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Ebook PDF The Art of Access Strategies For Acquiring Public Records 2nd Edition PDF
Ebook PDF The Art of Access Strategies For Acquiring Public Records 2nd Edition PDF
Ebook PDF The Art of Access Strategies For Acquiring Public Records 2nd Edition PDF
This is the go-to book for any journalist or citizen seeking guidance on
successfully obtaining documents and data from government agencies.
This is an invaluable book upon which to rely if we want to keep our
government accountable and our democracy safe.
This clear, concise and timely book provides a step-by-step guide for
turning the overhyped rhetoric of transparency into a much-needed reality.
Cuillier and Davis, both veterans of the access wars, provide journalists
and citizens alike with the keys to unlocking the secrets held in public
records that government officials too often like to stow away.
The Art of Access is a must read for anyone who wants to understand how
access to government information really happens on the ground. While this
book is of obvious value to journalism students and practitioners,
individuals outside the journalistic community who are new to the art of
getting access to government information will especially benefit from the
8
authors’ thoughtful and eminently readable navigation of the maze.
9
Brief Contents
1. A Humble Foreword by Tom Blanton
2. Preface
3. About the Authors
4. Chapter 1 Records That Matter: Improve Your Community, Career
and Life
5. Chapter 2 Develop a Document State of Mind
6. Chapter 3 Become an Access Law Expert
7. Chapter 4 The Hunt: Find Records in the Dark
8. Chapter 5 Strategies for Effective Requests
9. Chapter 6 How to Overcome Denials
10. Chapter 7 Going Digital: Strategies for Getting Data
11. Chapter 8 Understand How Public Officials Think
12. Chapter 9 Putting it Together: Writing, Ethics and Paying it Forward
13. Appendix A The Record Album
14. Appendix B FOI Resources
15. Notes
16. Index
10
Detailed Contents
A Humble Foreword by Tom Blanton
Preface
About the Authors
Chapter 1 Records That Matter: Improve Your Community, Career
and Life
Make the World Better
Identify the ‘Performance Gap’
Help Society
Feed the New Information Ecosystem
Advance Your Career
Improve Your Stories
Combat Fake News
Protect Your Legal Hide
Entertain and Amuse
Win Awards
Get a Job—and Keep it
Improve Your Personal Life
Buy a House
Check Out Schools
Background People
Buy Smart
Find Your FBI File
Develop a New Way of Thinking
Try It!
Suggested Links
Chapter 2 Develop a Document State of Mind
Take Charge
Remember All-American Values
Presume it’s Open
Exercise Your Document muscles
Sketch a ‘Circle of Light’
Make FOI First on Fridays
Find Inspiration and Support
Build Strength Through Sharing
Attend a Conference
Get E-Inspired
11
Find an FOI Friend
Try It!
Suggested Links
Chapter 3 Become an Access Law Expert
Master the Law in Five steps
Learn the Lingo
Identify What Records are Covered
Identify What Agencies are Covered
Identify Exemptions that Allow Secrecy
Identify Your Rights to Appeal
DIP into Alphabet Laws
Health Information: HIPAA
Education Records: FERPA
Driver’s Licenses: DPPA
Access to public meetings
Exercise Your Right to Watch
Question Meeting Red Flags
Tap into Legal Resources
Find Shortcuts
Read the Statutes
Identify Key Court Cases
Ask the Attorney General
Try It!
Suggested Links
Chapter 4 The Hunt: Find Records in the Dark
Explore Document Habitats
Map the Government
‘Take Over’ Agency Territory
Visit Records’ Birth Places
Scour Document Cemeteries
Find records in records
‘Interview’ Your Documents
Request the Requests
Build on Others’ Successes
Surf FOI-Idea Websites
Follow Record Hunters
Tap into Digital Helpers
Go Global
Get Help from Librarians
Mine the Miners
12
Scan Investigative Stories
Try It!
Suggested Links
Chapter 5 Strategies for Effective Requests
Get in the Zone
Get Personal
Write Effective Letters
Use Sample Request Letters
Choose Your Tone
‘Perfect’ Your Letter
Try Online Tools
Cut Denials off at the Pass
Emphasize Interests, Not Positions
Separate People from the Request
Use Negotiation Jiu Jitsu
Apply Hard Tactics if Necessary
Reactance
Reciprocation
Commitment and Consistency
Social Proof
Liking
Scarcity
Authority
Choosing Soft vs. Hard
Try It!
Suggested Links
Chapter 6 How to Overcome Denials
Understand the Nature of ‘No’
Denials Gone Wild
Prevalence of Denials
Respond to Common Denials
Don’t Get Mad, Get Busy
If the Agency Says …
‘Nah, it’s Our Policy not to Give that Out.’
‘Chirrrp, Chirrrrp.’ (Crickets in the Silence of the Agency’s
Nonresponse.)
‘The Description of What You Requested is Overly Broad.’
‘The Record doesn’t Exist.’
‘We’ll Get Back to You’ (20 Years from Now).
‘Some of the Materials are Exempt from Disclosure, So We
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Can’t Give Any of it Out.’
‘Here You Go, With a Few Redactions’ (All Blacked Out)
‘Our Hands are Tied. An Exemption in the Law Forces Us
to Keep it Secret.’
‘We Don’t Have Time to Get that for You.’
‘Where Does it Say in the Law that I Have to Give You that
Record?’
‘You Can Have the Records If You Sign this Contract.’
‘We Don’t Know How You’ll Use it. You Might Not Use it
in a Way We Like.’
‘It is Secret Because of an Exemption (Privacy, National
Security, Personnel, Internal Memos, Under Investigation,
etc.).’
‘That is a Classified Top-Secret Document, so it Can’t Be
Released.’
‘We Can Neither Confirm nor Deny that the Record Exists.’
‘Oh, it’s All Online. Just Go to Our Website.’
‘The Records and Data are Kept by a Private Firm.’
‘We’re Gonna SLAPP You Silly.’
Play Hardball
Go up the Ladder
Rally Allies
Shame the Agency
File More Requests
Publicize it
Appeal
Pursue Mediation
Wield the Independent Club
Take them to Court
Get Legal Advice
Get Money
Get to Know the Court
Write the Complaint and Summons
File Suit
Wait for an Answer
Oral Arguments and Decision
Move for Costs
Plant that Head on a Pike
Try It!
Suggested Links
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Chapter 7 Going Digital: Strategies for Getting Data
Become Familiar with Data
Examine the Pieces
Learn the Lingo
Opt for Open Data
Get the Database
Get to the Wonk
Get the Record Layout
Get a Printed Sample
Write Data-Specific Letters
Transfer the Data
Counter Cyber-Denials
‘We Can’t Technically Do that’
Proprietary Software
Personal Information
Creation of a ‘New Record’
High Programming Costs
Teach Yourself Database Journalism
Learn Excel
Learn Access
Tap into the CAR Network
Find a Stats Guru
Try It!
Suggested Links
Chapter 8 Understand How Public Officials Think
Comprehend Bureaucratic Culture
The Power of Process
Full-Time vs. Part-Time
Tone from the Top
Identify Agency Constraints
Lack of Resources and Training
Fear of Embarrassment
Parental Controls
Punishment for Disclosure
Walls of Denial
Help them Help You
Be Polite and Respectful
Consider Explaining the Purpose
Be Specific
Avoid Arbitrary Requests
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Communicate Often
Try It!
Suggested Links
Chapter 9 Putting it Together: Writing, Ethics and Paying it Forward
Create Great Record-Based Stories
Organize the Piles
Focus on Your Main Point
Avoid Documentese
Humanize
Attribute Clearly
Visualize the Data
Provide the Records Online
Do the Right Thing: FOI Ethics
Exercise Your Right to Know
Exercise Your Right to ‘No’
Avoid Bad Scrapes
Get it Right
Anticipate Public Reaction
People Support Access in the Abstract
People Dig Safety and Accountability
People Don’t Like Privacy Invasion
People Vary
Publicize FOI
Find the News Peg
Hang it on Experts
Make it Relevant
Become an FOI Warrior
Educate the Public
Make Better Law
Apply it Daily
Try It!
Suggested Links
Appendix A The Record Album
Appendix B FOI Resources
Notes
Index
16
Foreword
By Tom Blanton
A Humble Foreword
Governments have created records and used them to run their citizens’
lives for at least three or four millennia now, judging by the chicken
scratches on the cuneiform clay tablets dug up by archaeologists at sites
like Mari, on the border between modern Syria and Iraq. And over
millennia, citizens have agitated for and ultimately won an extraordinary
shift in the power over those records. No Babylonian except one selected
by the king could see the tablets recording kingly actions. But every
citizen of the modern world has a fundamental human right, according to
the Universal Declaration of 1948, for the free exchange of information;
and every citizen of the United States, according to the Freedom of
Information Act of 1966 (amended multiple times since), has an ownership
stake in all the information the government holds.
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sweeping the world—reverse the equation. The government is only the
custodian; we the citizens own the information. The problem is, how do
we take back what officialdom usurps? How do we fight the natural
tendency of every bureaucracy to hoard its information, control its turf, set
the frames of its policy debate and limit all access to its files?
No.
The original Declaration of Independence?
No.
How about a copy of the actual signed Constitution?
No.
OK, maybe more modern: JFK’s inaugural, “Ask not what your
18
country can do for you”?
Nope.
The one particular record that visitors asked for more than any other was
the iconic photograph of Elvis Presley meeting with President Richard
Nixon in the White House in December 1970. Remember, this was when
Elvis was still alive, and before the National Enquirer announced such
sightings at every supermarket cash register. But after the barbiturate
overdose, more visitors to the National Archives went away with copies of
the Nixon–Elvis photo than any other artifact of our nation’s history.
The most fun item was the handwritten letter from Elvis to Nixon on
American Airlines stationery, citing his selection as an outstanding young
man of America (Nixon had been one too) and asking for honorary
credentials as a federal narc. (Seriously.)
Then there was the internal White House memo from the appointments
secretary to the chief of staff, telling him that Elvis had showed up at the
White House gate asking for a meeting with the president (let you and me
try that one) and arguing that if Nixon wanted to meet some bright young
people, Elvis would be a good place to start. Out to the side, the chief, H.
R. Haldeman of future Watergate fame, scribbled, “You must be kidding,”
but approved the drop-in!
The file had talking points for the president, encouraging Elvis to produce
a TV special for the war on drugs (suggested theme: “Get high on life”);
notes from the secretaries about what to do with the autographed Elvis
photos he had left behind; and, best of all, the contact sheet from the White
House photographer with all the shots of Nixon and shut-eyed, bleary-
eyed, hung-over Elvis, with the final frame of Nixon admiring the King’s
rhinestone cufflinks.
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downloaded document on our site is the transcript and video of Donald
Rumsfeld chatting with Saddam Hussein in December 1983, telling him no
problem with the chemical warfare as long as he whacks Iran. We got this
one from FOIA requesting as well. And patience. And from following one
of this book’s core recommendations: learning to understand how officials
think.
More recently, our FOIA requests forced open the CIA’s “family
jewels”—the collection of secret memos that CIA officers sent to the new
CIA director in 1974 when he asked what have we done in the past that
broke the law? The replies covered everything from letter-opening to
psychedelic mind-control experiments to collaborating with the Mafia on
assassination attempts. And in 2018 our FOIA lawsuit opened the actual
cables sent by CIA director Gina Haspel from a “black site” prison in
Thailand where she had supervised the waterboarding torture of an Al-
Qaida suspect after 9/11.
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Preface
This is a book about freedom of information, yet it’s about much more
than that.
It’s about gaining access to the records that good reporters need to break
news and that citizens need to know what their government is doing. It’s
about how everyone, not just journalists, can find and use the information
that will improve lives.
But it isn’t so easy getting public records sometimes, is it? It can seem
impossible to get a simple police report or school budget, let alone an FBI
record. That’s why we wrote this book. We see the process of acquiring
records like winding through a maze—turning corners, running into
roadblocks, backing up and trying other avenues, until finally reaching the
end and getting what you need. More than ever before, people need to be
skilled in navigating that maze through the art of access.
21
secrecy through a little ingenuity, strategy and understanding of human
behavior.
We learn every day. We might get a call from a reporter trying to get a
22
police report or a school superintendent contract. We hear new reasons for
denials, and new ways of overcoming those denials. We watch students in
our college courses fear the prospect of going to their city hall to ask for
documents. We see citizens crying out for help when bureaucrats
stonewall. These people are hungry for knowledge and skills.
After our training sessions we see the relief on their faces and the
determination in their eyes. The word they consistently use to describe
their feelings is “empowered.” That is why we wrote this book.
Knowledge is liberating. Requesters who practice the art of access and
who develop a document state of mind feel empowered, and ultimately,
they get what they need.
The Art of Access will help journalism students taking classes in media
writing, news reporting, investigative reporting, computer-assisted
reporting and media law. This is the kind of nuts-and-bolts guide that
works well in any skills course, or as a supplement to theory and legal
analysis in a seminar or media law course.
While the book was written primarily for journalism students and
practicing reporters, including citizen journalists and bloggers interested in
adding documents to their reports, we think nonjournalists also benefit,
such as private investigators, nonprofit directors, grant writers, business
data analysts and contractors. And we hope citizens active in their
communities will use the book to acquire documents about their
neighborhoods. Everyone can use these skills for their personal lives.
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Organization
The chapters in The Art of Access walk the requester through the process
of accessing records, step by step, from getting into the right document
state of mind to the final step of publishing a newspaper story, newscast or
webcast.
Then we get to the nitty-gritty of the request process, starting with how to
teach yourself the law, how to find records, how to effectively request
them and then how to overcome denials. This is the heart of the book, as it
focuses on practical strategies and techniques proven through personal
experience, interviews with experts and our own research.
We made sure to include a chapter focusing on how public officials see the
access process. We believe it is crucial that requesters understand the
attitudes and culture of records custodians, as well as the barriers they face
in providing documents.
We end the book with a chapter that pulls the process together, including
organizing records, writing the document-based story, thinking about “FOI
ethics” and understanding how people view access issues.
Check out The Record Album in the back of the book for a list of
document ideas, as well as the FOI resources grouped by topic.
Key Features
You will find several key features that we hope will help you get the most
out of this book.
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documents that led to great reporting. And at the end of the book, in The
Record Album, we offer a list of dozens and dozens of records and how
you can use them.
Second, we tried to pack as many practical tips and strategies into the
chapters as possible, and we highlighted some of the most interesting ones
in quick “Pro tip” boxes that feature professionals from a variety of fields
speaking in their own words. We interviewed more than 200 experts from
throughout the world. You’ll see revered print journalism icons Bob
Woodward and Carl Bernstein. You’ll learn from media lawyers,
television reporters, nonprofits such as the American Civil Liberties Union
and veterans groups, public records ombudsmen, college newspaper
editors, a Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter from a weekly newspaper, a
private investigator, and the person who has sued the federal government
for records more than anyone else, dubbed the “FOIA Terrorist.”
Finally, at the end of every chapter we have provided five or six “Try it!”
activities that can be used by newsrooms, classrooms or individual
citizens. Some of these activities are award-winning exercises that we
believe will help you improve your FOI skills and lead to great reporting.
25
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
place them on a new theoretical basis. That basis, in accordance
with the general advance of thought, was supplied by religion.
Sexual relations which had once been condemned as wrong and
unnatural because they were supposed to thwart the natural
multiplication of animals and plants and thereby to diminish the food
supply, would now be condemned because it was imagined that they
were displeasing to gods or spirits, those stalking-horses which
savage man rigs out in the cast-off clothes of his still more savage
ancestors. The moral practice would therefore remain the same,
though its theoretical basis had been shifted from magic to religion.
In this or some such way as this we may conjecture that the Karens,
Dyaks, and other savages reached those curious conceptions of
sexual immorality and its consequences which we have been
considering. But from the nature of the case the development of
moral theory which I have sketched is purely hypothetical and hardly
admits of verification.
However, even if we assume for a moment that
But the reason why the savages in question reached their present
savages came to
regard certain view of sexual immorality in the way I have
sexual relations as surmised, there still remains the question, How did
irregular and they originally come to regard certain relations of
immoral remains
obscure. the sexes as immoral? For clearly the notion that
such immorality interferes with the course of
nature must have been secondary and derivative: people must on
independent grounds have concluded that certain relations between
men and women were wrong and injurious before they extended the
conclusion by false analogy to nature. The question brings us face to
face with the deepest and darkest problem in the history of society,
the problem of the origin of the laws which still regulate marriage and
the relations of the sexes among civilized nations; for broadly
speaking the fundamental laws which we recognize in these matters
are recognized also by savages, with this difference, that among
many savages the sexual prohibitions are far more numerous, the
horror excited by breaches of them far deeper, and the punishment
inflicted on the offenders far sterner than with us. The problem has
often been attacked, but never solved. Perhaps it is destined, like so
many riddles of that Sphinx which we call nature, to remain for ever
insoluble. At all events this is not the place to broach so intricate and
profound a discussion. I return to my immediate subject.
In the opinion of many savages the effect of
Sexual immorality is sexual immorality is not merely to disturb, directly
thought by many
savages to injure or indirectly, the course of nature by blighting the
the delinquents crops, causing the earth to quake, volcanoes to
themselves, their vomit fire, and so forth: the delinquents
offspring, and their
innocent spouses. themselves, their offspring, or their innocent
spouses are supposed to suffer in their own
persons for the sin that has been committed. Thus among the
Baganda of Central Africa “adultery was also regarded as a danger
to children; it was thought that women who were guilty of it during
pregnancy caused the child to die, either prior to birth, or at the time
of birth. Sometimes the guilty woman would herself die in childbed;
or, if she was safely delivered, she would have a tendency to devour
her child, and would have to be guarded lest she should kill it.”103.1
“When there was a case of retarded delivery, the relatives attributed
it to adultery; they made the woman confess the name of the man
with whom she had had intercourse, and if she died, her husband
was fined by the members of her clan, for they said: ‘We did not give
our daughter to you for the purpose of adultery, and you should have
guarded her.’ In most cases, however, the medicine-men were able
to save the woman’s life, and upon recovery she was upbraided, and
the man whom she accused was heavily fined.”103.2 The Baganda
thought that the infidelity of the father as well as of the mother
endangered the life of the child. For “it was also supposed that a
man who had sexual intercourse with any woman not his wife, during
the time that any one of his wives was nursing a child, would cause
the child to fall ill, and that unless he confessed his guilt and
obtained from the medicine-man the necessary remedies to cancel
the evil results, the child would die.”103.3 The common childish
ailment which was thought to be caused by the adultery of the father
or mother was called amakiro, and its symptoms were well
recognized: they consisted of nausea and general debility, and the
only cure for them was a frank confession by the guilty parent and
the performance of a magical ceremony by the medicine-man.103.4
Similar views as to the disastrous effects of
Disastrous effects adultery on mother and child seem to be
of adultery on
adulteress and her widespread among Bantu tribes. Thus among the
child. Awemba of Northern Rhodesia, when both mother
and child die in childbirth, great horror is
expressed by all, who assert that the woman must assuredly have
committed adultery with many men to suffer such a fate. They exhort
her even with her last breath to name the adulterer; and whoever is
mentioned by her is called the “murderer” (musoka) and has
afterwards to pay a heavy fine to the injured husband. Similarly if the
child is born dead and the mother survives, the Awemba take it for
granted that the woman has been unfaithful to her husband, and
they ask her to name the murderer of her child, that is, the man
whose guilty love has been the death of the babe.104.1 In like manner
the Thonga, a Bantu tribe of South Africa, about Delagoa Bay, are of
opinion that if a woman’s travail pangs are unduly prolonged or she
fails to bring her offspring to the birth, she must certainly have
committed adultery, and they insist upon her making a clean breast
as the only means of ensuring her delivery; should she suppress the
name even of one of several lovers with whom she may have gone
astray, the child cannot be born. So convinced are the women of the
sufferings which adultery, if unacknowledged, entails on the guilty
mother in childbed, that a woman who knows her child to be
illegitimate will privately confess her sin to the midwife before she is
actually brought to bed, in the hope thereby of alleviating and
shortening her travail pangs.104.2 Further, the
Sympathetic
relation between an
Thonga believe that adultery establishes a
adulterer and the physical relationship of mutual sympathy between
injured husband. the adulterer and the injured husband such that
the life of the one is in a manner bound up with the
life of the other; indeed this relationship is thought to arise between
any two men who have had sexual connexion with the same woman.
As a native put it to a missionary, “They have met together in one life
through the blood of that woman; they have drunk from the same
pool.” To express it otherwise, they have formed a blood covenant
with each other through the woman as intermediary. “This
establishes between them a most curious mutual dependence:
should one of them be ill, the other must not visit him; the patient
might die. If he runs a thorn into his foot, the other must not help him
to extract it. It is taboo. The wound would not heal. If he dies, his
rival must not assist at his mourning or he would die himself.” Hence
if a man has committed adultery, as sometimes happens, with one of
his father’s younger wives, and the father dies, his undutiful son may
not take the part which would otherwise fall to him in the funeral
rites; indeed should he attempt to attend the burial, his relations
would drive him away in pity, lest by this mark of respect and
perhaps of remorse he should forfeit his life.105.1 In
Injurious effects of
adultery on the
like manner the Akikuyu of British East Africa
innocent husband, believe that if a son has adulterous intercourse
wife, or child. with one of his father’s wives, the innocent father,
not the guilty young scapegrace, contracts a
dangerous pollution (thahu), the effect of which is to make him ill and
emaciated or to break out into sores or boils, and even in all
probability to die, if the danger is not averted by the timely
intervention of a medicine-man.105.2 The Anyanja of British Central
Africa believe that if a man commits adultery while his wife is with
child, she will die; hence on the death of his wife the widower is often
roundly accused of having killed her by his infidelity.105.3 Without
going so far as this, the Masai of German East Africa hold that if a
father were to touch his infant on the day after he had been guilty of
adultery, the child would fall sick.105.4 According to the Akamba of
British East Africa, if a woman after giving birth to a child is false to
her husband before her first menstruation, the child will surely
die.105.5 The Akamba are also of opinion that if a
Injurious effects of
incest on the
woman is guilty of incest with her brother she will
offspring. be unable to bring to the birth the seed which she
has conceived by him. In that case the man must
purge his sin by bringing a big goat to the elders, and the woman is
ceremonially smeared with the contents of the animal’s stomach.106.1
Among the Washamba of German East Africa it happened that a
married woman lost three children, one after the other, by death. A
diviner being called in to ascertain the cause of this calamity,
attributed it to incest of which she had been accidentally guilty with
her father.106.2
Again, it appears to be a common notion with
Wife’s infidelity at savages that the infidelity of a wife prevents her
home thought to
endanger the husband from killing game, and even exposes him
absent husband in to imminent risk of being himself killed or wounded
the chase or the by wild beasts. This belief is entertained by the
war.
Wagogo and other peoples of East Africa, by the
Moxos Indians of Bolivia, and by Aleutian hunters of sea-otters. In
such cases any mishap that befalls the husband during the chase is
set down by him to the score of his wife’s misconduct at home; he
returns in wrath and visits his ill-luck on the often innocent object of
his suspicions even, it may be, to the shedding of her blood.106.3
While the Huichol Indians of Mexico are away seeking for a species
of cactus which they regard as sacred, their women at home are
bound to be strictly chaste; otherwise they believe that they would be
visited with illness and would endanger the success of the men’s
expedition.106.4 An old writer on Madagascar tells us that though
Malagasy women are voluptuous they will not allow themselves to be
drawn into an intrigue while their husbands are absent at the wars,
for they believe that infidelity at such a time would cause the absent
spouse to be wounded or slain.106.5 The Baganda of Central Africa
held similar views as to the fatal effect which a wife’s adultery at
home might have on her absent husband at the wars; they thought
that the gods resented her misconduct and withdrew their favour and
protection from her warrior spouse, thus punishing the innocent
instead of the guilty. Indeed, it was believed that if a woman were
even to touch a man’s clothing while her husband was away with the
army, it would bring misfortune on her husband’s weapon, and might
even cost him his life. The gods of the Baganda were most particular
about women strictly observing the taboos during their husbands’
absence and having nothing to do with other men all that time. On
his return from the war a man tested his wife’s fidelity by drinking
water from a gourd which she handed to him before he entered his
house. If she had been unfaithful to him during his absence, the
water was supposed to make him ill; hence should it chance that he
fell sick after drinking the draught, his wife was at once clapped into
the stocks and tried for adultery; and if she confessed her guilt and
named her paramour, the offender was heavily fined or even put to
death.107.1 Similarly among the Bangala or the Boloki of the Upper
Congo, “when men went to fight distant towns their wives were
expected not to commit adultery with such men as were left in the
town, or their husbands would receive spear wounds from the
enemy. The sisters of the fighters would take every precaution to
guard against the adultery of their brothers’ wives while they were on
the expedition.”107.2 So among the Haida Indians of the Queen
Charlotte Islands, while the men were away at the wars, their wives
“all slept in one house to keep watch over each other; for, if a woman
were unfaithful to her husband while he was with a war-party, he
would probably be killed.”107.3 If only King David had held this belief
he might have contented himself with a single instead of a double
crime, and need not have sent his Machiavellian order to put the
injured husband in the forefront of the battle.107.4
The Zulus imagine that an unfaithful wife who
Injurious effect of touches her husband’s furniture without first eating
wife’s infidelity on
her husband. certain herbs causes him to be seized with a fit of
coughing of which he soon dies. Moreover, among
the Zulus “a man who has had criminal intercourse with a sick
person’s wife is prohibited from visiting the sick-chamber; and, if the
sick person is a woman, any female who has committed adultery
with her husband must not visit her. They say that, if these visits ever
take place, the patient is immediately oppressed with a cold
perspiration and dies. This prohibition was thought to find out the
infidelities of the women and to make them fear discovery.”108.1 For a
similar reason, apparently, during the sickness of a
African chiefs Caffre chief his tribe was bound to observe strict
thought to be
injuriously affected continence under pain of death.108.2 The notion
by the incontinence seems to have been that any act of incontinence
of their subjects.
would through some sort of magical sympathy
prove fatal to the sick chief. The Ovakumbi, a tribe in the south of
Angola, think that the carnal intercourse of young people under the
age of puberty would cause the king to die within the year, if it were
not severely punished. The punishment for such a treasonable
offence used to be death.108.3 Similarly, in the kingdom of Congo,
when the sacred pontiff, called the Chitomé, was going his rounds
throughout the country, all his subjects had to live strictly chaste, and
any person found guilty of incontinence at such times was put to
death without mercy. They thought that universal chastity was
essential to the preservation of the life of the pontiff, whom they
revered as the head of their religion and their common father.
Accordingly when he was abroad he took care to warn his faithful
subjects by a public crier, that no man might plead ignorance as an
excuse for a breach of the law.108.4
Speaking of the same region of West Africa, an
Injurious effects of old writer tells us that “conjugal chastity is
adultery on the
adulteress. singularly respected among these people; adultery
is placed in the list of the greatest crimes. By an
opinion generally received, the women are persuaded that if they
were to render themselves guilty of infidelity, the greatest
misfortunes would overwhelm them, unless they averted them by an
avowal made to their husbands, and in obtaining their pardon for the
injury they might have done.”109.1 The Looboos of
Dangerous pollution
supposed to be
Sumatra think that an unmarried young woman
incurred by who has been got with child falls thereby into a
unchastity. dangerous state called looï, which is such that she
spreads misfortune wherever she goes. Hence
when she enters a house, the people try to drive her out by
force.109.2 Amongst the Sulka of New Britain unmarried people who
have been guilty of unchastity are believed to contract thereby a fatal
pollution (sle) of which they will die, if they do not confess their fault
and undergo a public ceremony of purification. Such persons are
avoided: no one will take anything at their hands: parents point them
out to their children and warn them not to go near them. The
infection which they are supposed to spread is apparently physical
rather than moral in its nature; for special care is taken to keep the
paraphernalia of the dance out of their way, the mere presence of
persons so polluted being thought to tarnish the paint on the
instruments. Men who have contracted this dangerous taint rid
themselves of it by drinking sea-water mixed with shredded coco-nut
and ginger, after which they are thrown into the sea. Emerging from
the water they put off the dripping clothes which they wore during
their state of defilement and cast them away. This purification is
believed to save their lives, which otherwise must have been
destroyed by their unchastity.109.3 Among the Buduma of Lake Chad,
in Central Africa, at the present day “a child born out of wedlock is
looked on as a disgrace, and must be drowned. If this is not done,
great misfortunes will happen to the tribe. All the men will fall sick,
and the women, cows and goats will become barren.”110.1
These examples may suffice to shew that
Conclusion. among many races sexual immorality, whether in
the form of adultery, fornication, or incest, is
believed of itself to entail, naturally and inevitably, without the
intervention of society, most serious consequences not only on the
culprits themselves, but also on the community, often indeed to
menace the very existence of the whole people by destroying the
food supply. I need hardly remind you that all these beliefs are
entirely baseless; no such consequences flow from such acts; in
short, the beliefs in question are a pure superstition. Yet we cannot
doubt that wherever this superstition has existed it must have served
as a powerful motive to deter men from adultery, fornication, and
incest. If that is so, then I think I have proved my third proposition,
which is, that among certain races and at certain times superstition
has strengthened the respect for marriage, and has thereby
contributed to the stricter observance of the rules of sexual morality
both among the married and the unmarried.
V.
RESPECT FOR HUMAN LIFE