Resonant Phenomena of Faraday Waves:

Reproducibility

ABSTRACT
Authors
Standing waves formed on a vibrating fluid layer when a critical
A. K. F. Val Baker a
amplitude is applied are known as Faraday waves. The morphology of
M. Csanad b
the observed phenomena is dependent on both the frequency of
N. Fellas a
vibration and the boundary conditions. To understand the degree of
N. Atassi a
this dependency, as well as any internal or external factors, we
P. Oomen a
investigated the resonant phenomena observed in a circular cuvette
for a range of frequencies. We find the symmetry fold is dependent on
Company
both the driving frequency and the amplitude. However, variance was
a
The Works Research Institute,
consistently observed which showed no significant dependence on
Budapest, Hungary.
internal or external factors. We discuss possible causes for this
variance and potential future research.
b
Department of Atomic Physics,
Eötvös Loránd University,
Budapest, Hungary.

Version Published
8 October 2023

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RESONANT PHENOMENA OF FARADAY WAVES: REPRODUCIBILITY | A. K. F. VAL BAKER, M. CSANAD, N. FELLAS, N. ATASSI, P. OOMEN
1. INTRODUCTION
Faraday waves, as first reported by Michael Faraday in
1831 [1], are the formation of standing waves on a
vibrating fluid layer when a critical amplitude is applied.
Depending on the driving frequency and boundary
conditions of the excited medium, they can exhibit
various pattern morphologies of N-fold symmetries [2].
Since their discovery, they have been the subject of
successive investigations allowing for advanced
applications across a myriad of fields. For example, as
noted by Liu [3]: measuring the surface tension of soft
materials [4]; developing new photonic devices [5, 6];
metamaterials [7, 8]; applications in cell culture patterns
[9, 10]; detecting physiological processes of organisms
[11]; monitoring earthworms [12]; modifying soil
structure to increase crop yields [13–15]; medical
ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging modalities [16];
Brillouin Light Scattering spectroscopy [17]; laser
vibrometry [18]; and the development of new methods
for eradicating viruses and bacteria [19–21].
Furthermore, as noted by Sheldrake [22], the behaviour
of the observed resonant phenomena offers a model for
analogous behaviour observed in both physical systems,
e.g., [23–26], and biological systems, e.g., [27–30].
To improve our understanding of Faraday wave resonant
phenomena, it is essential that the dependency of pattern
morphology on both internal and external factors is well
established. To determine this dependency, we
investigated the observed resonant phenomena of
Faraday waves over a frequency range of 50-250 Hz.
Throughout centuries the pattern morphology of sound
vibrations has been studied extensively, where the type of
surface and vibrating medium has taken many forms:
from Leonardo da Vincis’ vibrating dust particles [31];
Galileo’s brass plate and its shavings excited by a chisel
[32]; Robert Hooke’s glass plate and flour excited by a
violin bow string [33]; Ernst Chladni’s metal plate and
sand excited by a violin bow string [34]; Mary Wallers
metal plate and sand excited by a block of high density
carbon dioxide [35–38]; Hans Jenny’s drum membrane
and quartz sand excited by singing through a pipe [39];
to Faraday’s vertically vibrated fluid in a container [2, 40,
41]. Later experiments by Lord Rayleigh verified
Faraday’s observations on the formation of standing
waves on a vertically vibrating fluid; their subharmonic
nature; and the 2:1 ratio between the driving frequency, fd
1
and the response frequency, fr i.e., fr = 2 fd [2, 40, 41].
Studies into the stability analysis of the surface plane
confirmed that the surface response is subharmonic [42]
and the 2:1 ratio between driving frequency and response
frequency is an established characteristic of parametric
resonance [43–45].
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The occurrence of pattern formation, as well as pattern
morphology, has been shown to be dependent on both
internal factors such as the shape and size of the
container [22, 46–48]; the properties of the fluid such as
purity [49, 50]; viscosity [51, 52]; and the fluid volume
[22, 53], as well as external factors such as the driving
frequency [22, 46, 54, 55]; amplitude [22, 46, 54-56];
temperature [45]; and even the topography of the
bottom of the container [57].
The degree to which these factors affect the observed
resonant phenomena varies and, as noted by Sheldrake
[22], can be understood in terms of the catastrophe
theory [58]. This delicate nature of system dynamics was
also explained by Douady and Fauve [43], who
highlighted the importance of avoiding externally
induced effects, mainly generated by cross-motion and
the fluid meniscus.
Attempts to theoretically determine the observed
Faraday wave pattern morphology have been made
utilising various methods, e.g., the Mathieu equations [42,
45]; and the Navier-Stokes equations [46]. However,
accounting for all the variables has proved difficult. As
well, due to discrepancies in the observed pattern
morphology, there is a need for more phenomenological
studies. In this paper we present the results of repeated
measurements of the wave pattern formations on water
in a vertical-walled circular container for 12 frequencies,
and we discuss the dependency on both internal and
external factors in each case.
2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
To investigate Faraday wave resonant phenomena, we
utilised the Cymascope Pro MF+ which comprises a
fused quartz cuvette direct-coupled to a voice coil motor
(VCM) with a vertically driven piston. The fused quartz
cuvette is acoustically excited by the VCM which receives
either audio input signals generated by a Max/MSP
patch used within Ableton Live v11, or analogue input
from a function generator. Electronic filtering is applied
in the signal path through a DBX 231 graphic equaliser
to ensure that resonances inherent in the VCM-cuvette
assembly are negated, resulting in a characteristic flat
amplitude response curve. The observed resonant
phenomena are recorded using a Canon EOS 5D Mk IV
camera. See Fig 1 for a schematic of the experimental
setup.
The experiments presented here used a circular 24.25
mm diameter fused quartz cuvette, filled with 2.3 ml of
distilled water. Twelve frequencies were chosen for
observation in accordance with the 50-250 Hz
compatibility range of the Cymascope instrument and
based on preliminary studies which showed relatively
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RESONANT PHENOMENA OF FARADAY WAVES: REPRODUCIBILITY | A. K. F. VAL BAKER, M. CSANAD, N. FELLAS, N. ATASSI, P. OOMEN
Fig 1. Diagram showing the experimental setup.
stable pattern formation for these frequencies: 56 Hz; 64
Hz; 72 Hz; 80 Hz; 88 Hz; 96 Hz; 104 Hz; 128 Hz; 136
Hz; 144 Hz; 192 Hz; and 224 Hz. In each case, 8-16
measurements of the wave pattern formations were
made, and the following environmental factors were
monitored: humidity; air pressure; water temperature;
room temperature; and moon phase (i.e., 0%
illumination on the new moon and 100% illumination on
the full moon). To account for any effects due to prior
oscillation [59], new water was used for each
measurement and the order in which the different
frequencies were observed was varied and random. The
amplitude was either manually increased using the
decibel level controls, or automated at a constant rate via
the GDM-8300 Series Excel Add-in with the GDM-8342
multimeter. In both cases the amplitude was recorded as
both audio input dBFS, with Full Scale (FS) =0, and
voltage. Preliminary experiments showed a variance in
the critical amplitude necessary for pattern formation to
occur, with a standard deviation of 0.2-0.5 dBFS.
Furthermore, Sheldrake demonstrated that the time for
pattern formation to occur decreased with increasing
frequency and increasing amplitude, where he found a
maximum time of 30 seconds for a driving frequency of
56 Hz [22]. To ensure enough time was given to allow
pattern formation to occur, the amplitude was therefore
increased in increments of 0.2 dB every 40 seconds.
Before taking measurements, the following apparatus
checks were made: the Cymascope instrument level
check with the in-built level metre; the camera mounting
level via the camera in live view with the diode reflection
as a guide; dust removal from the Cymascope instrument
including the cuvette and the Camera lens as well as
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ensuring no dust remained once the cuvette had been
filled with water.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To investigate the effects of both internal and external
factors on pattern morphology we defined the pattern
morphology in terms of its symmetry fold. It should be
noted that observed phenomena with the same
symmetry fold may otherwise have no significant
correlation in the detailed pattern morphology, e.g., see
Fig 2 which shows the system in various states at 56 Hz
exhibiting 8-fold symmetry, each of them with different
presentations of form.
The 12 frequencies chosen for this investigation were
based on preliminary studies which revealed relatively
stable symmetry folds across trials. However, the
observations presented here, as well as those presented
by Sheldrake [22], show variance in the symmetry fold
exhibited at a specific frequency. For example, see Fig 3,
which shows the symmetry fold for all 137 trials as a
function of frequency.
There is clear dependence of symmetry fold on
frequency, yet for each frequency there is also a variance.
For example, see Fig 4 which shows the pattern
morphology for each frequency over multiple trials and
spanning the full amplitude stability range. Fig 5 shows
the stability curves for the full frequency range.
In some cases, the cause of the variance is the increasing
amplitude, e.g., see Fig 6. However, when variance due to
amplitude increase was observed, this was not repeated
in subsequent trials.
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Fig 2. Images showing the system in various states at 56 Hz exhibiting 8-fold symmetry, each with different
presentations of form.

Fig 3. Symmetry fold versus frequency for all investigated trials. Marker size is proportional to number of occurrences at
given symmetry fold and frequency.

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Fig 4. Images showing pattern morphology for each frequency over multiple trials, where more than one image per trial indicates a different
symmetry fold forming with an increase in amplitude during the trial. For such cases the amplitude increases from top to bottom, i.e., the
pattern morphology formed at the lowest amplitude is shown at the top and the pattern morphology formed at the highest amplitude is shown
at the bottom.

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Fig 5. Stability curves for pattern formation i.e. the amplitude range for pattern formation as a function of frequency,
where the amplitude increases with frequency. The box indicating the amplitude range spans vertically from the minimal
to maximal amplitude where pattern formation occurs.

Fig 6. Examples of pattern morphology variance with increasing amplitude for a specific frequency: at 96 Hz, the
symmetry fold of 10, 14 and 16 forms with increasing amplitude; at 192 Hz, the symmetry fold of 10, 6 and 4 forms with
increasing amplitude; and at 224 Hz, the symmetry fold of 8, 12 and 4 forms with increasing amplitude.

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3.1 External factors affecting symmetry fold and

amplitude
The following external factors were investigated:
humidity; air pressure; water temperature; room
temperature; and moon phase. They were monitored for
each trial, with differences between trials ranging from:
20-66% for the humidity; 987-1011 mb for the air
pressure; 9-31 degrees Celsius for the water temperature;
10-31 degrees Celsius for the room temperature; and
0.5-99.6% illumination for the moon phase. A total of
137 trials were conducted where approximately 8-16
trials were carried out for each of the 12 frequencies. In
each case a level of significance was quantified by
estimating the R-value of linear correlation for a given
parameter (separately for each of the frequencies, and
averaging the resulting R-values). For all investigated
factors no significance was found (see Table 1).
Parameter Average R-value
Humidity [%] 0.0668
Air pressure [mb] 0.1363
Water temp. [⁰C] 0.0594
Room temp. [⁰C] 0.0502
Moon phase [%] 0.0726
Table 1. R-values for symmetry fold versus the given variable.
A second linear regression analysis was also determined
via χ2-minimization (assuming the uncertainty of the
symmetry fold being 1) on a linear function calculating
the symmetry fold from all the parameters at once, i.e.,
Fit regression vs Symmetry fold
Parameter Coefficient value
χ /NDF
2
60 730/127
p-value <0.01%
Table 2. Regression fit quality (χ2/NDF), and the corresponding
p-value, for symmetry fold versus the given external variable.
The results are shown in Table 3 and 4, respectively. Fig
7 shows the predictive power of the machine learning
linear regression for symmetry fold and Fig 8 shows the
predictive power of the RBF kernel in the SVR method
for symmetry fold. We find improvements in the
predictive power when using the machine learning model
to map the data into a higher-dimensional space using a
radial basis function (RBF). In this case the data were
separated into a training and a testing sample, with each
taking a proportion of 85% and 15%, respectively. As
listed in Table 4, the mean errors are quite small on the
training sample, and R-values (R2 in this case) are high.
However, performing well on the training sample is a
usual characteristic of machine learning techniques. The
predictive power is instead to be investigated on the test
sample. This shows much less correlation between
prediction and actual measurement of symmetry fold. It
is possible that this method would work better for a
larger data sample, in which case methods closer to deep
learning could be employed. However, such a model may
not necessarily result in an analytical solution, let alone a
physical understanding.
ML regression vs Symmetry fold

𝑠 = ∑ 𝑐𝑖 𝑣𝑖 (1) Parameter Coefficient value

𝑖 χ /NDF
2
5.4×108/127

where, p-value <0.01%

Table 3. Machine learning linear regression fit quality (χ2/NDF),

i ∈ {“Humidity”, “Air Pressure”, “Water temp.”, …}, 𝑐 is a and the corresponding p-value, for symmetry fold versus the
vector of coefficients, and 𝑣 is a vector of the parameter given external variable.
values.

We find that for all investigated factors χ2/NDF > 100

Fit quality, RBF kernel Training sample Test sample
and the corresponding p-value is much smaller than
0.01%, thus no significance was found (see Table 2). MSE 0.37 21.78
MAE 0.54 3.67
To improve our estimations and prediction capabilities a R 2
0.98 -0.41
machine learning model was also utilised to carry out a
linear regression analysis, as well as more advanced Table 4. Fit quality for the advanced (SVR) machine learning
regression analysis techniques that allow for more technique with the RBF kernel, aimed at predicting symmetry
fold based on all variables simultaneously, as shown in Fig 8.
functions than just linear (see Appendix 1 for a detailed
explanation of the advanced machine learning technique
employed here).

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Fig 7. Predictive power of the machine learning linear regression for symmetry fold.

Fig 8. Predictive power of the RBF kernel in the SVR method, for symmetry fold.

The effects on pattern morphology due to the audio
input signal being either analogue from the function
generator or digital from the computer, was also
explored. This test was carried out for 6 of the
frequencies (56 Hz; 72 Hz; 96 Hz; 144 Hz; 192 Hz; and
224 Hz) where 3 trials were conducted in each case. As
indicated by the values in Table 5, a high correlation
exists between the minimum amplitude for pattern
formation to occur and frequency, where the
correlation is significantly higher for the case where the
audio input is digital from the computer. This higher
significance, for the digitally generated signal, could be
due to the digitally generated signal being less sensitive
to variable factors and would thus be interesting to
investigate further. For both cases, analogue and digital,

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no significant correlation was found between symmetry conducted in each case. As indicated by the values in
fold and frequency. Table 7, a high correlation exists between the minimum
amplitude for pattern formation to occur and
frequency, where the correlation is significantly higher
Audio Amplitude vs Symmetry fold
input Frequency vs Frequency for the case where the method of amplitude change is
automated. This higher significance for the case where
Computer 0.886 0.021
the amplitude increase is automated indicates the
Analogue 0.671 0.002 consistency required for pattern formation to occur
and also suggests the consistency required for
Table 5. R-values for amplitude versus frequency and symmetry reproducibility of pattern morphology for a given
fold versus frequency, for the two different methods of audio
input signal. frequency. For both methods of amplitude change, no
significant correlation was found between symmetry
fold and frequency. However, this was not explored
The effects of external factors on the amplitude were fully to be able to draw valid conclusions and
also considered, where no significant effect was found, something that may be investigated in future studies.
see Table 6.

Parameter Average R-value Amplitude Amplitude vs Symmetry fold

change Frequency vs Frequency
Humidity [%] 0.0842
Manual 0.788 0.002
Air pressure [mb] 0.0826
Automatic 0.923 0.027
Water temp. [⁰C] 0.0632
Room temp. [⁰C] 0.0697 Table 7. R-values for the minimum amplitude for pattern
formation to occur versus frequency and symmetry fold versus
Moon phase [%] 0.0460 frequency, for the two different methods of amplitude change.

Table 6. R-values for the minimum amplitude for pattern

formation to occur versus the given variable.
3.2 Internal factors affecting symmetry fold and
The effects of amplitude on the occurrence of pattern amplitude
morphology, the degree to which patterns are
EZ water is a theorised state of water that forms near a
expressed and the point of decoherence, for each
hydrophilic boundary when exposed to sunlight
frequency, can be seen in the stability curve (see Fig 5).
[60–62]. According to Pollack, the water near the
However, contrary to Sheldrake [22], we did find that
hydrophilic boundary changes its structure, pushing
the pattern morphology was also affected by the
ions out and creating a compression zone. It is this
amplitude, as when we increased the amplitude from
compression zone that is referred to as the exclusion
the minimum critical amplitude to the maximum
zone (EZ), which can extend up to a few hundred
critical amplitude, up to 3 different symmetry folds
micrometres. The bulk water, outside the exclusion
could be revealed (e.g., see Fig 6).
zone, is referred to as the solute zone (SZ) as this is the
zone the ionic solutes have been pushed to, thus
We noticed that the rate of increase of amplitude (i.e.,
forming a potential difference between the two zones.
momentum) did affect the occurrence of pattern
To remove any possible effects due to the formation of
formation, where if we increased the rate of change of
EZ water, we used distilled water stored in
amplitude then a pattern would occur when previously
hydrophobic/UV-IR resistant containers, while also
it hadn’t. We know that the time from when the system
monitoring the water during the experiment. There are
receives sufficient energy for a pattern to form (i.e. the
many ways to measure the physical properties of EZ
critical amplitude) to the time that pattern formation
water, e.g., NMR, infrared, and birefringence imaging,
actually occurs can vary and can be dependent on
viscosity, and UV-VIS and infrared-absorption spectra
environmental factors. Increasing the rate of change
[63]. We decided on measuring the resistance of the
can thus be expected to have an effect on pattern
two zones, as depicted in Fig 9, as this method had the
formation and possibly morphology. A comparison
least interference and was more than sufficient for the
was made between the observations carried out with a
requirements of this study.
manual increase in amplitude compared to the
automated increase in amplitude. This test was carried
out for 6 of the frequencies (56 Hz; 72 Hz; 96 Hz; 144
Hz; 192 Hz; and 224 Hz) where 3 trials were

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to occur and the measured resistance, for both the SZ

and EZ zone, before excitation (see Table 9). This may
indicate that any deviations in the viscosity of the water
source could have an effect on the amplitude at which
pattern formation occurs.

symmetry fold vs amplitude vs

Average R-values
resistance diff. resistance diff.
SZ-EZ zones, before
0.249 0.389
excitation
SZ-EZ zones, after
0.208 0.271
excitation
after - before
0.223 0.152
excitation, EZ zone
after - before
0.287 0.176
excitation, SZ zone

Table 8. Average R-value of a regression analysis of symmetry

Fig 9. Schematic showing the measurement of resistance in the fold (left) and minimum amplitude for pattern formation to occur
two zones, EZ and SZ. (right) versus resistance difference (averaged over all frequency
cases).

If EZ water forms, then the resistance will increase in

the EZ zone and decrease in the SZ zone. To symmetry fold amplitude vs
Average R-values
determine if EZ water was being formed we placed vs resistance resistance
2.3 ml of water in the fused quartz circular cuvette of SZ zone, before
diameter 24.25 mm. The resistance was monitored for 0.328 0.495
excitation
20 minutes, which is the approximate duration of the SZ zones, after
Faraday resonant phenomena measurements, and 0.276 0.291
excitation
measurements of the resistance in the EZ and SZ EZ zone, before
zones were made at the four time points: 0 mins; 5 0.397 0.584
excitation
mins; 10 mins; and 20 mins. This procedure was carried
EZ zones, after
out before measuring the Faraday wave resonant 0.318 0.379
excitation
phenomena for a total of 21 trials. An analysis of the
time dependance of resistance was made where we Table 9. Average R-value of a regression analysis of symmetry
found that the relative slope (i.e., change of resistance fold (left) and minimum amplitude for pattern formation to occur
divided by mean resistance) is positive in some cases (right) versus resistance (averaged over all frequency cases).
and negative in other cases, which we attribute to
statistical fluctuations. To underline this, we calculated
the mean and variance of this slope and found a mean 4. SUMMARY
of 0.004 ± 0.0003 for the SZ zone and a mean of
-0.004 ± 0.001 for the EZ zone, indicating no In this paper we set out to investigate the degree of
significant increase or decrease in the resistance in both dependency of pattern morphology on the frequency
zones. The resistance was also monitored throughout of vibration as well as internal and external factors. We
60 trials of the Faraday wave resonant phenomena find the symmetry fold is dependent on both the
experiment, with measurements being taken before and driving frequency and the amplitude. However,
after excitation. A mean of 0.137 ± 0.236 was found variance in pattern morphology was consistently
for the SZ zone and a mean of 0.080 ± 0.103 was observed at all frequencies and showed no significant
found for the EZ zone, indicating no significant dependence on internal or external factors.
increase or decrease in the resistance. The resistance is
also a measure of viscosity, thus the effects of viscosity We find the only factor affecting the variance in pattern
on pattern morphology as well as amplitude were also morphology at a specific frequency was the amplitude
considered. Again, no significant effect was found, as of pattern formation, where up to 3 different symmetry
indicated by the R-values in Table 8 and 9. However it folds could be revealed. However this variance in
is worth noting that a moderate correlation was found pattern morphology was not consistent and showed no
between the minimum amplitude for pattern formation

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significant dependence on internal or external factors.

There is some indication that the rate of change of the
applied amplitude (i.e. the momentum) did affect the
occurrence of pattern formation and thus may also
have an effect on the pattern morphology.

The minimum amplitude for pattern formation to

occur showed a high correlation with frequency which
was significantly higher when the audio input was
digitally generated and also when the increase in
amplitude was automated. This may be due to the fact
that a digitally generated audio input signal is less
sensitive to variable factors and also highlights the
consistency required for reproducibility of pattern
morphology for a given frequency. As well, the
minimum amplitude for pattern formation to occur
showed a moderate correlation with water resistance
before excitation, indicating that the viscosity of the
water source may also affect the amplitude required for
pattern formation to occur.

It is evident that Faraday waves in a water-filled cuvette

form a highly delicate system and for predictions to be
made the system needs to be precisely tuned as noted
by both Douady & Fauve [43] and Sheldrake [22].
Further investigations should include the explorations
into the effects of momentum as well as removing all
external factors to reduce the effects of catastrophe
theory. The question then arises as to how do we
reduce such effects of catastrophe theory and which
external factors can be monitored and minimised. For
example when such vibratory phenomena are observed
in Chladni Figures, the results are much more
consistent with the only difference being attributed to
the characteristics of the plate and the vibrating particle
[64]. The medium of water is much more sensitive and
open to disturbance, where a small deviation could
induce parametric resonance resulting in consistent
pattern morphology variance. We can optimise the
experimental set-up to ensure any known factors
contributing to such deviations are minimised.
However, this does not minimise the effects of any
unknown factors that have yet to be identified. For
example, less obvious factors such as those presented
in a recent study which shows how the acoustic
environment causes deviations in sound reproduction
[65] and the correlation of such effects with the
presence of a human subject's physiological and psy-
chological state [66]. A future study to better
understand the variable nature of Faraday waves
resonant phenomena thus requires investigations to be
conducted in a precisely tuned and well-monitored
environment, that not only minimises and monitors
known internal and external factors but also monitors
any possible unknown factors.

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RESONANT PHENOMENA OF FARADAY WAVES: REPRODUCIBILITY | A. K. F. VAL BAKER, M. CSANAD, N. FELLAS, N. ATASSI, P. OOMEN
APPENDIX 1.
1. Linear regression with machine learning
The codes utilized in this study are available at
github.com/theworksinstitute/cymatics .
Linear regression can be performed with a machine
learning model utilising scikit-learn libraries. In such
analyses it is customary to randomly split the data into
two distinct parts: a training sample and a test sample.
This can be done via the train_test_split library shown
in the python import. In this study, the training sample
was chosen to be 85% of all data and the test sample
was the remaining 15%. The regression fit is then
performed on the training sample and the test sample
is used to assess the prediction performance. In this
study we find the mean squared error, or Chi-square
per data point, to be 10-20 for both the test sample and
the training sample (depending on the random
selection). Although not good, it is better than the
traditional linear regression. The predictive power of
the linear model is shown below in Fig 1.
Fig 1. Plot to show the predictive power of the linear regression fit for
symmetry fold.
The predicted symmetry fold can be given in terms of
the intercept plus the dot-product of the actual
parameter values and the coefficient vector. The mean
squared error on the training sample is 15.6, while it is
13.5 on the test sample, which is far from being
optimal (below 1 would be a good fit).
2. More advanced machine learning techniques
One can apply more advanced methods, in the hope
that those will have better prediction capabilities. One
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such set of methods is provided by Support Vector
Regression (SVR) from scikit-learn. SVR is a type of
regression analysis that uses support vector machines
(SVMs) to predict continuous variables. In general,
SVR requires more data points than other regression
algorithms like linear regression. SVR works by finding
a hyperplane that best fits the data points. In order to
do so, a kernel is chosen, which is the function used to
transform the data into a higher-dimensional space so
that it can be more easily separated by a hyperplane.
Common example kernels are:
● Linear: It is the simplest kernel function and is
used when there are a large number of features
in the dataset, and the dataset is linearly
separable. It is also computationally less
expensive than other kernel functions.
● Polynomial: This kernel function is used when
the data is not linearly separable. It maps the
data into a higher-dimensional space to make it
linearly separable. The degree of the
polynomial can be adjusted to fit the data.
● Sigmoid: This maps the data into a
higher-dimensional space using a sigmoid
function. It can be used when the data is not
linearly separable.
● RBF: This maps the data into a
higher-dimensional space using a radial basis
function (RBF). It can be used when the data
has more features, and is not linearly separable.
These kernels all have a set of parameters:
● C: A regularisation parameter controlling the
trade-off between minimising the error and
maximising the margin. A larger C means a
smaller margin but lower error, while a smaller
C means a larger margin but higher error.
● gamma: This is the kernel coefficient that
determines how much influence a single
training example has on the decision boundary.
A larger gamma means a more complex and
non-linear decision boundary, while a smaller
gamma means a simpler and linear decision
boundary.
● epsilon: This is the tube width within which
no penalty is associated with the training loss
function. A larger epsilon means a more
tolerant model that ignores small errors, while
a smaller epsilon means a more sensitive model
that penalises small errors.
In this study we performed the SVR fit with a grid
search on the optimal value of these parameters. The
performance of each kernel is shown below in Fig 2.
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RESONANT PHENOMENA OF FARADAY WAVES: REPRODUCIBILITY | A. K. F. VAL BAKER, M. CSANAD, N. FELLAS, N. ATASSI, P. OOMEN

Kernel Fit quality Training sample Test sample

RBF MSE 0.37 21.78
MAE 0.54 3.67
R score
2
0.98 -0.41
Linear MSE 16.18 17.43
MAE 3.36 3.44
R score
2
0.01 -0.13
Polynomial MSE 184.29 171.1
MAE 10.89 10.19
R score
2
-10.33 -10.07
Sigmoid MSE 16.52 16.17
MAE 3.47 2.95
R score
2
-0.02 -0.05
Table 1. Predicting power and training performance of each of the
kernels.

Fig 2. Performance of the optimization with each of the kernels.

From Fig 2 we can see that only the RBF kernel does
an acceptable job with the training sample, but even
this kernel fails with the test sample. Table 1
summarizes the predicting power of each of the kernels
in this assessment. The quantifiers used for this test are
mean squared error (MSE), mean absolute error
(MAE) and R2 score. Note that unlike linear regression
2
where by definition − 1 < 𝑅 < 1, in this case R2
does not have a lower bound (as the prediction can be
arbitrarily worse than just taking the average). This is
investigated for the training sample and the test sample
separately. It is found that the RBF kernel results in the
lowest error for the training sample, as also evident
from Fig 2. However, for the test sample, the observed Fig 3. Plot to show the predictive power of the RBF model for
symmetry fold.
errors are much larger, meaning that the predicting
power of the model with the RBF kernel is also low. Fig 3 shows the predictive power of the RBF model in
the SVR method for symmetry fold. However,
although providing an acceptable fit on the training
sample, it still fails on the test sample. It is possible that
this method would work better for a larger data sample,
in which case methods even closer to deep learning
could be employed. However, such a model may not
necessarily result in an analytical solution, let alone a
physical understanding.

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