building and
home construction and planning. Earthquakes, volcanism,
Environmental geology is the study of the relationship be- flooding, and landslides have always been a part of the Earth
tween humans and their geological environment. An under- scene and always will be. We can ease our experience of
lying assumption is that this relationship is interactive. Not them by learning as much as we can about their triggers and
only do naturally occurring geological phenomena affect the potential impacts.
lives of people each day, but also human activities affect geo- The section on hazards precedes a general treatment of
logical processes, sometimes with tragic consequences. Given more ordinary, but also equally important, natural processes:
the fact of growing global populations, the potential risk for the formation and development of soils, and the dynamics of
experiencing abrupt, if not catastrophic, geological and cli- the hydrological cycle, including the behavior of streams, riv-
matic changes has never been greater for more people. Dur- ers, waves acting on coasts, groundwaters, and glaciers.
ing your lifetime there is a strong possibility that you will ei- Deserts—distinguished by a low level of hydrological
ther indirectly or directly experience an earthquake, flood, activity—also warrant our attention as an important example
landslide, volcanic activity, runaway release of pollutants, or of Earth’s “marginal lands,” regions in which it is difficult for
some other significant environmental event that impacts your people to survive sustainably without careful adaptation.
local community. A basic, practical understanding of geology The final section of this book takes us home, in a sense,
is essential for understanding such events and for accepting examining human extraction of nonbiological resources,
and moving beyond them proactively. that is, mineral and energy supplies. How do we obtain from
This edition of Geology and the Environment benefits the Earth what we need to facilitate our lifestyles? Are we
greatly from collaborative association with the National extracting resources too rapidly, and are there ancillary en-
Geographic Society (NGS) in Washington, DC, which has vironmental issues we must address? How can we be more
made its resources available, including map and image ar- responsible in our resource-consuming ways?
chives, Society explorer materials, and online links support- We wrap up by looking at how we deal with all the
ing this textbook. In this way, the NGS enriches and extends wastes that we generate. As you’ll see, effective waste man-
our ability to teach the very important topic of environmen- agement requires a keen awareness of how pollutants can
tal geology. The authors, publishers, and NGS all share the move through the environment when something goes
same educational goals. In fact, proceeds from the sale of wrong. Indeed, we must prepare for things occasionally
this product support NGS’s mission to increase global un- not to work out as well as we would like. This brings us
derstanding and promote conservation of our planet through back to the basic premise of this book—that a keen under-
exploration, research, and education. standing of geology and how the natural world “works” is
our best hope for living well today and building for a better
future.
Overview of Organization In a culture where science and technology are interwo-
ven with economics and political action, an understanding of
We must be specific in speaking about geology—the study
the sciences is increasingly important. The National Science
of the Earth. Unlike many introductory geology texts, this
Foundation, the National Center for Earth Science Educa-
book does not deal extensively with the distant past, but
tion, and several other prestigious earth science organizations
rather concentrates on the here and now. Its contents may
are promoting earth science literacy in the United States for
be divided into several general sections. The first three
students from elementary school through college. The hope
chapters “set the stage,” providing a context in terms of time,
is that, through education, today’s students will become bet-
space, and process, for all of the chapter material to follow.
ter stewards of our planet than their parents have been. How
This broadly includes an introduction to environmental is-
© 2011/CHEN ELNEKAVE/National Geographic Image Collection
much responsibility should we as individuals take for main-

sues, the climate and oceans of Earth, the schematic of geo-
taining the planet that we share, and how much can we ac-
logical time, and the raw materials that make up the bed-
complish as individuals? Earth science literacy opens our
rock and soil beneath your feet.
minds to such questions. It helps us to appreciate Earth’s
Following the introductory section are two chapters
beauty while also recognizing its limitations. One thing is cer-
strictly related to two formidable products of plate tectonics:
tain: The planet can sustain just so much life, and it is now
earthquakes and volcanoes. As you’ll learn throughout the
being pushed to the limit. The fragility of Earth was elo-
book, threats to human welfare come not so much from the
quently described by Apollo 14 astronaut Edgar Mitchell:
unleashed forces of nature, but rather from the placement
of people, quite often unintentionally or through no per- It is so incredibly impressive when you look back at our
sonal choice, in the path of generally avoidable threats. planet from out there in space and you realize so forcibly
xiv preface
that it’s a closed system—that we don’t have unlimited by a syllabus is often the enemy in trying to impart a lot of
resources, that there’s only so much air and so much information and new training. On the other hand, to close
water. You get out there in space and you say to yourself, one’s mind to possibly learning about how science works in
“That’s home. That’s the only home we have, and the the most basic way, and to blind oneself to the awesome in-
only one we’re going to have for a long time.” We had sights it provides about simply being alive in the world, is a
better take care of it. We don’t get a second chance. sad thing, a form of self-deprivation we hope you’ll strive to
avoid as best you can—even if you empathize with the ear-
lier comment. We expect that you will have to work hard to
For You the Reader—Don’t Be Scared! This book
grasp some ideas and concepts, especially in the first few
is meant to inform (we’d like to say “enlighten!”) readers
“orientation” chapters. We believe that there is simply no
who are taking a one-semester undergraduate introductory-
other way to bootstrap to a higher level of understanding
level geology course. As authors, each of us has taught un-
without some modicum of hard thinking. Learning is a
dergraduate students extensively during our careers (see
dance with two partners: the instructor to provide the infor-
author profiles). Each of us is passionate about our efforts to
mation as skillfully as possible and the student to aggres-
reach out and provide insights that we have found exciting,
sively seek out its meaning, irrespective of personal back-
even emotionally engaging. We attempt, we hope with rea-
ground. It cannot be merely a passive data dump—a simple
sonable success, to reduce the complex, beautiful mecha-
matter of memorization and regurgitation. If we sometimes
nism of the geological world to terms that stimulate your
fail to make things as clear as we might in our writing, we
interest and desire to learn more. Wherever feasible, we
offer our apologies. Know at least that we have tried to place
also try to make the topical material directly relevant. Not
ourselves in your shoes, well aware too of just how deep and
all is “gloom and doom,” nor should it be. Some great, un-
broad this field is.
sung success stories in adaptation, engineering, and shear
We attempt to present a portrait of environmental geol-
human ingenuity also shine through. But be prepared to
ogy as honestly as we can. We certainly take full responsibil-
face some possibly strange new facts and perspectives about
ity for any scientific errors in our text (and indeed expect
Planet Earth—all of which, we hope you’ll agree, can be
there will be a few that crop up in the normal course of
potentially useful to know.
evolving research). May your class instructor be quick to
This book is also a “work in progress.” Science is an it-
jump in with fresh, critical insights as you learn! In the end,
erative, continually evolving pursuit. New areas of impor-
this is all about you.
tance continually appear, while people lose interest in oth-
ers and let them recede into the past—never fully lost, but
dormant or meaningless in the present day. Simply compare Distinctive Features of the Book
this textbook with similar ones written 10, 20, or even 40 At most schools, the course for which this book is used is a
years ago and perhaps you’ll be amazed, both by what hasn’t component of the general education curriculum. General
changed and what has in terms of emphasis and basic education broadens and enriches students’ lives and minds
understanding. beyond the specialization of their major interest. To this
Science is also an intensely self-correcting process, an end, Galleries of photos at the end of each chapter illustrate
effort to arrive at the “truth” about the raw, natural state of many geological wonders and the ways in which humans
the world (and cosmos) in as impartial and nonjudgmental and Earth interact. The Galleries are intended to stimulate
a way as possible. Scientific progress is driven both by new students’ curiosity about and appreciation for natural geo-
technology and by ordinary, very human curiosity. Although logical wonders, and the ever dynamic engagement of peo-
it is possible to tell a lie as a scientist, one can’t get away with ple with the environment.
doing that for long, because science requires intensive peer Have You Ever Wondered? questions open each chap-
review and public correction. Science is all about the shar- ter, stimulating thought about the material that follows. In
ing of carefully nurtured insights with others. addition, Questions to Ponder accompany the chapter
Recently, one of us was confronted by a student who opener section and selected Case Studies. These questions
said, matter-of-factly, “I’m a humanities major; I don’t do help students develop critical thinking skills and apply the
science.” We must acknowledge that (however inadver- scientific method. Case Studies at the end of each chapter
tently) teachers sometimes fail to make science as clear and highlight the relevance of the text discussion. These cover a
easy as it can and should be. The ongoing student refrain in broad spectrum of subjects and geographical areas, but
a well-run science class should be, “Wow, that makes sense!” many of them focus on the causes and aftereffects of bad
Unfamiliar mathematical shorthand—wonderful in its environmental and geological planning. Also within each
utility—all too readily obfuscates, and the timeline imposed chapter are several provocative Consider This questions.
preface xv
These questions require students to apply the information characteristic observations people make about quakes, in-
just presented in the text and, thus, reinforce their learning. cluding seismo-luminosity and observable surface waves.
The questions will stimulate classroom discussion as well. The sections dealing with seismic wavelength, wave pe-
At the end of each chapter is a list of Key Terms intro- riod, and building design have also been strengthened and
duced in the chapter, a Summary of the chapter in outline linked more coherently. The chapter retains its overall
form, Study Questions geared to test understanding of the nuts-and-bolts practicality. We wrote it with special regard
chapter’s key concepts, and a list of related books and arti- for students who live in earthquake country and may play
cles (References and Further Readings). important future roles in community development.
• Chapter 5: This chapter has been almost entirely rewrit-
The Seventh Edition ten with several objectives in mind: to provide a practi-
cal, descriptive framework for classifying and measuring
• In this seventh edition of Geology and the Environment, volcanic eruptions; to give students a modern insight into
we have attempted to incorporate as many of the review- how volcanoes “work”; and to clarify both the dangers
ers’ suggestions as possible. Recognizing that Case Stud- and benefits of volcanic activity. Like Chapter 4, most of
ies are a natural focal point in many courses, we have the deeply technical information is provided up front,
incorporated more critical information into many Case with human interest appearing further along. Instructors
Studies. We continue to strive to present the most effec- can pick and choose specific sections in each chapter
tive figures and photos to support student learning. This without need for students to read through them entirely,
includes the careful placement of the figures near their though we certainly encourage reading the “whole story.”
references in the text. • Chapters 6 through 10 and 12 have all new Galleries
• With the robust support of the NGS, we have replaced with exciting and informative images and captions that
and upgraded many photographs and added some key illustrate some of the most germane material in the chap-
maps and diagrams to improve learning (Spotlight Fig- ters. In Chapter 10, we’ve added information about the
ures). We have also added a new section in some chapters Fukushima earthquake and the damaging tsunami that
highlighting the achievements of select NGS explorers— followed.
exemplary scientists, entrepreneurs, and activists who pro- • Chapter 11: The section on global climate change has
vide students with models for where they might, with the been brought up to date with the most recent informa-
best type of ambition, direct their own lives. tion on changes in Arctic ice cover between 1979 and
• This edition continues to include the interactive media 2011, the Arctic Oscillation, and the impact of these
program called CourseMate, which has been seamlessly changes on European weather in the past few winters.
integrated with the text, enhancing students’ understand- New are the effects of El Niños and La Niñas on chang-
ing of important geological processes. It brings geology ing global sea level and up-to-date data on the rate of
alive with animated figures based directly on figures in sea-level rise.
the text (Active Figures), media-enhanced activities, tu- • Chapter 13: The genetic classification of mineral re-
torials, and more. Like other features in our new edition, sources is expanded, and data on U.S. import reliance on
it encourages students to be curious, to think about geol- nonfuel materials and the value of nonfuel minerals pro-
ogy in new ways, and to connect with their newfound duced in the United States have been brought up to date.
knowledge of the world around them. Mining of base metals and precious metals in Europe
• Chapter 2: This chapter has been expanded to include a has been in limbo for decades, but information from re-
section dealing with potential human modification of cent exploration is presented that illustrates the potential
the global climate system, introducing students to the for resumption of mining base and precious metals in the
concept of the Anthropocene—a proposed new epoch in United Kingdom and mainland Europe. Health issues
the geological time scale. Much public controversy in associated with mountaintop removal mining in Appala-
recent years has swirled around these topics, and we have chia have been added, and a new Case Study, Porphyry
had to navigate them with one directive in mind—to Copper and Plate Tectonics, details the massive size and
present the view of the world representing the balance enormous global reserves of porphyry copper deposits,
(in most cases overwhelming) of scientific consensus. their global economic impact, and their geological ori-
• Chapter 4: We provide important relevant updates in our gin that make these deposits worthy of a close look. In
discussion of earthquakes, highlighting the important addition, the Case Study covering the ongoing saga of
events and lessons learned from the 2011 Christchurch the Zortman-Landusky mines has been updated.
and Tohoku-Oki disasters. We also have added new sec- • Chapter 14: This chapter has been updated extensively.
tions dealing with some of the peculiar but nonetheless Included is an evaluation of the light, tight-oil deposits of
xvi preface
the Bakken Shale of North Dakota, and the Barnett and academic sources, news outlets, and magazines. You will
Eagle Ford shales of Texas, accompanied by a discussion also receive access to statistics, primary sources, case studies,
of the pros and cons of hydraulic fracturing necessary for podcasts, and much more!
recovering tight oil. We have included a recalculation of
world and domestic exponential expiration dates of coal Geology CourseMate
reserves based on minimal increases in production. We Cengage Learning’s Geology CourseMate brings course con-
also cover the new Environmental Protection Agency cepts to life with interactive learning, study, and examination
regulations on air quality and mercury emissions that preparation tools that support the printed textbook. Watch
threaten closure of more than 100 older fossil-fueled student comprehension soar as your class uses the text-
power plants. In addition, the number of new nuclear specific flashcards, videos, animations, quizzes, and other in-
plants under construction worldwide and the specter of teractive tools to enhance their learning. CourseMate goes
danger from nuclear meltdown spawned by the 2011 Fu- beyond the book to deliver what your students need! Learn
kushima, Japan, disaster are discussed. more online at www.cengage.com/coursemate.
• Chapter 15: This chapter has also been extensively re-
written and updated to include a detailed look at plastics, WebTutor Toolbox for WebCT or Blackboard
the sociology and patterns of littering, current modes of Jump-start your course with customizable, rich, text-specific
interim nuclear waste storage, the history of radwaste dis- content within your Course Management System. Web-
posal at sea, and groundwater contaminant plumes. We Tutor offers a wide array of Web quizzes, activities, exer-
have also provided a tighter description of landfill design cises, and Web links. Robust communication tools—such as
and function and added a new Case Study dealing with a course calendar, asynchronous discussion, real-time chat,
the historical roots of the environmental justice move- a whiteboard, and an integrated e-mail system—make it
ment originating in Warren County, North Carolina. easy to stay connected to the course.
The text continues to emphasize remediation and pre-
vention, an outgrowth of the authors’ professional geo- PowerLecture with JoinIn™ Student Response
logical experiences. All of the chapters on geological A complete, all-in-one reference for instructors, the Power-
hazards have dedicated sections on mitigation options, Lecture DVD contains customizable PowerPoint presen-
and resource and pollution issues are considered in tation slides with images from the text, including stepped
terms of the problems we face and the potential ways to art and zoomable art figures, a video library, and Active
help forestall or lessen the impacts of these problems. Figures that interactively demonstrate key geological con-
• We also continue to use the systems approach in this edi- cepts. In addition to providing you with fantastic course
tion—the idea that all of Earth’s reservoirs (atmosphere, presentation material, the PowerLecture DVD also con-
hydrosphere, solid earth, biosphere, and extraterrestrial) tains electronic files of the Test Bank and Instructor’s Man-
and the processes acting within them are interconnected. ual. This resource is available at no additional charge to
• Environmental legal issues are discussed in the text qualified adopters.
where they are applicable, rather than being placed in a
separate chapter near the end of the text. ExamView
• All chapters have been updated in terms of data (where Create, deliver, and customize tests and study guides (both
available), art, and photos. print and online) in minutes with this easy-to-use assess-
ment and tutorial system. Also available on the PowerLec-
ture DVD.
Supplements Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank
Instructor Resources This comprehensive resource provides chapter summaries
and lecture suggestions along with video and Web site re-
Global Geoscience Watch
source references. The Test Bank provides multiple-choice,
Updated several times a day, Global Geoscience Watch is
true/false, short answer, and essay questions.
an ideal one-stop site for classroom discussion and research
projects for all things geoscience. The site is broken into the
four key course areas (Geography, Geology, Meteorology, Student Resources
and Oceanography), so you can easily get to the most rele- Global Geoscience Watch
vant content available for your course. You and your stu- Use Global Geoscience Watch to stay current in your
dents will have access to the latest information from trusted course. Updated several times a day, this resource gives you
preface xvii
access to the latest information from trusted academic Kevin Cornwell, California State University–Sacramento
sources, news outlets, and magazines. You will also receive Jim Cotter, University of Minnesota, Morris
access to statistics, primary sources, case studies, podcasts, Rachael Craig, Kent State University
and much more. The Global Geoscience Watch is an ideal John Dassinger, Maricopa Community College
one-stop site for all your research needs. Charles DeMets, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Terry DeVoe, Hecla Mining Company
Geology CourseMate Lisa DuBois, San Diego State University
Make the most of your study time by accessing everything you Greg Erickson, Sullivan County Community College
need to succeed in one place. Read your textbook; take notes; Mark W. Evans, Emory University
review flashcards; watch videos, animations, and Active Fig- Edward B. Evenson, Lehigh University
ures; and take practice quizzes online with CourseMate. Log Larry Fegel, Grand Valley State University
in or purchase access at www.cengagebrain.com. John Field, Western Washington University
Lydia K. Fox, University of the Pacific
Earl Francis
Robert B. Furlong, Wayne State University
Acknowledgments Marion M. Gallant, Colorado Department of Public Health
We gratefully acknowledge the thoughtful and helpful re- and Environment
views by a great number of individuals, some of whom also John Gamble, Wellington, New Zealand
reviewed earlier editions. We also acknowledge the contri- Josef Garvin, Eden Foundation, Falkenberg, Sweden
butions of other reviewers and those who have generously Rick Giardino, Texas A&M University
contributed published and unpublished materials and pho- Gayle Gleason, SUNY, Cortland
tographs as this book evolved into its seventh edition. These Raymond W. Grant, Mesa Community College
have truly helped us build this book. The list is long and we John E. Gray, U.S.G.S.
offer our thanks to all: Bryan Gregor, Wright State University
Tark S. Hamilton, Consultant
Herbert G. Adams, California State University, Northridge Gilbert Hanson, State University of New York, Stony Brook
Jürg Alean, Kantonsschule Zücher Unterland, Bülach, Edwin Harp, U.S.G.S.
Switzerland Raymond C. Harris, Arizona Geological Survey
Richard M. Allen, University of Wisconsin–Madison Douglas W. Haywick, University of South Alabama
Thomas B. Anderson, Sonoma State University Eric Henry, University of North Carolina, Wilmington
Kenneth Ashton, West Virginia Geological Survey Lynn Highland, U.S.G.S.
James L. Baer, Brigham Young University Barbara Hill, Onondaga Community College
Ed Belcher, Wellington, New Zealand Roger D. Hoggan, Ricks College
William B. N. Berry, University of California, Berkeley Bryce Hoppie, Mankato State University
Robert Boutilier, Bridgewater State College Alan C. Hurt, San Bernardino Valley College
Tom Boving, University of Rhode Island Pam Irvine, California Division of Mines and Geology
Kathleen M. Bower, Eastern Illinois University David D. Jackson, UCLA
David Bowers, Montana Department of Environmental Gaoming Jiang, China Academy of Sciences
Quality Randall Jibson, U.S.G.S.
Lynn A. Brant, University of Northern Iowa Bill Kane, University of the Pacific
T. K. Buntzen, Alaska Department of Natural Resources Steve Kenaga, Grand Valley State University
Don W. Byerly, University of Tennessee, Knoxville Marcie Kerner, Arco, Anaconda, Montana
Susan M. Cashman, Humboldt State University Hobart King, Mansfeld University
Elizabeth Catlos, Oklahoma State University Joe Kirschvink, California Institute of Technology
Dan Cayan, U.S.G.S. Peter Kresan, University of Arizona
Ward Chesworth, University of Guelph Robert Kuhlman, Montgomery County Community
Christopher Cirmo, State University of New York, Cortland College
Robert D. Cody, Iowa State University Kevin Lamb
xviii preface
Kenneth A. LaSota, Robert Morris College Feride Schroeder, Cuesta College
Douglas J. Lathwell, Cornell University Robert Schuster, U.S.G.S.
Rita Leafgren, University of Northern Colorado Geoffrey Seltzer, Syracuse University
Joan Licari, Cerritos College Conrad Shiba, Centre College
Rick Lozinski, Fullerton College Jennifer Shosa, Colby College
Lawrence Lundgren, University of Rochester Edward Shuster, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Michael Lyle, Tidewater Community College Kerry Sieh, Earth Observatory of Singapore
Berry Lyons, University of Alabama Susan C. Slaymaker, California State University,
Harmon Maher, University of Nebraska, Omaha Sacramento
Alex K. Manda, East Carolina University Joe Snowden, University of Southeastern Missouri
Peter Martini, University of Guelph Frederick M. Soster, DePauw University
John Maurer, CIRES, University of Colorado Neptune Srimal, Florida International University
Larry Mayer, Miami University Konrad Steffen, CIRES, University of Colorado
David McConnell, University of Akron Dean Stiffarm, Environmental Control Officer, Fort
Garry McKenzie, Ohio State University Belknap Reservation
Lisa McKeon, U.S.G.S. Hongbing Sun, Rider University
Matthew L. McKinney, University of Tennessee Terry Swanson, University of Washington
Robert Meade, California State University, Los Angeles Siang Tan, California Division of Mines and Geology
Chuck Meyers, U.S. Department of the Interior, Surface Glenn D. Thackray, Idaho State University
Mining Reclamation and Enforcement Peter J. Thompson, University of New Hampshire
Siddhartha Mitra, East Carolina University Joan Van Velsor, California Department of Transportation
William Mode, University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh Adil M. Wadia, University of Akron, Wayne College
Marie Morisawa, State University of New York, Binghamton Peter W. Weigand, California State University, Northridge
Jack A. Muncy, Tennessee Valley Authority Todd Wilkinson, Bozeman, Montana
George H. Myer, Temple University Nancy S. Williams, Missouri State University
William J. Neal, Grand Valley State University Nathaniel W. Yale, Pomona College
James Neiheisel, George Mason University Simon Young, Montserrat Volcano Observatory
Jennifer Nelson, Indiana University–Purdue Ning Zing, University of Maryland
University Indianapolis
Michael J. Nelson, University of Alabama, Birmingham Special thanks are due to Jake Warde, Developmental Edi-
Ed Nuhfer, University of Colorado, Denver tor, who managed the production of this edition, and to
June A. Oberdorfer, San Jose State University some critically important people at Cengage Learning:
Lloyd Olson Aileen Berg, Sr. Acquisitions Sponsoring Editor; Margaux
Alberto E. Patiño Douce, University of Georgia Cameron, Earth Science Editorial Assistant; and Carol
Darryll Pederson, University of Nebraska–Lincoln Samet, Senior Content Project Manager. Many thanks to
Libby Pruher, University of Northern Colorado Leila Hishmeh and Jen Shook for help in acquiring the
Kristin Riker-Coleman, University of Wisconsin Superior many photos and maps from the National Geographic Soci-
Albert J. Robb III, Mobil Exploration and Producing U.S., ety. At Graphic World Publishing Services, we would like to
Inc., Liberal, Kansas thank Jeff Somers and Rhoda Bontrager, who skillfully man-
Charles Rovey, Missouri State University aged all aspects of the production process. At PreMedia
Robert Sanford, University of Southern Maine Global, we also thank Christina Ciaramella for her tireless
Steven Schafersman, Miami University work tracking down photos and photo permissions, and
James L. Schrack, Arco, Anaconda, Montana Melissa Tomaselli for acquiring the text permissions.
preface xix
About the Cover The coastal town of Positano clings to a cliff face on the Amalfi Coast of Italy.
In addition to landslides, this region is prone to volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and related
tsunamis. This is a tectonically active region, and it shows not only in the steep slopes but in the
disasters affecting the area. In 1343 a massive tsunami triggered by an earthquake destroyed many
of the harbors in this region. Rockslides and debris flows are common; the last major round of
debris flows was triggered by heavy rains in 2010. Mud and boulders flowed through narrow streets
that were hundreds of years old, carrying cars and trucks to the ocean and leaving people and
their homes covered in mud. And if it that weren’t enough, volcanoes dot the landscape. This
town is not far from Vesuvius and the buried city of Pompeii. But the bounty and beauty of the
sea and land make life well worth living. From the time of the ancient Greeks, people have come
to this landscape and called it home.
Tino Soriano/National Geographic Stock
Natural gas flames from oil-drilling
Have you ever
wondered...
pipes set in the rain forest of the
Amazon Basin, Ecuador.
© 2003 STEVE WINTER/National Geographic Image
Collection
1
Humans, Geology, and the Environment
The science of the environment is just the classic natu-

ral science of the past century in the context of modern
environmental issues. It is Thoreau with a computer
rather than a pen.
—Professor Richard Turco, University of California at Los Angeles
1. If and why we 2. Why many 3. Why many 4. What a 5. What GPS

really need to be environmentalists environmentalists scientist is and and GIS are?
concerned about are so concerned are so concerned how scientists
“overpopulation”? about high levels about the way we work?
of consumption produce our
in wealthy food?
countries such as
the United
States?
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
which I published at the time.
9
Contemporary Review, October, 1911, p. 569.
10
Contemporary Review, January, 1912, p. 111.
11
Contemporary Review, January, 1912, p. 114.
12
Contemporary Review, April, 1912, p. 566.
13
Contemporary Review, April, 1914, p. 571–2.
14
One of my last articles on this subject appeared in the July
issue of the Contemporary Review.
15
The general strike, accompanied in places by riots, a few
months ago.
16
Contemporary Review, July, 1914, p. 122–128.
17
Daily Telegraph, July 25th, 1914.
18
Cf. Sir M. de Bunsen’s Despatch, July 29th, to Sir Edward
Grey, with White Paper.
19
Ibidem.
20
Cf. White Paper. Sir M. de Bunsen’s Despatch, July 30th.
21
White Paper. Sir M. de Bunsen’s Despatch, July 30th.
22
See White Paper. Despatch sent by Sir G. Buchanan, July
30th.
23
White Paper. Despatch sent by the British Ambassador in St.
Petersburg, dated July 27th.
24
Sir Edward Grey’s Despatch, July 29th.
25
Cf. Sir M. de Bunsen’s Despatch dated London, Sept 1st.
26
The Kaiser was then addressing his soldiers.
27
Monday, August 3rd.
28
Friday, July 31st, 1914.
29
White Paper. Despatch of British Ambassador in Berlin, dated
July 29th.
30
White Paper. Sir G. Buchanan’s Despatch, July 30th.
31
July 29th.
32
White Paper. Sir Edward Goschen’s Despatch, July 29th.
33
Literally “danger of war.”
34
July 31st.
35
July 31st.
36
August 1st.
37
Daily Telegraph.
38
Le Soir, August 9th; La Metropole, August 8th, 1914.
39
Westminster Gazette, September 22nd.
40
Westminster Gazette, September 18th.
41
Ibidem.
Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent
when a predominant preference was found in the original book;
otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious,
and otherwise left unbalanced.
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(eBook PDF) Geology and the

Environment 7th Edition

1 Humans, Geology, case STUDY 3.1

Atmosphere, Hydrosphere 25 Forensic Use of Seismic Records 99

What We Can Learn 111

© 1996/MEDFORD TAYLOR/National Geographic Image

© 2003/MICHAEL FAY/National Geographic Image

© 2003/MICHAEL FAY/National Geographic Image

© 2009/JASON EDWARDS/National Geographic

case STUDY 5.2

© 2009/ENRIC SALA/National Geographic Image

© 2009/TYRONE TURNER/National Geographic Image

Soil Erosion 191

The Impact of Cropland Loss on Humans 196

General Patton’s Soils Decades Later 206

case STUDY 6.4

References and Further Readings 213

Summary 326 Today’s Global Warming 390

10 Coastal Environments explorer’s perspective 404

and Humans 329 Geoengineering and Climate Change 405

© 2009/RAUL TOUZON/National Geographic Image

© 2009/JAMES P. BLAIR/National Geographic Image

© DAVID DOUBILET/National Geographic Image

© 2009/BORGE OUSLAND/National Geographic

Mining Legislation and Regulation 482

© 2010/STEVE AND DONNA O’MEARA/National

Geographic Image Collection

14 Energy and the

© 2010/PETE RYAN/National Geographic Image

Energy Gases and the Future 515

Unconventional Fossil Fuels 517

Clean Coal: IGCC and CCS 524

Beyond Petroleum: Alternatives for the Future 528

Nuclear Energy 530

Indirect Solar Energy 537

Summary 556 case STUDY 15.6

much responsibility should we as individuals take for main-

The science of the environment is just the classic natu-

1. If and why we 2. Why many 3. Why many 4. What a 5. What GPS

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1 Humans, Geology, case STUDY 3.1

10 Coastal Environments explorer’s perspective 404

14 Energy and the