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New to this Edition

Thoroughly updated to incorporate recent developments such as the Trump administration,

Brexit, and populism.
• Enhanced coverage of the political economy of the environment.
• New material on globalization, inequality, and poverty.
Brief Contents

Preface and Acknowledgement v

New to this Edition vii
Brief Contents ix
Detailed Contents xi
List of Figures xv
List of Boxes xvii
List of Tables xix
Abbreviations xxi
About the Contributors xxv
Guided Tour of Learning Features xxvii
Guided Tour of the Online Resources xxix

PART I Theoretical Approaches to Global Political Economy 1

1 The Study of Global Political Economy 3

John Ravenhill

2 The Nineteenth-Century Roots of Theoretical Traditions in Global Political Economy 25

Matthew Watson

3 Cooperation and Conflict in the Global Political Economy 52

Vinod K. Aggarwal and Cédric Dupont

4 The Domestic Sources of Foreign Economic Policies 76

Michael J. Hiscox

PART I I Global Trade and Production 109

5 The Evolution of the Global Trade Regime 111

Silke Trommer

6 Regional Trade Agreements 140

John Ravenhill

7 The Globalization of Production 175

Eric Thun
x Brief Contents

PART I I I Global Finance 197

8 The Evolution of the International Monetary and Financial System 199

Eric Helleiner and Melsen Babe

9 Financial Openness and the Challenge of Global Governance 222

Louis W. Pauly

PART I V Globalization and the State 247

10 The Logics of Economic Globalization 249

Anthony McGrew

11 Globalization’s Impact on States 282

Colin Hay

PART V Development, Equality, and the Environment 311

12 G
 lobal Growth, Inequality, and Poverty: Power and Evidence in Global
‘Best Practice’ Economic Policy 313
Robert Hunter Wade

13 The Political Economy of Development 354

Nicola Phillips

14 The Political Economy of the Environment 384

Peter Dauvergne

Glossary 413
References 425
Index 489
Detailed Contents

Preface and Acknowledgement v

New to this Edition vii
Brief Contents ix
Detailed Contents xi
List of Figures xv
List of Boxes xvii
List of Tables xix
Abbreviations xxi
About the Contributors xxv
Guided Tour of Learning Features xxvii
Guided Tour of the Online Resources xxix

PART I Theoretical Approaches to Global Political Economy 1

1 The Study of Global Political Economy 3

John Ravenhill

Prologue: The rules-based order under threat 4

The world economy pre-1914 8
The world economy in the interwar period 11
The world economy post-1945 13
The study of global political economy 17

2 The Nineteenth-Century Roots of Theoretical Traditions in Global Political Economy 25

Matthew Watson

Introduction 26
Teaching global political economy through the textbooks 27
GPE realism and the nineteenth-century nationalist political economy tradition 31
GPE liberalism and the nineteenth-century appropriation of the Smithian political economy tradition 35
GPE Marxism and the nineteenth-century Marxian political economy tradition 39
GPE feminism and the nineteenth-century popularization of classical economics for women 44
Conclusion 48

3 Cooperation and Conflict in the Global Political Economy 52

Vinod K. Aggarwal and Cédric Dupont

Introduction 52
Globalization and the need for international cooperation 53
International cooperation: A strategic interdependence approach 57
xii Detailed Contents
International cooperation: A variety of solutions 64
The formation and evolution of institutions 67
Conclusion 73

4. The Domestic Sources of Foreign Economic Policies 76

Michael J. Hiscox

Introduction 76
Policy preferences 77
Institutions 90
Conclusions, extensions, and complications 97

PART I I Global Trade and Production 109

5. The Evolution of the Global Trade Regime 111

Silke Trommer

Introduction 112
Historical antecedents: 1860 to 1945 113
The birth of the GATT 116
The GATT to 1994 119
The Uruguay Round 120
The WTO 126
The WTO and civil society 131
The Doha Round 133
Challenges to the multilateral trade system 136
Conclusion 137

6. Regional Trade Agreements 140

John Ravenhill

Introduction 140
Regional trade agreements 141
Forms of regional trade cooperation 141
Why regionalism? 144
The political economy of regionalism 151
The rush to regionalism 153
The economic consequences of regional integration 161
Regionalism and the global trade regime: Stepping stone or stumbling block? 164
The evidence 167
Regional financial cooperation 170

7. The Globalization of Production 175

Eric Thun

Introduction 176
The rise of global production 176
Global value chains: Governance and location 182
China as the world’s factory 188
Conclusion 194
 Detailed Contents xiii

PART I I I Global Finance 197

8. The Evolution of the International Monetary and Financial System 199

Eric Helleiner and Melsen Babe

Introduction 200
The fate of a previous globally integrated financial and monetary order 200
The Bretton Woods order 203
The globalization of financial markets 205
The collapse of the gold exchange standard and the future of the dollar 209
The breakdown of the adjustable peg exchange rate regime 214
Conclusion 219

9. Financial Openness and the Challenge of Global Governance 222

Louis W. Pauly

Introduction: The globalization of finance 223

Local politics, global markets 224
The nature and variety of financial crises 226
The changing policy context 228
Systemic risk and financial stability 230
Managing systemic emergencies and preventing future crises 235
Debt financing and restructuring in emerging-market and developing countries 239
Building global governing capacity? 243

PART I V Globalization and the State 247

10. The Logics of Economic Globalization 249

Anthony McGrew

Introduction 250
A global economy? Economic globalization and the integration of the world economy 251
The logics of economic globalization 267
The crisis of economic globalization: Deglobalization, ‘slowbalisation’, or a ‘third age’? 276
Conclusion 279

11. Globalization’s Impact on States 282

Colin Hay

Introduction 282
The globalization of politics and the politics of globalization 284
Globalization and the crisis of the nation state 285
Globalization and state retrenchment: The evidence assessed 292
Conclusions 307
xiv Detailed Contents

PART V Development, Equality, and the Environment 311

12. Global Growth, Inequality, and Poverty: Power and Evidence in Global
‘Best Practice’ Economic Policy 313
Robert Hunter Wade

Introduction 315
The neo-liberal ascendancy and the Washington Consensus 317
Long-term economic growth and the ‘middle income trap’ 321
Globalization waves in the hierarchical world economy 324
World income and population distribution 330
Growth and geographical distribution 334
Income inequality between countries 335
Functional income inequality between capital and labour 340
Poverty 341
How to explain the globalization consensus 345
Conclusions 349

13. The Political Economy of Development 354

Nicola Phillips

Introduction 355
Ways of thinking about development 356
Development theory in practice 362
Beyond the Washington Consensus 366
Global development in the 2010s 374
Interpreting the relationship between globalization and development 380
Conclusion: A(nother) new era of global development? 381

14. The Political Economy of the Environment 384

Peter Dauvergne

Introduction: The political economy of environmental change 385

History of global environmentalism 389
Economic growth, trade, and corporations 394
A sustainable future? Financing and regimes 400
Conclusion 409

Glossary 413
References 425
Index 489
List of Figures

Chapter 1 11.3 Government employment: as a share of total

1.1 World GDP growth pre- and post-global population in working age (15–64) 294
financial crisis (annual%) 5 11.4 Social spending in Europe as a percentage of GDP
1.2 Gini coefficients for selected industrialized economies 6 (Index with 1980 = 100) 296

1.3 Per capita income, 1000–1998 (US$) 15 11.5 Social spending of EU member states, 1995–2018
(as percentage of GDP; by regime type) 297
Chapter 3 11.6 Ratio of merchandise trade to GDP at
current prices (%) 298
3.1 Summarizes the four types of goods 56
11.7 The triad’s share of inward and outward FDI stock 302
3.2 Prisoners’ Dilemma Game (ordinal form) 58
11.8 Intra-regional trade as a proportion of total trade 303
3.3 Assurance game (Stag Hunt) (ordinal form) 60
11.9 Intra-regional concentration ratios for trade 304
3.4 Coordination game (Battle of the Sexes) (ordinal form) 61
11.10 The idea of globalization 308
3.5 Chicken Game (ordinal form) 62
3.6 Called Bluff (ordinal form) 62
Chapter 12
3.7 Harmony (ordinal form) 63
12.1 International income distribution: the distribution
3.8 Suasion (ordinal form) 63 of people according to the GDP per capita
of the country in which they live, 2013 330
Chapter 5 12.2 Distribution of world population and real
5.1 Average industrial tariffs in developed household per capital income, based on
countries since 1947 124 household surveys, 1988 and 2011, 2005 (PPPs) 333
12.3 Trends in three measures of international
Chapter 6 inequality, 1950–2007 337
6.1 Regional trade agreements notified to the
GATT/WTO, 1948–2018 142 Chapter 13
6.2 Geographical distribution of RTAs 154 13.1 China: GDP and GDP per capita
growth rates, 1980–2006 367
Chapter 9 13.2 China: GDP and GDP per capita, 1980–200 367
9.1 Net global cross-border capital flows of foreign 13.3 China, India, and Brazil GDP growth during the
direct and portfolio equity investment (US$ trillions) 224 global economic crisis, 2007–14 375
9.2 Current account balances (US$ billions) 225 13.4 Global migrant remittance flows
9.3 Net private capital inflows to developing countries ($US million, worldwide totals 1980–2018) 379
(US$ billions) 229
9.4 Global foreign exchange reserves (millions of US$) 241 Chapter 14

9.5 International reserves in emerging Asian economies 14.1 World Population, first century ad to 2020 387
(millions of US$) 242 14.2 Environmental Kuznets Curve 396
14.3 Global CFC production, 1935–2003 404
Chapter 11
14.4 Global CO2 emissions from fossil-fuel burning,
11.1 The hyper-globalization thesis 289 cement production, and gas flaring, 1750–2014 405
11.2 The dual convergence thesis 290
List of Boxes

Chapter 1 Chapter 5
1.1 What is populism? 4 5.1 Least developed countries (LDC) 113
1.2 Most-favoured nation status 10 5.2 Most-favoured nation principle 117
1.3 The gold standard 10 5.3 Uruguay Round Agreements 122
1.4 Bretton Woods 14 5.4 The Cotton case 130
1.5 What’s in a name? International versus global
political economy 17 Chapter 6

1.6 Voting in the international financial institutions 19 6.1 Mega-regional trade agreements 141

1.7 Power and collaboration 21 6.2 A hierarchy of regional economic arrangements 143

1.8 International regimes 22 6.3 The costs and benefits of preferential trade
agreements: Trade diversion and trade creation 145
1.9 Epistemology, ontology, and methodology 22
6.4 Economies of scale 149
Chapter 2 6.5 Rules of origin 150
2.1 Neo-classical economics and the Marginalist Revolution 29 6.6 The Marshall Plan 156
2.2 The international relations roots of GPE realism 32 6.7 The World Trade Organization and preferential
2.3 Smith on the British East India Company 37 trade agreements 166

2.4 Smith and Marx on alienation 41

Chapter 7
2.5 Edgeworth, Marcet, and Martineau: ‘Adam Smith’s
7.1 Modular production 181
daughters’? 45
7.2 Triangular manufacturing 190
Chapter 3
Chapter 8
3.1 Goods and the problems of cooperation 56
8.1 The theory of the adjustment process under the
3.2 Game theory and its critics 59
international gold standard 201
3.3 IMF and WTO: Selected organizational characteristics 69
8.2 Quotas and decision-making in the IMF 205

Chapter 4 8.3 The ‘impossible trinity’ of open macroeconomics 208

4.1 The repeal of the Corn Laws 79 8.4 What is ‘seigniorage’? 213

4.2 The ‘New World’ closes its doors to immigrants 83 8.5 Monetary unions and the theory of optimum
currency areas 217
4.3 Investment, imperialism, and the ‘race for Africa’ 84
4.4 The politics of the rising dollar 87 Chapter 9
4.5 The institutional foundations of the gold standard 92 9.1 The financial panic of the late 1990s 230
4.6 The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934 (RTAA) 95 9.2 Institutions for financial policy collaboration 233
4.7 The rise of free trade in Europe 98 9.3 Timeline for the crisis of 2008 236
4.8 The theory of comparative advantage 106 9.4 The policy challenges of open capital markets:
The case of Argentina 240
xviii List of Boxes
Chapter 10 Chapter 13
10.1 Globalization 251 13.1 Key dimensions of modernization theory 357
10.2 Sceptical argument 264 13.2 Key dimensions of underdevelopment and
10.3 Economic theory and globalization 268 dependency theory 358

10.4 Causal and constitutive theory 273 13.3 Key dimensions of neo-liberal development theory 359
13.4 Characteristics of the Japanese ‘developmental state’ 360
Chapter 11 13.5 Key dimensions of neo-statist development theory 360
11.1 The politics of globalization: Key controversies 285 13.6 Key dimensions of ‘human’ development theories 362
11.2 Core assumptions of the ‘hyper-globalization’ thesis 287 13.7 The policy prescriptions of the Washington Consensus 365
11.3 The implications of the ‘tragedy of the commons’ 291 13.8 The Millennium Development Goals 372
11.4 The empirical case against the globalization thesis 299 13.9 The sustainable development goals 373
11.5 Gravity models: The sensitivity of trade to distance 304
11.6 The role of ideas about globalization: Chapter 14
Tax competition between states 308 14.1 Globalization 385
14.2 Ecological footprints and shadows 388
Chapter 12
14.3 ISO 14000 and ISO 14001 397
12.1 Market exchange rates (MER) and purchasing
14.4 Tragedy of the commons 402
power parity (PPP) 331
14.5 ITTO and FSC 409
12.2 The gini coefficient 336
List of Tables

Chapter 1 6.2 The potential for trade diversion after the removal
1.1 Average annual GDP growth 1995–2007 of tariffs on intra-regional trade (US$) 145
and 2011–19 (%) 5 6.3 Changes in the share of intra-regional trade
in selected RTAs, 1970–2014 162
Chapter 3 6.4 Membership of minilateral regional trading
3.1 Problems, games, and institutional roles 66 agreements 167

Chapter 4 Chapter 10
4.1 Comparative costs of production 10.1 Economic globalization: Types of theory 270
(cost per unit in person hours) 106 10.2 Economic globalization: A typology of theories and
4.2 Production before and after trade 107 explanations 275

Chapter 5 Chapter 11
5.1 Results of GATT negotiations, 1960–94 125 11.1 Government expenditure as a share of GDP 293
5.2 WTO ministerial conferences 126
Chapter 12
5.3 GATT/WTO directors-general 127
12.1 Gross capital formation/GDP, selected entities 329
5.4 Dispute settlement statistics, 1995–2018
(without retaliation requests) 129 12.2 Major economies, share of world population,
and GDP (%) 334
Chapter 6
Chapter 14
6.1 Example of the geographical scope of trade
liberalization strategies 142 14.1 Examples of international environmental agreements 393
Abbreviations

ACP Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific ECLA Economic Commission for Latin America
ACU Asian Currency Unit ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and
AFL–CIO American Federation of Labor–Congress of the Caribbean
Industrial Organizations ECOSOC [United Nations] Economic and Social Council
AFTA ASEAN Free Trade Area ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
AIG American International Group ECSC European Coal and Steel Community
ANZCERTA Australia–New Zealand Closer Economic ECU European Currency Unit
Relations Trade Agreement EEC European Economic Community
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation EFTA European Free Trade Association
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations EMS electronic manufacturing service; also,
BIS Bank for International Settlements European Monetary System; also
BRICs Brazil, Russia, India, and China Environmental Management System
CACM Central American Common Market EPA Environmental Protection Agency
CAP Common Agricultural Policy EPZs Export Processing Zones
CARICOM Caribbean Community and Common Market EU European Union
CEO chief executive officer FASB Financial Accounting Standards Board
CER Closer Economic Relations FDI foreign direct investment
CERDS Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of FSA firm-specific advantages
States FSB Financial Stability Board
CFA Communauté Financière Africaine (African FSC Forest Stewardship Council
Financial Community) FSF Financial Stability Forum
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons FVA fair value accounting
CITES Convention on International Trade in G7 Group of Seven
Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna G8 Group of Eight
COCOM Coordinating Committee for Multilateral G10 Group of Ten
Export Controls
G20 Group of Twenty
COMECON Council of Mutual Economic Assistance
G77 Group of Seventy-Seven
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern
GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services
Africa
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
COP Conference of the Parties
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
COREPER Committee of Permanent Representatives
GDP gross domestic product
CPIA Country Policy and Institutional Assessment
GEF Global Environment Facility
CPR common pool resources
GEIs global economic institutions
CSAs country-specific advantages
GEMs global economic multilaterals
CUSFTA/CUSTA Canada–US Free Trade Agreement
GEMI Global Environmental Management Initiative
DAC Development Assistance Committee
GM General Motors
DDA Doha Development Agenda
GNP gross national product
DSB Dispute Settlement Body
GPE global political economy
DSF Debt Sustainability Framework
GVCs global value chains
DSU Dispute Settlement Understanding
HIPC Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative
EC European Community
xxii Abbreviations
IAIS International Association of Insurance MEOs multilateral economic organizations
Supervisors MERCOSUR Common Market of the South
IASB International Accounting Standards Board MFA Multifi ber Arrangement
IBM International Business Machines MFN most-favoured nation
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and MIC middle-income country
Development MIGA [World Bank] Multilateral Investment
ICCO International Cocoa Organization Guarantee Agency
ICO International Coffee Organization MITI Ministry for International Trade and Industry
ICP International Comparison Program ( Japan)
ICSG International Copper Study Group MNC multinational corporation
ICSID International Centre for Settlement of MNE multinational enterprise
Investment Disputes NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
IDA International Development Association NAM non-aligned movement
IDB Inter-American Development Bank NAMA non-agriculture market access
IEPL international extreme poverty line NASA US National Aeronautics and Space
IFC [World Bank] International Finance Administration
Corporation NEC Nippon Electric Company
IFI international financial institution NGOs non-governmental organizations
IFRS international financial reporting standards NIDL new international division of labour
ILO International Labour Organization NIEs newly industrializing economies
IMF International Monetary Fund NIEO New International Economic Order
IO International Organization NTBs non-tariff barriers
IOM International Organization for Migration NTMs non-tariff measures
IOSCO International Organization of Securities ODA Official Development Assistance
Commissions OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Development
IPE international political economy OEMs original equipment manufacturers
IR International Relations OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
ISI import-substitution industrialization Countries
ISO International Organization for Standardization; PC personal computer
also, International Sugar Organization PD Prisoners’ Dilemma
ITA Information Technology Agreement (WTO); PGA Peoples’ Global Action
also, International Trade Administration PIER politics of international economic relations
ITO International Trade Organization POPs persistent organic pollutants
ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization PPP purchasing power parity
JFC [World Bank–Civil Society] Joint Facilitation PRSPs Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers
Committee
PSIA Poverty and Social Impact Analysis
JV joint venture
PTA preferential trade agreement
LAC Latin America and the Caribbean
PWC Post-Washington Consensus
LDCs less developed countries
PWT Penn World Tables
LIC low-income country
R&D research and development
LLDC landlocked developing countries
RNGMA Regional Nature of Global Multinational
LMU Latin Monetary Union Activity Survey
LTCM Long-Term Capital Management (American RTA regional trading agreement
hedge fund)
RTAA Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act
M&As Mergers and Acquisitions
SADCC Southern African Development Coordination
MAFF Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries Conference
( Japan)
SAPs structural adjustment programmes
MAI [OECD] Multilateral Agreement on Investment
SDR Special Drawing Rights
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
SFM sustainable forest management
MDRI Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative
SIDS Small Island Developing States
 Abbreviations xxiii

SMEs small and medium-sized enterprise UNDP United Nations Development Programme
SMU Scandinavian Monetary Union UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa UNFCC United Nations Framework Convention on
SWFs sovereign wealth funds Climate Change
SWIFT Society for the Worldwide Interbank Financial UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development
Telecommunication Organization
TNC transnational corporation USAID United States Agency for International
Development
TPRM Trade Policy Review Mechanism
USTR United States Trade Representative
TRIMs Trade-Related Investment Measures
VW Volkswagen
TRIPs Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights WC Washington Consensus
UN United Nations Organization WCED World Commission on Environment and
Development
UNCED United Nations Conference on the
Environment and Development WEU Western European Union
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme WIDER [UN] World Institute for Development
Economics Research
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development WTO World Trade Organization
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When the weather is wet or cold the Ascalaphi repose on the stems
of grass, with their wings placed in a roof-like manner, with the head
downwards, and are then very successful in concealing themselves
by the positions they assume, and by sidling round the stems to
escape from enemies. Some information as to their metamorphosis
has been obtained, though knowledge of this point is far from
complete even as regards our European species of the typical genus
Ascalaphus. For a long time it was supposed that a larva mentioned
by Bonnet in his writings was that of Ascalaphus, but Brauer[386] is
of opinion that such is not the case, and as he has described the
metamorphoses of A. macaronius he is no doubt correct. The eggs
(Fig. 303, A), forty or fifty in number, are laid in two parallel rows on
the stems of grass. The larvae (Fig. 304, larva of Helicomitus ?) are
in general appearance somewhat like those of Myrmeleon; they are
carnivorous in their habits, like the ant-lions, and have similar
extraordinarily developed mandibles. Efforts to rear the young larvae
failed, but they were kept alive for some time by supplying them with
Aphidides found on Centaurea jacea. The cocoon is globular, and
the change from the nymph state to the imago is made in the
cocoon, the structure of the mandibles of the pupa being peculiar,
and specially adapted to the purpose of opening the cocoon.[387]
The larvae of Ascalaphides, although so like the ant-lions in
appearance, do not form pitfalls for the capture of their prey, but lurk
under leaves on the ground, or under stones; they do not move
backwards, but progress forwards in an ordinary manner; the habit of
backward movement that we noticed in Myrmeleon being probably
correlative with the habit of forming pitfalls. Hagen states[388] that the
larvae of Ascalaphides and Myrmeleonides, in addition to their
peculiarities of form and mandibular structure, are distinguished from
those of other Hemerobiidae by the hind legs having the tibia and
tarsus united without articulation. Westwood[389] has recently given
an account of the young larvae of a Ceylonese Ascalaphid of
doubtful species, but possibly Helicomitus insimulans; these were
observed by Mr. Staniforth Green to have the very peculiar habit of
sitting together in a long row on the stem of a plant, with the jaws
widely extended and the body of each one covered by the head of
the individual next it (Fig. 303, B). The little creatures waited patiently
in this position until a fly walked between the mandibles of one of
them, then these formidable weapons immediately closed, and did
not relax their hold until the fly was sucked dry. If Westwood is
correct, the young larva of this species differs much from the adult
one, the back of the head being broad and the setigerous processes
of the body very much more developed. Nearly thirty genera of
Ascalaphides are known.[390] In the genus Haplogenius we find an
exception to the usual rule that the wings in repose are held in a
roof-like manner, it having been noticed by Bates that in the species
in question the wings are held expanded as in the dragon-flies.

Fig. 304.—Larva of Helicomitus insimulans (?). (After Westwood.)

Guilding has described[391] a very peculiar mode of oviposition on

the part of Ulula macleayana in the island of St. Vincent; the eggs
are said to be deposited by the female in circles on the extremity of a
twig, and nearer the base of this there is placed a kind of barrier to
repel intruders. "The female may be seen expelling from her ovary
these natural barriers with as much care as her real eggs." Guilding's
description was accompanied by drawings of the eggs, barriers and
larvae, but unfortunately these were never published, and no further
information has been obtained on the subject. Hagen[392] suggests
that the barriers may be somewhat similar to the long stalks on
which the eggs of Chrysopa (Fig. 314) are placed.
 Sub-Fam. 3. Nemopterides.—Head more or less produced and
beak-like. Hind wings of peculiar form, being elongate and
somewhat strap-like.

Fig. 305.—Nemoptera ledereri. Asia Minor. (After Selys.) A, The imago;

B, its head seen from in front and magnified.

Fig. 306.—Presumed larva of Nemoptera (Necrophilus arenarius). After

Roux. Pyramids of Egypt.

The Nemopterides are a small group of delicate, graceful Insects.

About thirty species are known. Knowledge of the group is still very
imperfect. A larva has been found of a most remarkable nature that
probably belongs to it; it was described under the name of
Necrophilus arenarius, and considered to be a fully-developed
Insect. This larva occurs in the tombs and pyramids of Egypt where
sand has accumulated. The perfect Insects of the genus Nemoptera
are, however, found in open places amongst bushes, and flit about in
a very graceful manner. Several species are found in Southern
Europe and the Mediterranean region (Fig. 305, N. ledereri), but
none come so far north as Central Europe. Formerly the genus
Nemoptera was considered to be allied to Panorpa on account of the
beak-like front of the head. The parts of the mouth are, however,
different from those of Panorpa, and it seems more probable that if
the Nemopterides have to be merged in any of the divisions of
Hemerobiidae, they will be placed in Chrysopides or Osmylides. The
species of the sub-family were for a long time believed to be peculiar
to the continental regions of the Old World, but a species has
recently been discovered in Northern Chili.[393]

Sub-Fam. 4. Mantispides.—Prothorax elongate; the raptorial

front legs inserted at its anterior part.

The members of this small group are readily recognised by the

peculiar structure of the front legs; these organs resembling those of
the Orthopterous family Mantidae, so that the earlier systematic
entomologists, deceived by this resemblance, placed the
Mantispides in the Order referred to.

Fig. 307.—Mantispa areolaris. Brazil. (After Westwood.)

The Mantispides possess four membranous wings, either sub-equal

in size or the posterior pair smaller than the front pair and not folded;
the veins of these wings are rather numerous, as are also the cells
they form; there is considerable difference amongst the species in
this latter respect, owing to the transverse veinlets differing in their
abundance. The antennae are short, not in the least thickened at the
tip. The head is not produced into a beak. The anterior legs, placed
quite at the front part of the thorax, have the coxae very long; the
femur is somewhat incrassate, and is armed on one side with spines;
the tibia is shaped and articulated so as to fold closely on to the
spines, and to thus constitute a formidable and perfect prehensile
organ, the tarsus being merely a small appendage.

Fig. 308.—Mantispa styriaca. A, Larva newly hatched, or first form; B,

mature larva. (After Brauer.)

Only a few species of Mantispa are found in Southern Europe; but

the group has representatives in most of the warmer regions of the
world, and will probably prove to be rather numerous in species. The
front legs are used for the capture of prey in the same way as the
somewhat similar front legs of the Mantidae. The transformations
have been observed by Brauer[394] in the case of one of the
European species, M. styriaca. The eggs are numerous but very
small, and are deposited in such a manner that each is borne by a
long slender stalk, as in the lacewing flies. The larvae are hatched in
autumn; they then hibernate and go for about seven months before
they take any food. In the spring, when the spiders of the genus
Lycosa have formed their bags of eggs, the minute Mantispa larvae
(Fig. 308, A) find them out, tear a hole in the bag, and enter among
the eggs; here they wait until the eggs have attained a fitting stage of
development before they commence to feed. Brauer found that they
ate the spiders when these were quite young, and then changed
their skin for the second time, the first moult having taken place
when they were hatched from the egg. At this second moult the larva
undergoes a considerable change of form; it becomes unfit for
locomotion, and the head loses the comparatively large size and
high development it previously possessed. The Mantispa larva—only
one of which flourishes in one egg-bag of a spider—undergoes this
change in the midst of a mass of dead young spiders it has gathered
together in a peculiar manner. It undergoes no further change of
skin, and is full fed in a few days; after which it spins a cocoon in the
interior of the egg-bag of the spider, and changes to a nymph inside
its larva-skin. Finally the nymph breaks through the barriers—larva-
skin, cocoon, and egg-bag of the spider—by which it is enclosed,
and after creeping about for a little, appears in its final form as a
perfect Mantispa. Thus in this Insect hypermetamorphosis occurs;
the larval life consisting of two different instars, one of which is
specially adapted for obtaining access to the creature it is to prey on.
It should be noticed that though this Insect is so destructive to the
young spiders, the mother spider shows no hostility to it, but allows
the destroying larva to enter her bag of eggs without any opposition;
she appears, indeed, to be so unconscious of the havoc that is going
on amongst her young that in one case she continued to watch over
and protect the egg-bag in which the destruction was taking place
during the whole of the period of the larval development and half the
period of pupation of the Mantispa.

The larval history of a second species of the Mantispides,

Symphrasis varia, is partially known;[395] this Insect lives parasitically
in the nests of a South American wasp, and each larva when full fed
spins a cocoon in one of the cells of the Hymenopteron.

Sub-Fam. 5. Hemerobiides.—Wings in repose forming an

angular roof over the body; the antennae moniliform or
pectinate, not clavate.

The Hemerobiides consist of several minor groups about whose

number and characters systematists are not very well agreed, and
about some of which very little is known. We merely mention the
latter, giving details as to some of the better known only.
1. The Dilarina are a small group found chiefly in the Old World,
where, however, they have a wide distribution. North and South
America have each one species. They are distinguished by their
antennae, which, in the male, are pectinate somewhat like those of
many Lepidoptera, this character being of extremely rare occurrence
in the Neuroptera; the abdomen of the female terminates in a long
ovipositor. The metamorphoses are not known.

2. Nymphidina: Australian Insects resembling Myrmeleonides, but

having antennae without club. Metamorphoses not known.

3. Osmylina: a group of delicate and elegant Insects of small or

moderate size, distinguished by the possession of three simple eyes
placed on the middle of the head just above the antennae. A species
of this group, Osmylus chrysops (maculatus of some authors), is an
inhabitant of Britain (Fig. 212); its larva is to some extent
amphibious. The metamorphoses have been observed by Dufour,
Brauer, and Hagen;[396] it lurks under stones in or close to the water,
or in moss, or on the stems of aquatic plants, and pierces and
empties small Insects with its sucking-spears, which are very
elongate. The young are hatched from the egg in the autumn and
hibernate before becoming full grown; when this moment arrives the
larva spins a round cocoon of silk mixed with sand. The pupa, or
nymph, in general appearance somewhat resembles the perfect
Insect, except that it is shorter and has the short wing-pads clinging
close to the body. Dufour denied the existence of abdominal
spiracles in either larva or imago, but, according to Hagen, they are
certainly present in both. It would appear that in the larva the
alimentary canal is not open beyond the chylific ventricle, and that its
terminal section is modified to form a spinning apparatus.
 Fig. 309.—Osmylus chrysops. A, Larva; B, side view of head of larva
(after Brauer); C, pupa (after Hagen).

Osmylus and its allies, including Sisyra, are now frequently treated
as a separate sub-family, Osmylides, equivalent to the Chrysopides.
In it is placed a very anomalous Insect—Psectra dispar—of great
rarity. The male has only two wings, the posterior pair being the
merest rudiments, though the female has the four wings normally
developed. Individuals of the male have been found[397] in widely
separated localities in the Palaearctic region—Somersetshire being
one of them—and also in North America.

The genus Sisyra forms for some Neuropterists the type of a

separate group called Sisyrina, though by others it is placed, as we
have said, with the Osmylina, though it is destitute of ocelli. The
larvae of at least one species of this genus are aquatic, and have
been found in abundance living in Spongilla (Ephydatia) fluviatilis, a
fresh-water sponge; when discovered their nature was not at first
recognised, as they possess on each ventral segment a pair of
articulated appendages, looking like legs, but which are considered
to be more of the nature of gills. The sucking-spears of this Insect
are so long and slender as to look like hairs; whether the little animal
draws its nutriment from the sponge, or merely uses this latter as a
place of shelter, is not ascertained.
 Fig. 310.—A, Larva of Sisyra fuscata, ventral aspect; B, an abdominal
appendage. (After Westwood.)

Fig. 311.—Larva of Hemerobius sp. from Kent. A, The larva bare; B,

the same, partially concealed by the remains of its victims, etc.; a
portion of the covering has been removed in order to show the
head.

4. Hemerobiina: a somewhat numerous group of small or more rarely

moderate-sized Insects, with moniliform antennae, no ocelli, a
complex and comparatively regular system of wing-nervures; the
veinlets are especially numerous at the margins, owing to the mode
of forking of the nervures there (Fig. 298, Drepanepteryx
phalaenoides). The larvae of most of the species of which the habits
are known live on Aphides, which they suck dry, and at least one
species, in all probability several, has the habit of covering itself with
the skins of the victims it has sucked; to these remains it adds other
small debris, and the whole mass completely covers and conceals
the Insect (Fig. 311, B). The larva is furnished at the sides with
projections which serve as pedicels to elongate divergent hairs, and
these help to keep the mass in place on the back of the Insect; some
fine threads are distributed through this curious mantle and serve to
keep it from disintegration, but whether they are fragments of
spiders' webs or are spun by the Insect itself is not quite clear.
 Fig. 312.—Portions of wings of Drepanepteryx phalaenoides. A, Under-
face of basal parts of the two wings; a, base of front wing; b, of
hind wing. B, Portion of front wing, showing the apparent
interruption of nervures.

The genus Drepanepteryx consists of several species, and appears

to be best represented in the Antipodes; we have, however, one
species in Britain—D. phalaenoides (Fig. 298)—an extremely
interesting member of our fauna. This Insect has, like several of its
congeners, a moth-like appearance, and it has a peculiar structure
for bringing the hind and fore wings into correlation, the costa at the
base of the hind wing being interrupted and prominent, furnished
with setae (Fig. 312, A), and playing in a cavity on the under-surface
of the front wing. This character is of great interest in connexion with
analogous structures of a more perfect nature existing in various
moths. M‘Lachlan has described and figured[398] a more primitive,
though analogous, condition of the wings in Megalomus hirtus, also
a species of British Hemerobiina. Another very curious feature of D.
phalaenoides is shown in Fig. 312, B, there being a narrow space on
the hind part of the front wing from which the colour is absent, while
the nervures appear to be interrupted; they are, however, really
present, though transparent; the nature of this peculiar mark is quite
unknown, but is of considerable interest in connexion with the small
transparent spaces that exist on the wings of some butterflies.

Sub-Fam. 6. Chrysopides, Lacewing-flies.—Fragile Insects

with elongate, setaceous antennae.
 Fig. 313.—Chrysopa flava. Cambridge.

Fig. 314.—Eggs of Chrysopa. A, Five eggs on a leaf; B, one egg, more

magnified. (After Schneider.)

Fig. 315.—Larva of Chrysopa sp. Cambridge. A, The Insect magnified;

B, foot more magnified; C, terminal apparatus of the claws, highly
magnified.

The lacewing-flies—also called stink-flies and golden-eyes—are

excessively delicate Insects, of which we possess about 15 species
in Britain. Their antennae are more slender and less distinctly jointed
than they are in Hemerobiides, and the Chrysopides are more
elongate Insects. The peculiar metallic colour of their eyes is
frequently very conspicuous, the eyes looking, indeed, as if they
were composed of shining metal; this fades very much after death.
Although not very frequently noticed, the Chrysopides are really
common Insects, and are of considerable importance owing to their
keeping "greenfly" in check.

Fig. 316.—Chrysopa (Hypochrysa) pallida, larva. (After Brauer.)

The eggs are very remarkable objects (Fig. 314), each one being
supported at the top of a stalk many times as long as itself; in some
species (C. aspersa) the eggs are laid in groups, those of each
group being supported on a common stalk. The larvae (Fig. 315) are
of a very voracious disposition, and destroy large quantities of plant-
lice by piercing them with sucking-spears, the bodies of the victims
being afterwards quickly exhausted of their contents by the action of
the apparatus connected with the spears. The larvae of two or three
species of Chrysopa cover themselves with the skins of their victims
after the manner of the larvae of Hemerobius; but most of the larvae
of Chrysopa are unclothed, and hunt their victims after the fashion of
the larvae of Coccinellidae, to which these Chrysopa larvae bear a
considerable general resemblance. These larvae have a remarkable
structure at the extremity of their feet, but its use is quite unknown
(Fig. 315, B, C). Some larvae of the genus make use of various
substances as a means of disguise or protection. Dewitz noticed[399]
that some specimens he denuded of their clothing and placed in a
glass, seized small pieces of paper with their mandibles and,
bending the head, placed the morsels on their backs; here the
pieces remained in consequence of the existence of hooked hairs on
the skin. Green algae or cryptogams are much used for clothing, and
Dewitz supposes that the Insect spins them together with webs to
facilitate their retention. According to Constant and Lucas[400] the
larvae of Chrysopa attack and kill the larvae of Lepidoptera and
Phytophagous Hymenoptera. The curious form we figure (Fig. 316)
has been hatched from eggs found by Brauer on Pinus abies in
Austria. The eggs were of the stalked kind we have described; the
young escaped from them in the autumn, twelve days after
deposition, but did not take any food till the following spring.

The Chrysopides are widely distributed over the earth's surface.

They form an important part of the fauna of the Hawaiian islands.

Sub-Fam. 7. Coniopterygides.—Minute Insects with very few

transverse nervules in the wings; having the body and wings
covered by a powdery efflorescence.

These little Insects are the smallest of the Order Neuroptera, and
have the appearance of winged Coccidae; their claim to be
considered members of the Neuroptera was formerly doubted, but
their natural history is quite concordant with that of the Hemerobiid
groups, near which they are now always placed. Löw has made us
acquainted with the habits and structure of an Austrian species,
Coniopteryx lutea Wallg., but for which he has proposed the new
generic name Aleuropteryx; the larvae are found on Pinus mughus at
Vienna feeding on Aspidiotus abietis, which they pierce with sucking-
spears, after the fashion of the Hemerobiides; when full fed they spin
a cocoon formed of a double layer of silk, in which metamorphosis
takes place in a manner similar to that of other Hemerobiidae. The
better-known genus Coniopteryx differs from Aleuropteryx in having
the sucking-spears short and nearly concealed by the front of the
head, which is somewhat prolonged.
 Fig. 317.—Coniopteryx psociformis. Cambridge. (After Curtis.) A, The
insect with wings expanded, magnified; B, with wings closed,
natural size.

We may conclude this sketch of the Hemerobiid groups by remarking

that fossil remains of specimens of most of them have been detected
in the Tertiary strata, and that in the Secondary strata these groups
are represented by only a small number of fossils, which are referred
specially to Hemerobiina, Nymphidina, and Chrysopides.

Fig. 318.—A, Larva of Coniopteryx tineiformis (?). (After Curtis.) B,

Head and prothorax of larva of Coniopteryx sp.; C, upper surface
of head of larva of Coniopteryx (after Löw), much magnified.

CHAPTER XXI

NEUROPTERA CONTINUED—TRICHOPTERA, THE PHRYGANEIDAE OR

CADDIS-FLIES

Fam. XI. Phryganeidae—Caddis-flies.

(TRICHOPTERA OF MANY AUTHORS)

Wings more or less clothed with hair, nervures dividing at very

acute angles, very few transverse nervules; hind pair larger than
the front, with an anal area which is frequently large and in
 repose plicately folded. Antennae thread-like, porrect, of many
indistinct joints. Mandibles absent or obsolete. Coxae elongate
and free but contiguous. Metamorphosis great; larvae caterpillar-
like, usually inhabiting cases of their own construction. Pupa
resembling the perfect Insect in general form, becoming active
previous to the last ecdysis. Wingless forms of the imago
excessively rare.

Fig. 319.—Halesus guttatipennis. Britain. (After M‘Lachlan.)

The caddis-flies are Insects of moth-like appearance, found in the

neighbourhood of water; their larvae live in this element, where they
may sometimes be found in abundance. Phryganeidae are not very
attractive Insects, and there are few of large size; Hence they have
been much neglected by entomologists, and very little is known
about the exotic forms of the family. The habitations constructed by
the larvae are, many of them, of a curious nature, and usually attract
more attention than do the creatures they serve to protect.

The Phryganeidae form the division or series Trichoptera; the two

terms are therefore synonymous; those entomologists who consider
these Insects to form a distinct Order use the latter appellation for it.

Fig. 320.—Hydroptila angustella ♀. Britain. (After M‘Lachlan.)

The perfect Insect, though the wings are usually ample, has but
feeble powers of flight, and rarely ventures far from the water it was
reared in; it has a moth-like appearance, and the wings in repose
meet, at an angle, in a roof-like manner over the back (Fig. 326, E).
The head is small, with the front inflexed; it has two large compound
eyes, and usually three ocelli; the antennae are slender, thread-like,
and occasionally attain a great length. The parts of the mouth are
very peculiar, the labrum and the palpi—especially the maxillary
palps—being well developed, while the lobes of the maxillae and
labium are amalgamated and therefore indistinct. The labrum is
more or less elongate, and is more mobile than is usual in
mandibulate Insects; it is held closely applied to the maxillae. These
latter are small, have usually only a single small free lobe; they are
united to one another and to the labium by membrane in such a
manner as to form a channel along the middle of the mouth, the
labrum forming the roof of this channel. The palpi are in some cases
(Sericostomatides) of a remarkable nature; their joints vary in
number from three to five, and differ sometimes in the sexes of the
same species. The lower lip appears as a plate supporting the labial
palpi, which are three-jointed and do not exhibit any peculiarities of
structure comparable with those we have mentioned as so frequently
existing in the maxillary palps. Difference of opinion exists as to the
mandibles, some entomologists declaring them to be entirely absent,
while others state that a small tubercular process that may be seen
in some species on each side of the labrum is their representative.
The prothorax is very small, the notum is the largest piece but is
quite short, the side-pieces are very small, and the sternum appears
to consist only of membrane. The mesothorax is much the largest
segment of the body; its sternum is large, but is nearly perpendicular
in direction, and is much concealed by the elongate, free front coxae,
which repose against it. The metathorax is intermediate in size
between the pro- and meso-thorax; its side-pieces are rather large,
but the sternum is membranous, with a heart-shaped piece of more
chitinous consistence in the middle, entirely covered by the middle
coxae. The side-pieces both of the meso- and meta-thorax are large,
and are closely connected; the middle and posterior coxae are very
large, elongate, and prominent, and the middle pair slope
backwards, so that their tips are in contact with the tips of the hind
pair. The abdomen is cylindric and rather slender; it looks as if
formed of eight segments in addition to the terminal segment; this
latter in the male usually bears remarkably modified appendages.
The first ventral plate is sometimes, if not always, entirely
membranous; indeed the texture of the segments is in general very
delicate, so that they shrivel up to an extent that renders their
comprehension from dried specimens very difficult. The legs are
always elongate, the coxae attaining in some forms a remarkable
length, and the tibiae and tarsi are armed with many spines; the tarsi
are five-jointed, slender, frequently very elongate, terminated by two
large claws and an apparatus, placed between them, consisting of a
pair of hair-like processes with a membranous lobe.

Fig. 321.—Front view of head of Anabolia furcata after removal of

labrum. o, Ocellus; an, base of antenna; au, eye; cm, cardo; st,
stipes; l, external lobe; pt, support of palpus; pm, palpus of
maxilla; g, condyle of articulation of the absent mandible; ha,
channel of haustellum; h, haustellum; sp, apex of channel of
haustellum (not explained by Lucas); ch, chitinous point of
external lobe of second maxilla; pl, labial palp. (After Lucas.)

The structure of the mouth-parts of the Phryganeidae has given rise

to much difference of interpretation; it has recently been investigated
by R. Lucas[401] in connexion with Anabolia furcata (Fig. 321). He
agrees with other observers that mandibles are present in the pupa,
but states that no rudiment of them exists in the imago. He calls the
peculiar structure formed by the combination of the maxillae and
labium a haustellum. He looks on the Trichoptera as possessing a
mouth intermediate between the biting and sucking types of Insect-
mouths. He considers that the Phryganeidae take food of a solid, as
well as of a liquid, nature by means of the haustellum, but the solid
matter must be in the form of small particles, and then is probably
sucked up by the help of saliva added to it. Lucas says also that in
the larvae certain parts of the salivary glands serve the function of
spinning organs, and it is from these that the salivary glands of the
imago are formed; those salivary glands of the larva that are not
spinning glands disappearing entirely.

Fig. 322.—Anabolia nervosa. A, Larva extracted from its case; B, one

of the dorsal spaces of the abdominal segments more strongly
magnified.

The eggs are deposited in a singular manner; they are extruded in a

mass surrounded by jelly; there may be as many as one hundred
eggs in such a mass. This is sometimes carried about by the female
after its extrusion from the interior of the body, but is finally confided
to a suitable place in stream, spring, or pool. It is said that the female
occasionally descends into the water to affix the egg-mass to some
object therein, but this requires confirmation, and it is more probable
that the egg-mass is merely dropped in a suitable situation. As soon
as the larvae are hatched they begin to provide themselves with
cases; they select small pieces of such material as may be at hand
in the water, and connect them together by means of silk spun from
the mouth. Particulars as to these tubes we will defer till we have
considered the larvae themselves. These have the general
appearance of caterpillars of moths; in order to move about they
must put their head and the three pairs of legs at the front of the
body out of their tube or case, and they then look very like case-
bearing caterpillars. The part of the body that usually remains under
cover is different in texture and colour, and frequently bears
outstanding processes, or filaments, containing tracheae for the
purpose of extracting air from the water. Some peculiar spaces of a
different texture may be seen on certain larvae (Fig. 322, B); these
may possibly be also connected with respiration. On each side of the
extremity of the body there is a rather large hook by which the
creature attaches its dwelling to its body, and there are also
frequently present three large bosses on the anterior abdominal
segment, which are supposed to assist towards the same end. The
hold it thus obtains is so firm that it cannot be dragged out by pulling
from the front; fishermen have, however, discovered a way of
extracting it by a strategic operation: the cases are, as a rule,
partially open behind, and by putting a blunt object in and annoying
the larva it is induced to relax the hold of its hooks and advance
forwards in the case, or even to leave it altogether. The firm hold of
the larva is maintained in spite of the fact that the body does not fill
the case. It is necessary that water should pass freely into and out of
the case, and that there should be some space for the respiratory
filaments to move in. The mouth of the case is open, and the
posterior extremity is arranged by the larva in such manner as to
allow a passage for the water; various ingenious devices are
adopted by different species of larvae with the object of protecting
the hind end of the body, and at the same time of permitting water to
pass through the case.

The mode of changing the skin, or the frequency with which this
occurs in the larval state of the caddis flies has not been recorded.
The duration of life in this stage is usually considerable, extending
over several months: indeed in our climate many species pass the
winter in this stage, completing the metamorphosis in the following
spring or summer; and as one generation each year appears to be
the rule, it may be assumed that the larval condition in such cases
lasts from seven to ten months. During this stage the Insects are
chiefly vegetable feeders, some being said to feed on minute algae;
animal diet is not, however, entirely avoided, and it is said by Pictet
that not only do some of the Phryganeidae eat other Insects, but that
they also sometimes devour their companions.
 Fig. 323.—A, Pupa of Phryganea pilosa. (After Pictet.) B, Mandibles of
pupa of Molanna angustata.

At the end of the larval period of existence the creature closes its
case by a light web spun at each end, taking care not to prevent the
ingress and egress of the water; it sometimes adds a stone or piece
of stick, and having thus protected itself, changes to a nymph.
During the first part of this metamorphosis the creature is completely
helpless, for there is so great a difference between the external
structures of the larva and nymph as to make the latter a new being,
so far as these organs are concerned. The changes take place in the
interior of the larval skin, and as they are completed this latter is
shed piecemeal. The resulting pupa or nymph greatly resembles the
perfect Insect, differing consequently very much from the larva.
Pictet, who paid special attention to the nymph condition of these
Insects, concludes, however, that many of the organs of the nymph
are actually formed within the corresponding parts of the larva, and
has given a figure that, if trustworthy, shows that the legs of the
nymph, notwithstanding the great difference between them as they
exist in the larva and in the perfect Insect, are actually formed within
the legs of the larva; each nymphal leg being rolled up in the skin of
the corresponding larval leg, in a spiral, compressed manner, and
the only articulations that can be detected in the leg being those of
the tarsus. The head of the nymph is armed in front with two curious
projections that are, in fact, enormously developed mandibles (Fig.
323, B); they serve as cutting implements to enable the nymph to
effect its escape from its prison; they are cast off with the nymph-
skin, the perfect Insect being thus destitute of these organs. The
abdomen of the nymph differs from that of the perfect Insect in
possessing external respiratory filaments; the nymphs of some
species have also the middle legs provided with swimming-hairs,
that do not exist in the imago.