Ebook Ebook PDF Primary and Middle Years Mathematics Teaching Developmentally PDF

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Mathematics: Teaching
Developmentally
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Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2020 — 9781488615627 —Van de Walle/Primary and middle years mathematics: Teaching developmentally 1e
CONTENTS vii
Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Base-ten models for place value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Groupable models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Resources for chapter 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Pregrouped models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Nonproportional models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Developing base-ten concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Grouping activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
CHAPTER 10 Grouping tens to make 100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Equivalent representations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Developing basic fact fluency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Oral and written names for numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Wendy Goff
Two-digit number names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Developmental phases for learning the basic facts. . . . . . . . . 199 Three-digit number names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Teaching and assessing the basic facts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Written symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Different approaches to teaching the basic facts . . . . . . 200 Patterns and relationships with
Teaching basic facts effectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 multi-digit numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Assessing basic facts effectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 The hundreds chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Reasoning strategies for addition facts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Relationships with benchmark numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
One more than and two more than. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Connections to real-world ideas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Adding zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Numbers beyond 1000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Doubles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Extending the place-value system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Combinations of 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Conceptualising large numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Making 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Reflections on chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Using 5 as an anchor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Near-doubles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Reasoning strategies for subtraction facts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Resources for chapter 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Think-addition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Down under 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Take from 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Reasoning strategies for multiplication and division facts. . . . . 212 CHAPTER 12
Foundational facts: 2, 5, 0, 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Developing strategies for addition and
Nifty nines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
subtraction computation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Derived multiplication fact strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Amy Brass
Division facts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Reinforcing basic fact mastery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Towards computational fluency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Games to support basic fact fluency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Connecting addition and subtraction to place value. . . . . . . . 254
About drill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Three types of computational strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Fact remediation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Direct modelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Reflections on chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Invented strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Standard algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Development of invented strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Resources for chapter 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Creating a supportive environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Models to support invented strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Development of invented strategies for addition
and subtraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
CHAPTER 11 Single-digit numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Developing whole-number Adding two-digit numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Subtraction as ‘think-addition’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
place-value concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Take-away subtraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
David Martin
Extensions and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Pre-place-value understandings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Standard algorithms for addition and subtraction. . . . . . . . . . 271
Developing whole-number place-value concepts. . . . . . . . . . . 229 Standard algorithm for addition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Integrating base-ten groupings with counting by ones. . . . . 229 Standard algorithm for subtraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Integrating base-ten groupings with words . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Introducing computational estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Integrating base-ten groupings with Understanding computational estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . 275
place-value notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Suggestions for teaching computational estimation . . . . 275
viii CONTENTS
Computational estimation strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Study of patterns and functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Front-end methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Repeating patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Rounding methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Growing patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Compatible numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Relationships in functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Reflections on chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Graphs of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Describing functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Linear functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Resources for chapter 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Meaningful use of symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Equal and inequality signs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 The meaning of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Mathematical modelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Algebraic thinking across the curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
CHAPTER 13 Geometry, measurement and algebra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Developing strategies for multiplication Reflections on chapter 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
and division computation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Brendan Bentley For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Resources for chapter 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Student-invented strategies for multiplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Useful representations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Multiplication by a single-digit multiplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Multiplication of multi-digit numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 CHAPTER 15
Standard algorithms for multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Begin with models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Developing fraction concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Develop the written record. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Cath Pearn
Student-invented strategies for division. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Meanings of fractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Standard algorithm for division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Fraction constructs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Begin with models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Why fractions are difficult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Develop the written record. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Models for fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Two-digit divisors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Area models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Computational estimation in multiplication Length models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
and division. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Set models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Suggestions for teaching computational estimation . . . . 297 Fractional parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Computational estimation strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Fraction size is relative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Reflections on chapter 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Partitioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Sharing tasks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Iterating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Resources for chapter 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Fraction notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Equivalent fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Conceptual focus on equivalence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Equivalent fraction models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
CHAPTER 14 Developing an equivalent-fraction
algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Algebraic thinking, equations and functions. . . . 303 Comparing fractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Karina Wilkie Comparing fractions using number sense. . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Aspects of algebraic thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Using equivalent fractions to compare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Structure in the number system: Connecting number Estimating with fractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
and algebra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Teaching considerations for fraction concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Number combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Reflections on chapter 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Place-value relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Structure in the number system: Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Resources for chapter 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Making sense of properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Applying the properties of addition and multiplication. . . . 310 Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER 16 Per cent problems in context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

Estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Developing fraction operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Reflections on chapter 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Sue Ferguson Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Understanding fraction operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
A problem-based number-sense approach . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Resources for chapter 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Addition and subtraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Contextual examples and invented strategies. . . . . . . . . 378 Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Estimation and informal methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 CHAPTER 18
Developing the algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Ratios, proportions and proportional
Fractions greater than one. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Addressing misconceptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Brendan Bentley
Multiplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Contextual examples and models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Estimation and invented strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Types of ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Developing the algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Ratios compared to fractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Factors greater than one. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Two ways to think about ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Addressing misconceptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Proportional reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Division. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Proportional and nonproportional situations. . . . . . . . . . 437
Contextual examples and models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Additive and multiplicative comparisons
Answers that are not whole numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 in story problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Estimation and invented strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Covariation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Developing the algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Strategies for solving proportional situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Addressing misconceptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Rates and scaling strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Reflections on chapter 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Ratio tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Tape or strip diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Double number line diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Resources for chapter 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Per cents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Teaching proportional reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Reflections on chapter 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
CHAPTER 17 Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Developing concepts of decimals
Resources for chapter 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
and percentages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Sharyn Livy Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Extending the place-value system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
The 10-to-1 relationship – now in two directions. . . . . . . 408 CHAPTER 19
The role of the decimal point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Developing measurement concepts. . . . . . . . . . 457
Connecting fractions and decimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Sharyn Livy
Say decimal fractions correctly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Use visual models for decimal fractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 The meaning and process of measuring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Multiple names and formats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Concepts and skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Developing decimal number sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 Introducing non-standard units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
Familiar fractions connected to decimals. . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Introducing standard units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Comparing and ordering decimal fractions. . . . . . . . . . . 418 The role of estimation and approximation. . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Density of decimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Computation with decimals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Comparison activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Addition and subtraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Using physical models of length units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Multiplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Conversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Division. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Making and using rulers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Introducing percentages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Physical models and terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Comparison activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
x CONTENTS
Using physical models of area units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Congruence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

The relationship between area and perimeter. . . . . . . . . 473 Similarity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Developing formulas for area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Using transformations and symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Areas of rectangles, parallelograms, triangles Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
and trapeziums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Measuring distance on the coordinate plane . . . . . . . . . 520
Circumference and area of circles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Visualisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Volume and capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Two-dimensional imagery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Comparison activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Three-dimensional imagery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Using physical models of volume and The Platonic solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
capacity units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Reflections on chapter 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Developing formulas for volumes of Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
common solid shapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Weight and mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Resources for chapter 20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Comparison activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Using physical models of weight or mass units. . . . . . . . 484 Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Comparison activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 CHAPTER 21
Reading clocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Developing concepts of data analysis. . . . . . . . 528
Solving problems with time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Money. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 Duncan Symons
Recognising coins and identifying their values . . . . . . . . 486 What does it mean to do statistics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Reflections on chapter 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Is it statistics or is it mathematics?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 The shape of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 The process of doing statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Resources for chapter 19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Formulating questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Classroom questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Beyond one classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
CHAPTER 20 Collecting data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Geometric thinking and Using existing data sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Data analysis: Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
geometric concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Attribute materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Sharyn Livy
Data analysis: Graphical representations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Geometry goals for students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Creating graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Developing geometric thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Analysing graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
The van Hiele levels of geometric thought . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Column graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Implications for instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Pie graphs/circle graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Shapes and properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 Continuous data graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Sorting and classifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 Bivariate graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Composing and decomposing shapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Data analysis: Measures of centre and variability. . . . . . . . . . 548
Categories of two- and Measures of centre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
three-dimensional objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 Understanding the mean: Two interpretations. . . . . . . . . 549
Investigations, conjectures and the Choosing a measure of centre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
development of proof. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Variability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Angles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Interpreting results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Comparison activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Reflections on chapter 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Using physical models of angular measure units. . . . . . .510 Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Using protractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Resources for chapter 21. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Line symmetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Rigid motions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER 22 Integer exponents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589

Scientific notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
Exploring concepts of probability. . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Positive and negative numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Duncan Symons Contexts for exploring positive and
Introducing probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 negative numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Likely or not likely. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Meaning of negative numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
The probability continuum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Models for teaching positive and
Theoretical probability and experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 negative numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
Theoretical probability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Operations with positive and negative numbers. . . . . . . . . . . 597
Experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Addition and subtraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Why use experiments? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 Multiplication and division. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Use of technology in experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 Real numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Sample spaces and the probability of compound events. . . . . . 572 Rational numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Independent events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 Square roots and cube roots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Area representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 Reflections on chapter 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Dependent events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Common misconceptions about probability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Resources for chapter 23. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Reflections on chapter 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
For discussion and exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Resources for chapter 22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 APPENDIX A Australian Curriculum: Mathematics
Literature connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 proficiency strands��608
Recommended readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 APPENDIX B Mapping the content to the
Australian Curriculum��610
CHAPTER 23 APPENDIX C AITSL Australian Professional Standards
for Teachers��622
Developing concepts of index, APPENDIX D NCTM mathematics teaching practices:
notation, integers and real numbers. . . . . . . . . 583 From Principles to Actions��624
Amy Brass APPENDIX E Guide to Blackline Masters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Index notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Index notation in expressions and equations . . . . . . . . . 584 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
Order of operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
PREFACE
Welcome to the first Australian edition of Primary and middle years mathematics: Teaching
developmentally. All students can learn mathematics with understanding and it is their teacher’s
actions that will enable every student to have this experience. We believe that teachers must
create a classroom environment in which students are given opportunities to solve problems
and work together, using their ideas and strategies, to solve them. Effective mathematics
instruction involves posing tasks that engage students in the mathematics they are expected
to learn. Then, by allowing students to interact with and productively struggle with their own
mathematical ideas and their own strategies, they will learn to see the connections among
mathematical topics and the real world.
Creating a classroom in which students design solution pathways, engage in productive
struggle and connect one mathematical idea to another is complex. Questions arise, such as,
‘How do I get students to wrestle with problems if they just want me to show them how to do
it? What kinds of tasks lend themselves to this type of engagement? Where can I learn the
mathematics content I need in order to be able to teach in this way?’ With these and other
questions firmly in mind, we have several objectives in this first Australian edition:
1. Illustrate what it means to teach mathematics using a problem-based approach.
2. Serve as a go-to reference for the mathematics content suggested for Foundation to Year 9
as recommended in the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics (ACARA, 2016), and for the
research-based strategies that illustrate how students best learn this content.
3. Present a practical resource of robust, problem-based activities and tasks that can engage
students in the use of significant mathematical concepts and skills.
4. Report on technology that makes teaching mathematics in a problem-based approach
more visible, including access to ready-to-use activity pages and quality websites.
▶▶FEATURES OF THE AUSTRALIAN EDITION

The chapters in this text are separated into two distinct sections. The first section consists of
seven chapters and covers important ideas that cross the boundaries of specific areas of
content. The second section, consisting of sixteen chapters, offers teaching suggestions and
activities for the major mathematics topics in the Foundation to Year 9 curriculum.
Chapters in Section 1 offer perspectives on the challenging task of helping students learn
mathematics. Having a feel for the discipline of mathematics – that is, to know what it means
to ‘do mathematics’ – is critical to learning how to teach mathematics well. In addition,
understanding constructivist and sociocultural perspectives on learning mathematics and
how they are applied to teaching through problem-solving provides a foundation and rationale
for how to teach and assess students in Foundation to Year 9.
You will be teaching students for whom English is an additional language or dialect, who
are gifted or have additional needs. In this text, you will learn how to apply instructional
strategies in ways that support and challenge all learners. Formative assessment strategies,
strategies for diverse learners and effective use of technological tools are addressed in specific
chapters in Section 1 (Chapters 5, 6 and 7, respectively), and throughout Section 2.
Each chapter of Section 2 focuses on one of the major content areas in the Foundation–Year 9
mathematics curriculum. It begins with identifying the big ideas for that content, and also
provides guidance on how students best learn that content through problem-based activities to
engage them in understanding mathematics. Reflecting on the activities as you read can help
you think about the mathematics from the perspective of the student. As often as possible, take
out a pencil and paper and try the problems so that you actively engage in your learning about
students learning mathematics. In so doing, we are hopeful that this book will increase your
own understanding of mathematics, the students you teach and how to teach them well.
Preface xiii
FOCUS ON AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM: MATHEMATICS CONTENT

DESCRIPTIONS AND PROFICIENCY STRANDS
The Australian Curriculum: Mathematics is described in Chapter 1 along with other
standards documents. In Section 2, references to the Australian Curriculum are embedded in
the text and every activity lists the Australian Curriculum content descriptions that can be
developed in that activity. Additionally, within the chapters you will find Australian
Curriculum proficiency strand margin notes that identify content that illustrates what these
strands look like in classroom teaching.
Appendix B provides the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics content descriptions for
Foundation–Year 9, the chapter where the content description is addressed and activities from
this textbook that can be used to support students’ learning of the content. We believe you
will find this an invaluable resource for planning instruction.
▶▶EDUCATOR RESOURCES
A suite of resources is provided to assist with delivery of the content, as well as to support
learning and teaching.
Test bank. The test bank provides a wealth of testing material. Each chapter offers a wide
variety of question types, arranged by section. Questions can be integrated into Blackboard,
Canvas or Moodle learning management systems.
Instructor manual. The instructor manual provides detailed concepts, discussion topics
and activities to enrich lessons.
Digital image PowerPoint slides. All the diagrams and tables from the course content
are available for lecturer use.
▶▶ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many talented people have contributed to the success of this book. We have received thoughtful
feedback from many mathematics teacher educators on both the US ninth edition and on the
manuscript for this first Australian edition. Each reviewer challenged us to think through
important issues, and many specific suggestions have found their way into the book. Thank you to:
▶▶ Anne Bayetto, Flinders University ▶▶ Tracey Muir, University of Tasmania
▶▶ Jill Brown, Australian Catholic University ▶▶ Lisa O’Keeffe, University of South
▶▶ Raymond Brown, Griffith University Australia
▶▶ Brian Doig, Deakin University ▶▶ Christine Ormond, Edith Cowan University
▶▶ Rahul Ganguly, University of Southern ▶▶ Maura Sellars, University of Newcastle
Queensland ▶▶ Thuan Thai, University of Notre Dame
▶▶ Wayne Hawkins, University of Canberra Australia
We are privileged to work with fantastic colleagues at Pearson, particularly Stephen Heasley,
Nicole Le Grand and Melanie Dankel, who offered us valuable support and advice. Stephen,
our portfolio manager, provided the vision for this first Australian edition and helped us define
the direction of this edition. Our development editor, Nicole, consistently offered us advice
and encouragement about our chapters. Melanie, lead editor and copy editor, helped us to
further refine our chapters.
From Amy Brass: I am grateful for my husband, Jory Brass, who is my biggest supporter and
challenges me in the best ways possible to think more deeply about education. I am also
grateful for my parents and my in-laws, who kindly asked for updates about the textbook and
who also offered their support.
HOW TO USE THIS TEXT
By flipping through the text, you will notice many section headings, a large number of figures
and various special features. All are designed to make the text more useful as a long-term
resource. Here are a few things to look for.
CHAPTER 14
Algebraic thinking,
equations and functions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter and engaging in the embedded activities and reflections, you should be
able to:
▶ Learning objectives LO 14.1 Summarise each area of algebraic thinking.
LO 14.2 Describe connections between number and algebraic thinking.
To help readers know what they should LO 14.3 Explore ways to engage students in applying properties of the operations to number
expect to learn, each chapter begins with and algebra.
LO 14.4 Illustrate and describe patterns and functions and describe how to engage students in
learning objectives. learning about functions in Foundation–Year 8.
LO 14.5 Analyse challenges students have with symbols (e.g. equal sign, variables) and identify
strategies that can avoid or undo these limited conceptions.
LO 14.6 Define mathematical modelling and describe ways to incorporate algebraic thinking into
teaching across mathematics.
A lgebraic thinking (also called algebraic reasoning) begins in the Foundation year
as young students ‘represent practical situations to model addition and sharing’
(ACMNA004); ‘sort and classify familiar objects and explain the basis for these classifica-
tions’; and ‘copy, continue and create patterns with objects and drawings’ (ACMNA005)
(ACARA, 2016). Similar connections between arithmetic and algebra are noted at every
year of the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics from Foundation through Year 8, where
number and algebra are integrated as one of the three content strands. In upper primary,
students begin to learn algebra in more abstract and symbolic ways, focusing on under-
standing and using variables, expressions and equations. The Australian Curriculum
introduces linear and non-linear relationships as a sub-strand in Year 7, but functional
thinking begins in the early years as students consider real-world situations where quanti-
ties covary, such as the relationship between someone’s age and how tall they are. Students’
algebraic thinking can be developed across all the content strands and is integral to math-
ematical reasoning, as can be seen in the descriptions of the proficiency strands at each year
level of the Australian Curriculum.
▶ Big ideas BIG IDEAS

Much of the research and literature ▶ Algebra is a useful tool for generalising arithmetic and representing patterns in our world.
Explaining the regularities and consistencies across many problems gives students the chance
espousing a student-centred approach to generalise.
suggests that teachers plan their ▶ The methods we use to compute and the structures in our number system can and should be
generalised. For example, the generalisation that a + b = b + a tells us that 83 + 27 = 27 + 83
instruction around big ideas rather without the need to compute the sums on each side of the equal sign.
than isolated skills or concepts. At

the beginning of each chapter in
Section 2, you will find a list of the key
mathematical ideas associated with the M14_WALL5627_01_SE_C14.indd 303 24/04/19 3:55 PM
chapter. Teachers find these lists helpful

to quickly envision the mathematics they
are to teach.
Black 7
Brown 8
Blue 9
Orange 10
How to use this text xv

The number line is a significantly more sophisticated length model than the physical tools
described previously (Bright, Behr, Post & Wachsmuth, 1988), but it is an essential model that
needs be emphasised more in the teaching of fractions (Clarke et al., 2008; Flores et al., 2006;
Siegler et al., 2010; Usiskin, 2007; Watanabe, 2006). The Australian Curriculum: Mathemat-
ics (ACARA, 2016) suggests that students should be locating fractions on a number line from
Year 4 to Year 7.
▶ Activities ACTIVITY 15.2 ACMNA078
There are numerous activities in every Who is winning?

chapter in Section 2. Some activity ideas Use the Who is winning? activity page and give students paper strips or ask them to draw a number
line. This activity can be done two ways (depending on your lesson goals). First, ask students to use
STUDENTS
with
EAL/D
STUDENTS
are described directly in the text and in reasoning to answer the question ‘Who is winning?’ Students can use reasoning strategies to com-
ADDITIONAL
NEEDS
pare and decide. Second, students can locate each person’s position on a number line. Explain that
the illustrations. Others are presented in the friends below are playing ‘Red light, green light’. The fractions tell how much of the distance they have already moved. Can
the numbered activity boxes. Every activity you place these friends on a line to show where they are between the start and finish? Second, rather than place them, ask stu-
dents to use reasoning to answer the question, ‘Who is winning?’
is a problem-based task (as described in Aria: 34 Harry: 12 Luca: 56
Chapter 3), is aligned with the Australian Hannah: 58 Ahmed: 59 Angela: 23
Curriculum and is designed to engage This game can be differentiated by changing the value of the fractions or the number of friends (fractions). The game of ‘Red
students in doing mathematics. light, green light’ may not be familiar to EAL/D students. Modelling the game with people in the class and using estimation are
good ways to build background and support all students, particularly those with additional learning needs.
M15_WALL5627_01_SE_C15.indd 349 ▲ Adaptations for students with 24/04/19 3:56 PM
additional learning needs and EAL/D

students
474 SECTION 2 DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES Chapter 6 provides detailed background
and strategies for how to support students
with additional learning needs and students
ACTIVITY 19.20 ACMMG109 for whom English is an additional language
Fixed perimeters or dialect (EAL/D). Many adaptations,
Give students a loop of non-stretching string that is 24 centimetres in circumference and however, are specific to a particular activity
1-centimetre grid paper or just use the grid paper alone. The task is to decide what different-
sized rectangular gardens can be made with a perimeter of 24 centimetres. Each different or task. Therefore, Section 2 chapters offer
rectangle can be recorded on the 1-centimetre grid paper with the area noted inside the adaptations and instructions within activities
sketch of the garden (A = 20 cm2). Then record all of the results on the Fixed perimeter
recording sheet. (look for the icons) that can meet the needs
students with additional learning needs and
EAL/D students.
ACTIVITY 19.21 ACMMG109
Fixed areas
Provide students with 1-centimetre grid paper. The task is to see how many rectangular gardens
326 not SECTION
can be made with an area of 36 – that is, to make filled-in rectangles, 2 DEVELOPMENT
just borders. Each new ◀ Blackline Masters, activity pages and teacher
OF MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES
rectangle should be recorded by sketching the garden and the dimensions on grid paper. For
each rectangle, students should determine and record the perimeter inside the figure (P = 24 cm). resource pages
Then record all the results on the Fixed area recording sheet. You might also use the Fixed areas
expanded lesson for this activity.
Pause
More&than
reflect
130 ready-to-use pages are provided to
support the problems and activities in the book.
How would you write this inequality? How might students write it? What difficulties do you anticipate? And,
importantly, what questions will you pose to help students build meaning for the inequality symbols?
These are highlighted in pink in the text and
Students might record the situation in any of the following ways (using a for the amount
Pause & reflect can
of money for be downloaded from the Pearson Australia website
the gift):
Let’s think about the two preceding activities. For ‘Fixed areas’, will all of the perimeters be the same? If at www.pearson.com.au.
not, what can you say about the shapes with longer or shorter perimeters? For ‘Fixed perimeters’, will the 5a + 10 … 100 10 + 5a … 100 100 Ú 1 + 5a 100 Ú 5a + 10
areas remain the same? Why or why not?
They may also make these inequalities without the equal signs: 6 and 7. Discuss with
students what it means to say ‘less than’ or ‘less than or equal to’. Invite students to debate
ACTIVITY 19.22 ACMMG137 which signs make more sense given the situation. Graph the result and see if the graph makes
sense given the situation.
Sorting areas and perimeters Deciding whether to use the less than or greater than sign can be confusing for students.
▶ Formative assessment notes
Students must complete Activities 19.20 and 19.21 first and cut out all the figures. Then have
Invite students to say in words what the inequality means. For example, the first statement
directly translates to 5 gift cards and $10 for a packet of holders must be less than or equal to
two charts or locations labelled with ‘Perimeter’ and ‘Area’. Teams should place their figures $100. The final example directly translates to ‘I have $100’, which must be more than or the
Assessment should be an integral part of
(left to right) from smallest perimeter (or area) to largest perimeter (or area) on the appropri- same as the cost of 5 cards and the holders. Ask questions that help students analyse the situ-
teaching. Similarly, it makes sense to think
ate chart. Ask students to write down observations, make conjectures and draw conclusions. ation quantitatively, such as, ‘Which has to be more, the amount you have or the amount you
Students may be surprised to find out that rectangles having the same areas do not necessar- spend?’
about what to be listening for (assessing)
ily have the same perimeters and vice versa. And, of course, this fact is not restricted to
as you read about different areas of content
rectangles. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT NOTES. Ask students to write a real-life story problem
that involves an inequality. You can add expectations such as ‘it must be multi-step’
development. Throughout the content and ‘you must illustrate the solution on a number line’ (for more details see Whaley,
chapters,
When students completethere
these are formative
activities assessment
they will notice an interesting relationship.
2012, for a full lesson, examples, rubric and discussion). Writing helps students connect repre-
sentations and helps you see what misconceptions they might have. ■
When the notes withthebrief
area is fixed, shape descriptions of waysis ‘square-like’,
with the smallest perimeter to as is the
rectangle with the largest area. If you allowed for any shapes whatsoever, the shape with the
assess
smallest perimeter for athe
fixed topic
area is a in that
circle. section.
Also, Reading
they will notice that the ‘fatter’ a shape,
Conceptualising the equal sign as a balance. Helping students understand the
the shorter these
its perimeter; the skinnier a shape,
assessment notes the longer
as youits perimeter.
read the (These relationships idea of equivalence can and must be developed concretely (Warren et al., 2009). The next two
are also true in three dimensions – replace perimeter with surface area and area with volume.) activities illustrate how kinaesthetic approaches, tactile objects and visualisations can rein-
AC Proficiency
text
As students movecan also help
to thinking you understand
about formulas, they can considerhow best
exploring how the perim- force the ‘balancing’ notion of the equal sign.
Strands eter of rectangles can be put into a general form. Begin by having students generate ways that
Reasoning
to assist struggling students.
perimeter problems can be solved. As in the rectangle shown previously, it is common for
ACTIVITY 14.12 ACMNA015; ACMNA029

Seesaw students
Ask students to raise their arms to look like a seesaw. Explain that you have big
M19_WALL5627_01_SE_C19.indd 474 24/04/19 3:59 PM STUDENTS
juicy oranges, all weighing the same, and tiny little apples, all weighing the with
ADDITIONAL
same. Ask students to imagine that you have placed an orange in each of their NEEDS
left hands (students should bend to lower left side). Ask students to imagine
that you place another orange on the right side (students level off). Next, with
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2020 — 9781488615627
oranges —Van de ask
still there, Walle/Primary andanmiddle
students to imagine years
apple added mathematics:
to the Teaching
left. Finally, say you are developmentally 1e
CREATING GRAPHS
Students should be involved in deciding how they want to represent their data, but they will
need to be introduced to the various options and when each display can and cannot be used.
The value of having students actually construct their own graphs is not so much that they
xvi Howlearn
tothe use this but
techniques, textthat they are personally invested in the data and that they learn how
a graph conveys information. Once a graph is constructed, the most important activity is
discussing what it tells the people who see it. Analysing data that are numerical (number of
pockets) versus categorical (colour of socks) is an added challenge for students as they struggle
to make sense of the graphs (Russell, 2006). If, for example, the graph has seven stickers above
the five, students may think that five people have seven pockets or seven people have five
pockets.
Creating graphs requires care and precision, including determining appropriate scales and AC Proficiency
labels. But the reason for the precision is so that an audience is able to see at a glance the sum- Strands
mary of the data gathered on a particular question. Fluency ◀ Australian Curriculum proficiency
TECHNOLOGY note. Computer programs and graphing calculators can provide AC Proficiency
strands margin notes
a variety of graphical displays. Use the time saved by technology to focus on the Strands
discussions about the information that each display provides. Students can make Reasoning Connections to the four proficiency strands
their own selections from among different graphs and justify their choice based on their
own intended purposes. TinkerPlots (www.tinkerplots.com) and Geogebra (www.geogebra. of the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics
org) are two examples of software that is available for students to graphically represent
data. The graphing calculator puts data analysis technology in the hands of every student.
are highlighted in the margins. The location
The TI-73 calculator is designed for middle years students. It will produce eight different of the note indicates an example of the
kinds of plots or graphs, including pie graphs, column graphs and picture graphs, and will
compute and graph lines of best fit. The Internet also offers opportunities to explore identified strand in the nearby text.
different graphs. Create a Graph (NCES Kids Zone; https://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/) provides
tools for creating five different graphical displays. NCTM’s Illuminations Data grapher and
Advanced data grapher (https://illuminations.nctm.org) allow students to enter data, select
M21_WALL5627_01_SE_C21.indd 539 ▲ Technology notes 24/04/19 9:16 PM
Infusing technological tools is important in learning mathematics, as you will learn in Chapter 7. We
have infused technology notes throughout Section 2. A technology icon is used to identify places
within the text or activity where a technology idea or resource is discussed. Descriptions include
open-source (free) software, applets and other online resources, as well as ideas for calculator use.
CHAPTER 14 ALgEbRAIC THINkINg, EqUATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 341
REFLECTIONS ON CHAPTER 14
WRITING TO LEARN growing pattern would you look for the recursive
Assess your understanding and application of chapter content ◀ End-of-chapter resources
relationship? Where would you look for the
correspondence relationship?
by answering the following questions.
6. What is mathematical modelling?
1. Generalisation and symbolisation are essential aspects
of algebraic thinking. Describe what you think each
The end of each chapter includes two major subsections: Reflections,
word means and give an example. which
FOR includesAND
DISCUSSION ‘Writing to learn’
EXPLORATION and ‘For discussion and exploration’, and
2. What misconceptions or limited conceptions do
students have regarding the equal sign? What causes Resources,
▶ The which
idea of having students includes
make ‘Literature connections’ (found in all Section 2
connections from
arithmetic to algebra is the emphasis of algebra in the
these misconceptions and how can teaching clear chapters)
primary and
years. What ‘Recommended
examples can you find in the readings’.
these up? curriculum for taking an algorithm and presenting it in
3. What misconceptions or limited conceptions do a way that it becomes a process for generalising a rule?
students have regarding variables? What causes these Writing to learn Questions are provided that help you reflect on the
▶ Read the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics from
misconceptions and how can teaching clear these up? important pedagogical ideas related to the content in the chapter. Writing
Foundation to Year 8, focusing on the ‘Patterns and
4. Explain how to solve the equation 4x + 3 = x + 12 on algebra’ and ‘Linear and non-linear relationships’ in the
the pan balance. out the answers to these questions in your own words, or talking about them
Number and Algebra strand. What do you notice about
5. What is a recursive relationship? A correspondence with peers, is one of the best ways for you to develop your understanding
the connections between arithmetic and algebra?
relationship (explicit rule)? Where in a table for a
of each chapter’s main ideas. Answers and feedback for each question are
provided.
For discussion and exploration These questions ask you to explore an
RESOURCES FOR CHAPTER 14issue related to that chapter’s content, applying what you have learned.
For example, questions may ask you to reflect on classroom observations,
LITERATURE CONNECTIONS Equal shmequal Kroll (2005)
The following examples of books are excellent beginnings This story is aboutcurriculum
analyse materials
a mouse and her friends who want toorplaytake a position on controversial issues.
for patterns and building tables of values. We hope
tug-of-war. that
To do so, theythese questions
must determine how to makewill stimulate thought and cause spirited
both sides equal so that the game is fair. In the end, they use
Anno’s magic seeds Anno (1994) conversations.
a seesaw to balance the weight of the friends. This focus on
Anno’s magic seeds has several patterns. A wise man gives equal sides and balance make this a great book for focusing
on the meaning of the equal sign.
Jack two magic seeds, one to eat and one to plant. The
planted seed will produce two new seeds by the following
Literature connections Section 2 chapters contain great children’s literature
Two of everything: A Chinese folktale Hong (1993)
year. Several years later, Jack decides to plant both seeds. suggestions for launching into the mathematics concepts in the chapter
The magic pot discovered by Mr Haktak doubles whatever
Then he has a family and starts to sell seeds. At each stage goes in it, including his wife! This idea of input–output is
of the story, there is an opportunity to develop a table of just read. For each title suggested, there is a brief description of how the
great for exploring functions from Years 2 through 8; just
values and extend the current pattern into the future.
Austin and Thompson (1997) describe how they used the
mathematics concepts in the chapter can be connected to the story. These
vary the rule of the magic pot from doubling to something
more complex. For more details and handouts, see Suh
story to develop patterns and tables of values with Year 6/7 literature-based mathematics activities will help you engage students in
(2007a) and Wickett and colleagues (2002).
students.
interesting contexts for doing mathematics.
Bats on parade Appelt and Sweet (1999) RECOMMENDED READINGS
This story includes the pattern of bats walking 1 by 1,
then 2 by 2, and so on. One activity from this enjoyable
Recommended readings In this section, you will find an annotated list of
Articles
Kalman, R. (2008). Teaching algebra without algebra.
book is determining the growing pattern of the number of articles and books to augment the information found in the chapter. These
Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 13(6), 334–339.
bats given the array length (e.g. 3 for the 3 : 3 array).
There is also one mouse, so this can be included in a recommendations
This article includes three contextsinclude
that involve professional
simplifying resources designed for the classroom
second investigation. Activity pages for these two ideas equations and effectively explains how to make sense of the
and two others can be found in Roy and Beckmann teacher.
simplification (In addition
by relating it to the context. to the recommended
An excellent resource for readings, there is a References list
(2007). at the
helping middleend of the
school students make book forandallproperties.
sense of symbols sources cited within the chapters.)
M14_WALL5627_01_SE_C14.indd 341 24/04/19 3:55 PM
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
JOHN VAN DE WALLE
The late John A. Van de Walle was a professor emeritus at Virginia Commonwealth University.
He was a leader in mathematics education who regularly gave professional development
workshops for K–8 teachers in the United States and Canada focused on mathematics
instruction that engaged students in mathematical reasoning and problem solving. He visited
and taught in many classrooms and worked with teachers to implement student-centred
mathematics lessons. He co-authored the Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Mathematics K–6 series
and contributed to the original Pearson School mathematics program enVisionMATH.
Additionally, John was very active in the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(NCTM), writing book chapters and journal articles, serving on the board of directors,
chairing the educational materials committee and speaking at national and regional meetings.
KAREN KARP
Karen S. Karp is a visiting professor at Johns Hopkins University (Maryland). Previously,
she was a professor of mathematics education at the University of Louisville for more than
20 years. Prior to entering the field of teacher education, she was an elementary school teacher
in New York. She is the co-author of Developing Essential Understanding of Addition and
Subtraction for Teaching Mathematics in Pre-K–Grade 2, Discovering Lessons for the Common Core
State Standards in Grades K–5 and Putting Essential Understanding of Addition and Subtraction
into Practice Pre-K–Grade 2. She is a former member of the NCTM board of directors and a
former president of the Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators (AMTE). She
continues to work in classrooms to support teachers in ways to instruct students with
additional needs.
JENNIFER BAY-WILLIAMS
Dr Jennifer M. Bay-Williams is a professor at the University of Louisville. She has written
many articles and books around K–12 mathematics education, including the three-book series
related to this book – Teaching Student Centered Mathematics – and various other books
including Everything You Need for Mathematics Coaching, Developing Essential Understanding of
Addition and Subtraction for Teaching Mathematics in Pre-K–Grade 2, On the Move and Math and
Literature: Grades 6–8. Jennifer taught elementary, middle and high school in Missouri and in
Peru, and continues to learn and work in K–8 classrooms in rural and urban settings. She has
been a member of the NCTM board of directors, AMTE secretary, president and lead writer
for Standards for the Preparation of Teachers of Mathematics and is currently on the TODOS:
Mathematics for All board of directors.
AMY BRASS
Amy Brass is currently part of the education faculty at the University of Northern Iowa and
was formerly a mathematics education lecturer at the University of Melbourne Graduate
School of Education. She is a mathematics teacher educator whose experiences include
working with pre-service teachers and practicing teachers in both Australia and the United
States. She has taught mathematics content and mathematics pedagogy classes to pre-service
and practicing primary and secondary teachers in several undergraduate and graduate
courses. Prior to entering the field of teacher education, Amy was a lower secondary maths
teacher. Amy’s research interests and publications focus on people’s understanding of large
numbers and their magnitude as well as pre-service teachers’ conceptions of mathematics
education textbooks.
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
BRENDAN BENTLEY
Dr Brendan Bentley is a lecturer in education. He is the director of Partnerships and
Engagement, and the program director of the Master of Teaching program at the University
of Adelaide. He previously worked at the University of South Australia and is an experienced
school principal, curriculum leader and teacher of STEM education. Brendan has designed
and written postgraduate educational leadership courses at both national and international
levels and is a consultant in professional formation and development for teachers and school
leaders. His research interests are in educational leadership, cognitive load theory, STEM,
science and mathematics education and in particular proportional reasoning.
SUE FERGUSON
Sue Ferguson retired from her position of lecturer, primary and early childhood mathematics
education at Victoria University in late 2017. Before working at VU she was the project officer
at the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) where she
managed the early development of the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics. She has had
many national roles, including strategic planning manager at Curriculum Corporation and as
subject matter expert for The Le@rning Federation (now Scootle). Sue began her career as a
secondary maths teacher and was executive officer at the Mathematics Association of Victoria.
WENDY GOFF
Dr Wendy Goff is a mathematics education lecturer at Swinburne University of Technology,
Victoria. Wendy’s previous experience spans over a variety of higher education, primary and
early childhood settings. She has worked full time in the university setting since 2009,
teaching mathematics education in undergraduate and postgraduate programs. Her research
focuses on adult relationships and how they facilitate the mathematical learning of children.
Wendy has published in the areas of mathematics education, family–school partnership and
the transition to school. She is an active member of the Mathematics Education Research
Group of Australasia and has presented her work in mathematics education to national and
international audiences.
SHARYN LIVY
Dr Sharyn Livy is a lecturer of primary mathematics education in the Faculty of Education at
Monash University. She is passionate about providing pre-service teachers and teachers with
innovative mathematical experiences that promote understanding and knowledge for teaching.
Her research interests include implementation of sequences of challenging tasks, geometric
reasoning and engaging children with mathematics through picture story books. She also
regularly conducts professional learning for teachers and has delivered workshops and
presentations at national and international conferences.
MARGARET MARSHMAN
Margaret Marshman is a mathematics educator at the University of the Sunshine Coast. She
has taught all levels of mathematics education from early years, primary and secondary at
both University of the Sunshine Coast and Griffith University. Previously, she was a
secondary mathematics and science teacher and mathematics head of department and
physicist/applied mathematician.
About the contributors xix
DAVID MARTIN
Dr David Martin teaches mathematics curriculum and pedagogy at the University of the
Sunshine Coast. Prior to this role, David taught at the University of Southern Queensland,
and in the US Florida Atlantic University and Indian River State College. During this tenure,
David has been awarded multiple teaching awards. David’s research interests include the
impact of problem-based learning on pre-service teachers’ mathematics pedagogical content
knowledge and place value concept knowledge. Prior to university teaching, David held
positions in the state school system: deputy principal, dean of student discipline, head of
department: mathematics, middle school mathematics and literacy teacher and primary
school teacher.
CATH PEARN
Dr Cath Pearn is a lecturer in Mathematics Education at The University of Melbourne and
teaches in all levels of Master of Teaching programs – early childhood, primary and secondary.
She also teaches the subject Specific Learning Difficulties: Numeracy. Cath provides
professional development for primary and secondary teachers, particularly in identification
and support of students needing additional assistance. Cath developed Mathematics
Intervention, a program for Year 1 students mathematically ‘at risk’, which she continues to
support. Her PhD looks at the links between fractional competence and algebraic thinking.
Cath is also a senior research fellow at the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER).
THEODOSIA PRODROMOU
Dr Theodosia Prodromou is a senior lecturer in mathematics education at the University of
New England. She has experience in teaching mathematics education to pre-service teachers
and in-service teachers within primary, secondary and postgraduate programs. She is involved
in European and international research projects. Her interests mostly focus on the relationship
between technology and mathematical thinking; integration of digital technologies in the
teaching of mathematics; STEM education; secondary teachers’ professional development;
statistics education; statistical literacy; and use of big data in educational settings. She is
working on numerous research projects worldwide related to technology integration into
schools, big data and augmented reality.
DUNCAN SYMONS
Dr Duncan Symons is a lecturer in science and mathematics education. His primary
responsibilities involve preparatory teacher education in the fields of primary mathematics
and science. Duncan’s research interests include inquiry, investigative and problem-based
approaches to mathematics education in the primary years. The adoption and promotion of
STEM as a means to achieve integration has become an area of research and teaching interest,
and Duncan facilitates a program for teacher candidates at the University of Melbourne with
this as a focus. Duncan has many research publications in technology embedded mathematics,
dialogic approaches to mathematics instruction and integrated STEM education.
KARINA WILKIE
Dr Karina Wilkie has taught school mathematics across the full range of year levels,
Foundation to Year 12, spanning 20 years in Australia and England. She completed her PhD
at the University of Melbourne in 2011 and currently lectures undergraduate and postgraduate
pre-service teachers and postgraduate school mathematics leaders at Monash University. She
supervises doctoral students and consults for individual schools, Independent Schools
Victoria and Catholic Education Melbourne, particularly on teaching primary and secondary
mathematics through investigative and challenging problem-solving. Karina’s research
interests include developing functional thinking in algebra with multiple-representational
activity, student engagement, argumentation in mathematics and teacher professional
learning.
xx About the contributors
JONATHAN WRAY
Jonathan Wray is the technology contributor to the US edition of this text. He is the acting
coordinator of secondary mathematics curricular programs in the Howard County public
school system. He has been recognised for his expertise in infusing technology in mathematics
teaching and was named an outstanding technology leader in education by the Maryland
Society for Educational Technology. He was a primary and intermediate grades classroom
teacher, gifted and talented resource teacher, elementary mathematics specialist, curriculum
and assessment developer, grant project manager and educational consultant.
CHAPTER 1
Teaching mathematics
for the 21st century
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter and engaging in the embedded activities and reflections, you should be
able to:
LO 1.1 Summarise the major factors that influence the teaching of mathematics.
LO 1.2 Describe the important elements that comprise the Australian Curriculum.
LO 1.3 Explore qualities needed to learn and grow as a professional teacher of mathematics.
S omeday soon you will find yourself in front of a class of students, or perhaps you are already
teaching. What general ideas will guide the way you teach mathematics? This book will help
you become comfortable with the mathematics content of the Foundation–Year 9 curriculum,
particularly the content of Foundation–Year 6. You will also learn about research-based strate-
gies for helping students come to understand mathematics and be confident in their ability to
do mathematics. It is essential that you have a thorough personal knowledge of mathematics
along with an understanding of how students learn mathematics. Combined, these are the most
important tools you can acquire to be successful in encouraging all students to become life-
long learners of mathematics. Mathematics understanding is vital for many career paths and
is important if people are to be fully functioning participants in personal, social and civic life.
▶▶BECOMING AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER

OF MATHEMATICS
Before we get started, think back to when you were in Foundation–Year 9 classrooms as a
student. What are your memories of learning mathematics? Here are some thoughts from
in-service and pre-service teachers of whom we asked the same question. Which description
do you resonate with?
I was really good at maths in lower primary year levels, but because I never understood
why maths works, it made it very difficult to embrace the concepts as I moved into higher
year levels. I started believing I wasn’t good at maths so I didn’t get too upset when my
grades reflected that. Kathryn
I had a wonderful teacher who made maths fun and relevant. We were encouraged to use
materials and to talk about our thinking. Everyone’s ideas were shared and respected.
I loved maths! I also had a teacher who just wanted everything done the way she said. It
didn’t matter if you had an alternative way of thinking that was correct. If it wasn’t her way,
then it was wrong. I hated maths then. Ainslee
As a student, I always felt lost during mathematics lessons. It was as if everyone around me
had a magic key or code that I missed out on getting. Ahmed
I remember maths being very challenging, intimidating and capable of making me literally
sick to my stomach. Maths was a bunch of rules and formulas I was expected to memorise,
but not to understand. Hung
2 SECTION 1 TEACHING MATHEMATICS: FOUNDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
I consider myself to be really good at maths and I enjoy mathematics-related activities, but
I often wonder if I would have been GREAT at maths and had a completely different
career if I had cared about maths as much as I do now. Sometimes I feel robbed. Jennet
Maths went from engaging, interactive instruction that I excelled at and loved, to lecture-
style instruction that I struggled with. I could not seek outside help, even though I tried,
because the teacher’s way was so different from the way of the people trying to help me.
I went from being in the top group to struggling without knowing how the change
happened. Janelle
Maths class was full of elimination games where students were pitted against each other to
see who could answer a maths fact the fastest. Because I have a good memory I did well,
but I hated every moment. It was such a nerve-wracking experience and for the longest
time that is what I thought maths was. George
Maths was never a problem because it was logical, everything made sense. Tula
As you can see, these memories reflect a range of emotions and experiences. The question
now becomes, what do you hope your students will say as they think back to your mathematics
teaching? The challenge is to get all your students to learn mathematics with understanding
and enthusiasm. Would you relish hearing your students, 15 years after leaving your class-
room, state that you encouraged them to be mathematically minded, curious about solving
new problems, self-motivated, able to critically think about both correct and incorrect strate-
gies, and that you nurtured them to be risk-takers willing to try and persevere on challenging
tasks? What will your legacy be?
As part of your personal desire to build successful learners of mathematics, you might
recognise that mathematics is sometimes seen as the subject that people love to hate. At social
events of all kinds – even at parent–teacher conferences – other adults will respond to the fact
that you are a teacher of mathematics with comments such as, ‘I could never do maths’, or
‘I can’t even balance my bank account’. Instead of dismissing these disclosures, consider what
positive action you can take. Would people confide that they don’t read and hadn’t read a book
in years? Not likely. Families’ and teachers’ attitudes towards mathematics may enhance or
detract from students’ ability to do maths. It is important for you and for students’ families to
know that mathematics ability is not inherited – anyone can learn mathematics. Moreover,
learning mathematics is an essential life skill. You need to find ways of countering these state-
ments, especially if they are stated in the presence of students, pointing out that it is a myth
that only some people can be successful in learning mathematics. Only in that way can the
chain of passing apprehension from family member to child, or in rare cases teacher to stu-
dent, be broken. There is much joy to be had in solving mathematical problems and you need
to model this excitement and nurture that passion in your students.
Your students need to think of themselves as mathematicians in the same way that many
of them think of themselves as readers. As students interact with our increasingly mathemati-
cal and technological world, they need to construct, modify, communicate or integrate new
information in many forms. Solving novel problems and approaching circumstances with a
mathematical perspective should come as naturally as reading new materials to comprehend
facts, insights or news. Consider how important this is to interpreting and successfully sur-
viving in our economy and in our environment.
The goal of this book is to help you understand the mathematics methods that will make
you an effective teacher for the 21st century. As you consider the information in this book,
your vision and confidence will grow.
▶▶A CHANGING WORLD

In his book The world is flat (2007), Thomas Friedman discusses the need for people to have
lasting skills that will survive the ever-changing landscape of available jobs. People with these
skills sit within a group called ‘untouchables’, as regardless of the shifting landscape of job
options, they will be successful in finding jobs. Friedman points out that in a world that is
digitised and surrounded by algorithms, maths lovers will always have career opportunities
CHAPTER 1 TEACHING MATHEMATICS FOR THE 21st CENTURY 3
and options. This is important as science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) jobs,
because of a skills gap, take more than twice as long to fill as other jobs in the marketplace
(Rothwell, 2014). This is also aligned with the thinkers who believe students need to not just
be university ready but innovation ready (Wagner, 2012).
It is the job of every teacher of mathematics to equip students with skills for potential
careers and their personal lives and to develop a ‘love of maths’ in students. Lynn Arthur Steen,
a well-known mathematician and educator, stated: ‘As information becomes ever more quanti-
tative and as society relies increasingly on computers and the data they produce, an innumerate
citizen today is as vulnerable as the illiterate peasant of Gutenberg’s time’ (1997, p. xv).
The changing world influences what should be taught in Foundation–Year 9 mathematics
classrooms. As we prepare students for jobs that possibly do not currently exist, we can predict
that there are few jobs for people where they just do simple computation. This is the task of
digital devices. We can also predict that there will be work that requires interpreting complex
data, designing algorithms to make predictions and using the ability to approach new prob-
lems in a variety of ways.
As you prepare to help students learn mathematics for the future and to become life-long
learners of mathematics, it is important to have some perspective on the forces that effect
change in the mathematics classroom. This chapter addresses the leadership that you, the
teacher, will develop as you shape the mathematics experience for your students. Your beliefs
about what it means to know and do mathematics and about how students make sense of math-
ematics will affect how you approach teaching and the understandings and skills your stu-
dents take from the classroom.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER
For more than two decades, mathematics education has been constantly changing. There
have been significant reforms that reflect the technological and informational needs of our
society, research on how students learn mathematics and the importance of providing oppor-
tunities to learn for all students, and ideas on how and what to teach from an international
perspective. Just as we would not expect doctors to be using the exact same techniques and
medicines that were prevalent when you were a child, so too are mathematics teachers’ meth-
ods evolving and transforming via a powerful collection of expert knowledge about how the
mind functions and how to design effective instruction (Wiggins, 2013).
There are several significant factors in this transformation. One factor is the public or
political pressure for change in mathematics education due largely to information about stu-
dent performance in national and international studies. These large-scale comparisons of
student performance continue to make headlines, provoke public opinion and pressure legis-
latures to call for tougher standards backed by testing. The pressures of testing policies
exerted on schools and, ultimately, on teachers may have an impact on teaching. These studies
are important because international and national assessments provide strong evidence that
mathematics teaching must change if our students are to be competitive in the global market
and able to understand the complex issues they must confront as responsible citizens.
National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN). NAPLAN

is an annual assessment conducted for all students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 (ACARA, 2016a). The
development and delivery of the tests is administered by ACARA (Australian Curriculum,
Assessment and Reporting Authority), and since 2016 the tests have been aligned to the Aus-
tralian Curriculum for English and Mathematics. The first NAPLAN tests took place in
2008 (ACARA, 2016a) and this was the first time all students in Australia in Years 3, 5, 7 and
9 were assessed in literacy and numeracy using the same year level tests. NAPLAN replaced
the different tests administered by Australian states and territories and improved the compa-
rability of students’ results across states and territories (ACARA, 2016a).
Data about student performance on the tests are provided to schools and parents. Stu-
dents’ results reflect the achievement of the student in comparison to the national median
scores across 10 bands. Data from NAPLAN tests are powerful tools for teachers as they
examine how to improve the learning of their students.
4 SECTION 1 TEACHING MATHEMATICS: FOUNDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
The numeracy tests consist of multiple choice and constructed response questions. Calcu-
lators are not allowed on NAPLAN tests in the primary years, but in Year 7 and Year 9 there
are two tests: one where calculators are allowed and one where they are not (ACARA, 2016b).
Content is assessed across all aspects of the curriculum, and there are also questions designed
to cover the proficiency strands across the different content strands of the Australian
Curriculum (ACARA, 2016b). Example tests and previous tests can be found at the National
Assessment Program (www.nap.edu.au) website.
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). In the mid-

1990s, 41 nations participated in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study, the
largest study of mathematics and science education ever conducted. Data were gathered in
Years 4, 8 and 12 from 500 000 students as well as from teachers. The results revealed that
Australian students performed above the international average of the TIMSS countries at
Year 4 and Year 8.
TIMSS studies have been repeated every four years since 1995, with the most recent
occurring in 2015. The 2015 Australian results show the mathematics and science achievement
of Years 4 and 8 students over the past 20 years has flatlined, while students’ achievements in
many other countries have improved (Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER),
2016). The results (ACER, 2016) also showed that in both Year 4 and Year 8, Australia
performs in the middle of the scale internationally and that the performance in both year
levels has not changed significantly since the last study.
One of the most interesting components of the study were the videos of Year 8 classrooms
in Australia, the United States and five of the highest-achieving countries. The results indi-
cate that teaching is a cultural activity and, despite similarities, the differences in the ways
countries were teaching mathematics were often striking.
Literacy and Numeracy Test for Initial Teacher Education Students (LANTITE).
The Literacy and Numeracy Test for Initial Teacher Education Students (LANTITE) is an
online test, delivered and managed by ACER, that all students in an initial teacher education
course must pass before graduation (ACER, 2018a). LANTITE assesses personal literacy and
numeracy skills to ensure that all teachers graduating from undergraduate and postgraduate
teaching courses have a high level of knowledge and understanding of literacy and numeracy.
The numeracy test consists of two sections: the longer one where an online calculator is avail-
able and a shorter section where no calculator is available (ACER, 2018b). More information,
including sample and practice tests, can be found on the ACER website (www.acer.org).
Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers (AAMT). The Australian

Association of Mathematics Teachers (AAMT) was formed in 1966 with the key aims of
supporting and enhancing the work of teachers, promoting the learning of mathematics, and
representing and promoting interests in mathematics education (AAMT, n.d.). Comprising a
federation of associations from each state and territory, it played a major part in the
development of the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics and continues to play a role in other
major curriculum and assessment projects. The association offers a range of services and
products, in particular the websites Top Drawer Teachers (https://topdrawer.aamt.edu.au),
which has some excellent resources for teaching at all year levels, and Dimensions (https://
dimensions.aamt.edu.au), which provides professional learning opportunities for improving
your mathematical understanding, differentiating programs, learning and assessment activities.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). One transformative factor

is the professional leadership of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM).
The NCTM has more than 80 000 members and is the world’s largest mathematics education
organisation. This group holds an influential role in the support of teachers and places an
emphasis on what is best for learners. For an array of resources, including the Illuminations
component that consists of a set of exciting instructional experiences for your students, visit the
NCTM website (https://illuminations.nctm.org).
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in tone, as was much of the music of his day. He was the teacher of
several famous musicians among whom were Hobrecht (who became
the teacher of Erasmus, the learned Dutch religious reformer),
Tinctoris, Josquin des Près, Loyset Compère, and Agricola who spent
most of his life in Spain and Portugal. In fact, Okeghem taught so
many, that the art of counterpoint was taken into all countries by his
pupils, so he can be called the founder of all music schools from his
own day to the present. He was chaplain at the French court and,
during forty years there, served three Kings of France!
Tinctoris, a Belgian (1446–1511), founded the first school of music
in Italy at Naples, and wrote a dictionary of musical terms.
But the “Prince” of musicians of the 15th century, was Josquin des
Près, or de Près (1455–1525). He was a pupil of Okeghem, and
although born in Flanders, spent much of his life away from his
home; he was a member of the Papal choir in Rome and afterwards
lived at the court of Louis XII in France. He also wrote a mass on the
theme of L’homme armé, and many other masses, motets, and
madrigals. Luther said of him,—“Josquin des Près is a master of the
notes. They do as he wills. Other composers must do as the notes
will. His compositions are joyous, gentle and lovely; not forced, not
constrained, nor slavishly tied to the rules, but free as the song of a
finch.”
Josquin des Près had many pupils, and among them were many
who became famous. Clement Janequin, or Jannequin, is one of the
best known from his music, and least known from the facts of his life.
Most of his works are of a secular nature and are original and
amusing, and so perfect that some people thought him as good as his
popular teacher. He was one of the first serious composers to imitate
the sounds of Nature in music!
One of his famous madrigals is the Chant des Oiseaux (Song of the
Birds) in which he tries to represent the sounds of birds of all kinds.
In the middle of the piece is heard the hoot of an owl; the birds get
together and chase away the poor hated owl, calling him a traitor,
then all is quiet again. Another of his pieces is named The Cackle of
Women! Another famous one still frequently sung is the Battle of
Marignan (1515), a lively piece in varied rhythm, which was one of
the most popular army songs of the 16th century. The words and
music imitate, first the tools of war, then the noise of the cannons
and the crackling of the guns, the joy of victory for the French, and
the retreat of the Swiss.
Another eminent pupil of Josquin des Près was Nicolas Gombert,
of Bruges. Like Jannequin, he was a Nature lover, and many of his
madrigals imitate its sounds. Secular music was now popular, and
his works show that a composer was allowed to give expression to his
feelings and ideas, for the prejudices of the earlier church music had
disappeared.
Jean Mouton, a native of Metz, was in the chapel of Louis XII and
of François I, King of France. His style was like his master’s and
some of his works were supposed to have been composed by Josquin.
Willaert Founds the Venetian School
Willaert was a pupil of both Josquin and Mouton. He was chapel

master at St. Mark’s in Venice, and was so famous as a teacher that
he attracted many good musicians, and became the founder of the
famous Venetian school of composers. He wrote many madrigals,
some of them on verses of Petrarch, the Italian poet. This work was
accomplished after he was sixty years old!
Willaert was the first organist to use two and sometimes three
choirs, each singing in four parts. Sometimes they sang in
combination and sometimes answered each other antiphonally.
According to Clarence G. Hamilton in his book Outlines of Music
History, the idea of these choirs was probably suggested to Willaert
because there were in St. Mark’s two very fine organs. In this you see
the influence instruments have on the growth of musical
compositions.
Willaert made use too, of the idea that the different parts could be
sounded together to form chords, instead of individual melodies as
was the case in poly-melody (polyphony or in the contrapuntal style).
This was a new idea, for up to this time the musicians had been
writing horizontal music, the melodic line looking something like
this:
Willaert’s idea, which probably came from folk-song and from

some of the hymns that Luther created, was colonnade-like (see
Chapter VII) or perpendicular music, which we might illustrate like
this:
St. Nicholas Tune by Orlandus Lassus
in which each line represents a chord, with the melody at the top.
This is how Harmony, or the science of chords, came into use as we
know it now.
Among Willaert’s pupils were Cyprian de Rore of Antwerp, who
succeeded his master at St. Mark’s, and most of his works were
madrigals which gained him much fame in Italy. He was one of the
first to use the chromatic scale (scale in semi-tones like black and
white keys on the piano).
An Italian, Zarlino, pupil of Willaert, must be mentioned here, not
as a writer of music but as the author of three most important books
on harmony and theory. These books seem to have been very much
needed for they were reprinted many times. Another Italian pupil of
Willaert was Andrea Gabrieli, like his master, also an organist at St.
Mark’s.
The greatest contribution from this Venetian school was its
important use of instrumental music as an independent art, thus
giving music a great push forward.
A composer whose motets and madrigals we still hear frequently is
Jacob Arcadelt, a Netherlander, who spent most of his life in Italy,
and shared with Willaert the glory of being one of the founders of the
Venetian school. He was a singer at the court of Florence, singing
master to the choir boys at St. Peter’s in Rome, and then he became a
member of the Papal choir.
The life of Claude Goudimel seems, from the little we know, to
have been dramatic. He is supposed to have been in Rome where he
taught Palestrina, the greatest composer of the age. One writer says
that he never was in Rome and was not the teacher of Palestrina!
Even his birthplace is disputed. What is certain, however, is that he
met his death in the massacre of the Huguenots (Protestants) at
Lyons in 1572. He wrote many settings of Calvinist Psalms by
Clement Marot which work led to his being a victim of the massacre.
Sweelinck Founds 17th Century Organ School
One of the last of the Netherland school was Jan Sweelinck (1562–
1621), the greatest organist of his time. He had so many pupils from
every country in Europe, that he became the founder of a very
famous school of organists. Among them were Scheidt, Reinken of
whom the story is told that Bach as a young boy walked miles to hear
him play, and Buxtehude, a Dane, who was one of the greatest of the
time of Bach. Sweelinck perfected the Organ Fugue which Bach later
made more beautiful than any other composer. Sweelinck’s talent
and work were so deeply appreciated in his home, Amsterdam, that
the merchants of that city gave him a generous income for his old
age. A splendid thing to have done!
The Great Lassus
The greatest composer of this Netherland school was Orlandus

Lassus, or Orlando di Lasso, or Roland de Lattre, take your choice!
He was born in Mons, Belgium, some time between 1520 and 1532.
When he was a child he had such a beautiful voice that he was
kidnapped three times from the school where he lived with the other
choristers. The third time he stayed with the Governor of Sicily,
Ferdinand Gonzague, and went from Sicily to Milan, then to Naples
and then to Rome where he became director of the choir of one of the
most celebrated churches. After this he went to England and to
France and finally returned to Antwerp. In 1557 he was invited to the
court of the Duke of Bavaria in Munich to direct the chamber music.
There he married a lady of the court and had two daughters and four
sons, who were musicians. Later he was made master of the chapel,
and the men who lived at that time said he was an inspiring choir
director, a great composer, and was deeply reverenced and loved.
The Duke was a splendid helper and patron of music, and
encouraged him to make their choir of ninety men one of the finest
in the world. Their lives were made so pleasant that a book,
published in 1568, says, “had the Heavenly Choir been suddenly
dismissed, it would straightway have made for the court of Munich,
there to find peace and retirement!”
Lassus used wind and brass instruments to accompany the voices
which were kept quite separate from the strings. At a banquet, the
wind instruments were heard during the early courses, then the
strings directed by someone else, then, during the dessert, Lassus
would direct the singing of the choir. So “chamber music” appears at
this point in the growth of music.
At the Duke’s suggestion, Lassus wrote music for seven Penitential
Psalms which were sung to the unhappy King, Charles IX, after the
massacre of the Huguenots on St. Bartholomew’s eve.
He wrote secular music as well as sacred and showed a keen sense
of humor in several of his secular pieces.
Soon after 1574, he wrote a set of twenty-four pieces for two parts:
twelve have words and are vocal duets, and the other twelve are
without words, to be played on instruments. The two groups are
exactly alike in form which shows that many of the motets and
madrigals for voices were often played on instruments alone.
The Hymn to St. John from which Guido d’Arezzo took the names
of the scale degrees, was made into a beautiful composition by
Lassus; the tenor sings a cantus firmus of the tones of the scales,
around which are woven many parts in counterpoint.
One festival day there was a violent storm in Munich, and orders
were given that the usual procession from the Church through the
town should not take place, but should be held inside the Church. As
the head of the procession reached the porch of the Church, and the
choir started a motet by Lassus, the sun suddenly came out and the
procession went on as usual through the town. This was looked upon
as a miracle, and whenever fine weather was wanted very much, this
motet was chosen! This story does not tell whether the miracle
always worked!
In Lassus’ later church music, he simplified the complicated
contrapuntal style, perhaps because he lived in the country where
Luther had introduced the chorale. (Page 166.) Even though Lassus
wrote masses and motets for the Catholic Church, he must have
heard these new hymns, and was unknowingly influenced by them.
A complete edition of all his works would fill almost sixty volumes.
If you can realize the huge task all this must have been, you will not
be surprised that his over-tired brain finally gave out and during the
last five years of his life he did no more composing. He died in 1594.
Orlandus Lassus was the last and one of the greatest of this
Netherland, or Franco-Flemish school, that for two hundred years
had led the world of music. Music had changed from a cocoon,
gradually developing into a radiant butterfly, or, in our book, we
should say that music had left childhood and was becoming a
stalwart lad.
Ronsard—French Poet
Before leaving the subject of these northern madrigal writers, we

must tell you about the famous French poet, Pierre de Ronsard, who
was born just four hundred years ago (1525). He supplied more
composers with words for their madrigals than any other poet of his
age, and he also sang some of his poems put to music. He said that
without music poetry was almost without grace, and that music
without the melody of verse was lifeless. Of course, today the poetry
and music have become so independent of each other, that many
poets object to having verse made a servant of music, and many
musicians think that music without words, that is, instrumental
music, is the highest type of musical art.
In 1552, Ronsard asked four of the leading composers to set some
of his sonnets to music. Jannequin, Pierre Certon, Claude Goudimel
and Muret accepted, each composing music for the same ten sonnets.
This experiment was so successful, that it was the talk of the entire
court, and Ronsard published all the songs in his first volume of
poetry. About the time that Shakespeare was born, in England, but
long before he had said,
The man that hath no music in his soul
Is fit for treason, stratagem and spoils,
Ronsard wrote a preface to a collection of songs dedicated to King

Charles IX, in which he says: “How could one get along with a man
who innately hated music? He who does not honor music, is not
worthy to see the soft light of the sun.”
Besides the four musicians who set the sonnets, others who used
Ronsard poems as texts for songs and madrigals were Philip de
Monte (or Mons), G. Costeley, organist to Charles IX, de la Grotte,
organist to Henri III, and Orlandus Lassus.
CHAPTER XII
Music Gets a Reprimand—Reformation and Rebirth of Learning—How
the Reforms Came to Be
Here is a little reminder of how music grew:

A scale came into use in Greece about 700 B.C.
It was separated into modes by the Greeks about 400 B.C.
It was adopted by the Romans and by the early Christians and was
used until the 10th century A.D. with little change.
450 years before the Christian era was the Golden Age of Pericles
in Greece.
450 years after the Christian era was the beginning of the Dark
Ages.
Harmony was first attempted in 900 A.D.
Between 900 A.D. and 1400, music made little headway.
Music has travelled along two roads,—the Church road and the
People’s road; they often crossed each other and became very much
mixed up. You remember how popular songs had found their way
into church music at the time of St. Gregory, and how the people
took melodies from the masses, put profane words to them, and sang
them in the taverns, at the street corners, in the tournaments and at
work.
Early in the 15th century folk songs had again invaded the Church
to the point that masses were known by the names of the folk songs
from which they were taken. This led to a very important reform, as a
result of which Palestrina, the greatest composer of the “Golden Age
of Catholic Church Music,” wrote his beautiful masses and motets,
and Luther, the founder of the Protestant faith, made up hymns that
are still sung and loved throughout Christendom.
Many things happened between 1400 and 1600, the period called
the Renaissance, or rebirth of the ancient Greek and Roman
learning. At this time the people in Italy (later in Spain, France,
England and Germany), awakened to study after the Dark Ages of
war and conquest. Now the people tried to bring back the literature,
drama, music, and sculpture of the Greeks and Romans. Read this
list of men whose genius developed through the new learning: Hans
Memling, the Flemish painter; Albrecht Dürer, the German painter
and wood and copper engraver; Hans Holbein, the German painter;
Leonardo da Vinci, Italian artist, engineer and scientist, probably the
most gifted man of all time; Michael Angelo, the Italian sculptor and
poet; Raphael, Correggio and Titian, Italian painters; Cervantes, the
Spanish dramatist, author of Don Quixote; Edmund Spenser of
England, who wrote The Faery Queen; Copernicus, the astronomer
and Christopher Columbus.
Invention of Printing
But the greatest event of this time was Gutenberg’s invention of

printing (1455) which has spread learning over the face of the earth.
Soon people were able to get books cheaper than the hand written
scrolls. Until this great moment the monks had been writing by hand
all books and music scores. Only the great and wealthy owned them,
and very few could read or write, for what would be the sense of
learning to read if one had nothing to read? So the invention of
printing awakened the desire to know how to read books and to learn
poetry, which sharpened people’s minds and enlightened them.
12,000 volumes were printed from 1463 to 1471 where perhaps a
hundred had been written before.
The first press (wooden type) was set up by Charles VII (1459) in
the Sorbonne in Paris, one of the greatest institutions of learning in
the world which still attracts students from all countries. The first
music was printed (1501 or 1502) by Ottaviano dei Petrucci in
Venice, and were three or four books of motets by Italian, French,
Flemish and German composers. Music was benefited by being
printed clearly and many changes were made to make it easier to
read. Up to this time it was worse than cross-word puzzles! It seemed
to be the object of the composers before the Renaissance to make
music look just as difficult as it possibly could, and there are many
examples of enigmatical canons which were used in the spirit of
games and could be solved only by those having the key to the
puzzles.
But now the printers who were learned men in those days,
simplified the notation, and did away with many useless signs.
People began to read it more easily, and music became more
popular. After Ottaviano died, Antonio Gardane and his sons
founded a publishing house in Venice, which was most useful to
composers. Then Paris and Antwerp began to have fine printers, and
in 1542 Ballard was made sole printer of music to the King and
nearly all the music through Louis XIV’s time (1638–1715) was
printed by his descendants. Late in the 17th century the measures
were separated by bars as they are today, and when metal was used
for type instead of wood, the old square note became oval like ours.
At the beginning of the Renaissance Church music was again
mixed with the most vulgar words from popular songs. “The
bowsprit got mixed with the rudder sometimes”—as in The Hunting
of the Snark.
At this time the people were beginning to think and read for
themselves, and to question whether the Church had the right to
dictate to and control them as it had been doing. They thought, too,
that many of the church officers were not good enough, and by
degrees the people protesting, broke away from the Roman Church
and formed others. Through this protest the Protestant church won
its name; this is known as the Reformation. With the new church
came the need for new services, new music and new ways of singing.
Martin Luther, the Reformer
“Truth to Nature” was the slogan of the Renaissance.

In 1453, the Mohammedans captured Constantinople, and the
Christian Church which had been there since the end of the 4th
century, was driven out. Many of the learned Christians fled to
Central Europe and brought with them a knowledge of Greek
literature and art which they taught to the people.
Christopher Columbus, in his search for a passage to India, found
a new continent, and in the same way these seekers for “Truth to
Nature,” although they may not have found exactly what they were
looking for, certainly opened gates that swept men and women
towards knowledge, appreciation, refinement and culture.
The outstanding person in the Reformation of the Church was
Martin Luther (1483–1546) who interests us specially for what he
did for the growth of music. Luther was a priest of the Catholic
Church, but he was also a German; he believed in a national life free
from Church government, and in singing hymns in the language of
the people instead of in Latin, in order that the words could be
understood. He spoke and wrote openly against certain actions of the
Church and for this he was put out of the Church of Rome. But, very
soon, he had enough followers to start a church of his own, and one
of the first things he did was to make a new music for it. Up to this
time the only music in Germany had been some hymns translated
from the Latin into the “vernacular,” the language of the people, the
songs of the Minnesingers and Meistersingers, and a rich crop of
folksongs that had appeared in the 14th century. There were also a
few composers who had learned to write counterpoint in the
Netherlands, Heinrich Isaak, Ludwig Senfl and Heinrich Fink, and
they, too, influenced the music of the Reformation.
Luther, a musician himself, knew the love that his countrymen had
for their hymns translated into German and for the folksongs, and
realized that singing in which the congregation took part would be a
power in the church. He had to gather material for new hymns
simple enough for the people to sing, and besides he needed new
music to replace the Mass. The result of his work is the chorale, the
foundation of the great German school of music of the 18th and 19th
centuries. He was helped in the work of creating these hymns by
Johann Walther and Conrad Rupf. The first hymnal (1524) was
selected from some of the finest Catholic hymns, Gregorian and
Ambrosian melodies, dignified folk-melodies, and some original
chorales by Luther himself.
He played the tunes of his chorales on a flute, and Walther wrote
them down. He wrote to a friend, “I wish after the example of the
Prophets and ancient Fathers of the Church, to make German Psalms
for the people, and that is to say, sacred hymns, so that the word of
God may dwell among the people by means of song also.” The
strength and beauty of these hymns can be seen in Ein’ Feste Burg ist
unser Gott (A Mighty Fortress is Our God).
The hymns were harmonized in four parts. They were usually sung
in unison (all singing the same thing) with the accompaniment of the
organ or a group of instruments. This great change, or revolt, broke
the backbone of polyphonic music, freed the spirit of the people, and
first brought into use modern scales (major and minor, as we know
them). Curiously enough, this Reformed Church Music also brought
about the “Golden Age of Catholic Music” with Palestrina as its
leading composer.
Palestrina—Prince of Music
Martin Luther had hoped to reform the Church but instead

founded a new one (another example of Columbus seeking a passage
to India). But this action of Luther’s was a challenge to the Mother-
Church, and steps were taken to reform many customs and practices
in the Church itself. As we have pointed out many times, popular
tunes with vulgar words had crept into the Church services. These
works composed for the Church were used to show the skill of the
composer rather than to express the love of God. Questions dealing
with the reforms for purifying the services of the Church were taken
up by the Council of Trent, a gathering of the learned Church men
and the Catholic kings. The council lasted for twenty years (1542 or
3–1562). Fancy that for a club meeting! Towards the end of its long
session, the council decided that all music in the “impure mode” (in
popular style), should be banished from the Church. They decided,
and we cannot see why they waited so long, that the Mass with
popular airs and words not approved by the Church fathers should
be prohibited. Palestrina had both the genius and the understanding
to meet the requirements, and his compositions for the Church are
the highest achievement of the 16th century.
You will read in many histories of music that Palestrina was asked
to write three masses to be sung before a group of Cardinals, in order
to find out whether or not any composer could write music fit for the
Church. These three masses were considered so fine, that he was
claimed as the one who saved Church music. This would have been a
great honor, but it did not happen, and was only a legend to show
Palestrina’s greatness. No doubt Palestrina wrote more carefully and
beautifully on account of the decision of the Council of Trent, and
was so great a composer that all vocal polyphonic music of the 16th
century is said to be in the “Palestrinian” style.
Now this Palestrina was Giovanni Pierluigi, born in a humble
home at Palestrina, a suburb of Rome. In English his name would be
John Pierluigi of Palestrina. The year of his birth was about 1525 or
1526. He probably was a choir boy and was trained in music in one of
the churches of Rome. You may hear that the Chapel master of Santa
Marie Maggiore heard him singing on the road and picked him out
for his music school, but this may be only one of many legends told
of him. Even the name of his teacher is uncertain, some say that it
was Goudimel, others that it was Gaudio or Claudio Mell, and still
others that it was Cimello. However, his teacher’s name seems to
have had the letters “mel” in it, and all the rest is guess work. Before
he was twenty, he played the organ in a church at Palestrina, sang in
the daily service, taught singing and music, and shortly after was
married.
In 1551 he became chapel master in the Capella Giulia (Julia
Chapel) in the Vatican. His first published volume of five masses
(1554) he dedicated to the Pope, Julius III. There had been many
volumes of sacred music dedicated to the popes, but they had always
been the work of musicians of the northern school, Hollanders or
Belgians. This volume of Palestrina’s was the first by an Italian
composer to be written for a pope. As a reward, the Pope made him
one of the twenty-four singers of his private chapel, but not having a
good voice, and not being a priest, the next Pope dismissed him. But
in 1571 he was again made chapel master in the Vatican.
It was the custom in those days for musicians to dedicate works
not only to popes, but to rich and powerful nobles, monarchs, or
other church officials. These attentions were often rewarded with
gifts of money, positions at court or in the chapels. This “patronage,”
as it was called, made it possible for composers to do their best work.
This was not only the case in music, but in poetry, painting and
sculpture. Palestrina was kept busy dedicating his music to popes, for
he lived during the reigns of at least twelve.
After the Council of Trent, one of his masses was recommended as
a model, so it is said, of what church music should be. He was again
granted the pay of singer in the Pontifical Choir, as he had been years
before, but this time, due to his well-known skill, he did not lose his
post when other popes succeeded in office. Many of his masses in
manuscript are now in the Vatican library.
In 1575, fifteen hundred singers from Palestrina,—priests, laymen,
boys and women, marched into Rome singing Giovanni Pierluigi’s
music, with the great composer leading them. This shows, that he
was appreciated.
He was asked to revise some of the old church music and while he
tried, he so hated to change the work of other composers whom he
respected, that he never finished the task. It was like asking
Stravinsky to put up-to-date harmonies into Beethoven.
A list of his compositions published by Breitkopf and Haertel
include 93 Masses, 179 Motets, and 45 Hymns for the year, 68
Offertories, 3 books of Lamentations, 3 books of Litanies, 2 books of
Magnificats, 4 books of Madrigals. A big list, isn’t it? But his
activities covered a long period, and he composed to the time of his
death (1594).
He had very few pupils whose names have come down to us.
Palestrina never had great wealth, and some biographers make
him seem poverty-stricken and suffering. At any rate, he was granted
his heart’s desire, to compose as much as he wanted to, and even if
he was poor, he had the joy of success and the glory of being
recognized as the greatest composer of his time in Italy. His works
have outlived many other schools of composition, and today are
looked upon as models of beauty and of masterly workmanship.
Palestrina was honored by burial in St. Peter’s, and on his
tombstone are the words “Princeps Musicæ” (Prince of Music).
You must not think that Palestrina was the only famous Italian
composer of the 16th century, for Constanza Festa who died before
Palestrina did his important work is called the first Italian master of
the polyphonic school. There were also Animuccia, Andrea Gabrieli,
and Andrea’s nephew Giovanni Gabrieli. Giovanni was a Venetian,
and the Venetians loved rich coloring in everything, even in their
music. Gabrieli tried to get it by using cornets, trombones and violins
with the organ, which at that time could not make a crescendo, that
is, its volume could not be increased, but as these instruments could
all be played soft or loud with crescendo effects, he created a color or
quality that never had been before.
CHAPTER XIII
Birth of Oratorio and Opera—Monteverde and Heart Music
Birth of Oratorio and Opera
A friend of Palestrina, Saint Filippo Neri, was the founder of

Oratorio. In 1558, Father Neri started daily religious meetings to
which all sorts of people came. These were held in a side room of the
Church called the Oratory (chapel for private prayer), and in addition
to his talks,—hymns, litanies and motets were sung, and scenes from
the Bible were performed somewhat like opera. The name “Oratorio”
was soon used, not only in Rome, but throughout all of Europe,
wherever there were sacred dramas with music. Palestrina arranged
and wrote some of the music for Father Neri.
Bible Stories Acted
The acted stories of the Bible can be traced back into the Middle
Ages, and probably descended from the Greek and Roman theatre,
for many early Christians were Greeks and Romans and had a
natural love for drama. The Church understood this and saw in it a
way to teach the history of the Scriptures. You know yourselves how
much better you remember historical events when you have seen
them in moving pictures! This natural love of play-acting in mankind
goes back to primitive man who acted out his prayers in his religious
rites. These theatrical performances were called “moralities,”
“mysteries,” or “miracle-plays,” and a very beautiful example is
Everyman, which was revived in England and America a few years
ago.
In the 8th century, Charlemagne’s time, people gathered in the
public markets, and the merchants entertained them by shows in
which were singing and dancing. The priests forbade these
performances because they were coarse and vulgar, but realizing how
successful and how much loved they were, they themselves turned
actors, built stages in many of the churches, turned the Bible stories
into little plays, and added music. Sometimes when there were not
enough priests to take part, dolls or puppets were used as in Punch
and Judy shows. Isn’t it interesting to think that operas and plays
began in the Church?
One of the most famous of the church plays was the Feast of Asses
in the 11th century.
The people did not have means of entertaining themselves as we
have, and the Church was the place to which every one went for
amusement as well as religion. In the 14th century some plays given
in England were: Fall of Lucifer, Creation, Deluge, Abraham,
Salutation and Nativity, Three Kings, Last Supper, Resurrection.
The clergy hired minstrels during this period to supply the music.
In the 15th century there were also elaborate pageants.
The clergy soon saw that the people wanted to take part in the
plays, so societies were formed in Paris, Rome, and in England for
the people. In England, like in Germany in the 16th century, the

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Writing to learn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Base-ten models for place value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Computational estimation strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Study of patterns and functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

CHAPTER 16 Per cent problems in context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

Using physical models of area units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Congruence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

CHAPTER 22 Integer exponents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589

▶▶FEATURES OF THE AUSTRALIAN EDITION

FOCUS ON AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM: MATHEMATICS CONTENT

▶ Big ideas BIG IDEAS

than isolated skills or concepts. At

chapter. Teachers find these lists helpful

How to use this text xv

▶ Activities ACTIVITY 15.2 ACMNA078

There are numerous activities in every Who is winning?

M15_WALL5627_01_SE_C15.indd 349 ▲ Adaptations for students with 24/04/19 3:56 PM

additional learning needs and EAL/D

ACTIVITY 14.12 ACMNA015; ACMNA029

M21_WALL5627_01_SE_C21.indd 539 ▲ Technology notes 24/04/19 9:16 PM

CHAPTER 14 ALgEbRAIC THINkINg, EqUATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 341

M14_WALL5627_01_SE_C14.indd 341 24/04/19 3:55 PM

▶▶BECOMING AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER

▶▶A CHANGING WORLD

National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN). NAPLAN

Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). In the mid-

Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers (AAMT). The Australian

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). One transformative factor

Willaert was a pupil of both Josquin and Mouton. He was chapel

Willaert’s idea, which probably came from folk-song and from

The greatest composer of this Netherland school was Orlandus

Before leaving the subject of these northern madrigal writers, we

Ronsard wrote a preface to a collection of songs dedicated to King

Here is a little reminder of how music grew:

But the greatest event of this time was Gutenberg’s invention of

“Truth to Nature” was the slogan of the Renaissance.

Martin Luther had hoped to reform the Church but instead

Birth of Oratorio and Opera

A friend of Palestrina, Saint Filippo Neri, was the founder of

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