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Ebook PDF Chemistry An Atoms First Approach 3rd Edition PDF
Ebook PDF Chemistry An Atoms First Approach 3rd Edition PDF
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14.4 Titrations and pH Curves 594
14.5 Acid–Base Indicators 609
For Review 615 ∣ Key Terms 615 ∣ Questions and Exercises 617
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents vii
17.1 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 680 Chemical connections Nitrous Oxide: Laughing Gas
That Propels Whipped Cream and Cars 779
17.2 Galvanic Cells 686
19.9 The Chemistry of Phosphorus 780
17.3 Standard Reduction Potentials 689
19.10 The Group 6A (16) Elements 782
17.4 Cell Potential, Electrical Work, and Free
Energy 696 19.11 The Chemistry of Oxygen 783
17.5 Dependence of Cell Potential 19.12 The Chemistry of Sulfur 784
on Concentration 699 19.13 The Group 7A (17) Elements 787
17.6 Batteries 705 19.14 The Group 8A (18) Elements 791
Chemical connections Fuel Cells—Portable For Review 792 ∣ Key Terms 792 ∣ Questions and Exercises 795a
Energy 708
17.7 Corrosion 708 Chapter 20 Transition Metals and
17.8 Electrolysis 711 Coordination Chemistry 796
Chemical connections The Chemistry of Sunken
Treasure 714 20.1 The Transition Metals: A Survey 797
17.9 Commercial Electrolytic Processes 716 20.2 The First-Row Transition Metals 802
Chemical connections Titanium Dioxide—Miracle
For Review 721 ∣ Key Terms 721 ∣ Questions and Exercises 725
Coating 804
20.3 Coordination Compounds 807
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viii Contents
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To the Professor
ix
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x To the Professor
❯❯ ChemWork Problems—All of end of chapter problems As we proceed in the text, we gradually shift more re-
were converted into ChemWork problems. These multi- sponsibility to the students to think through the examples so
concept problems (and additional ones) are found inter- that they do not become overly dependent on our help.
actively online with the same type of assistance a student One of the characteristics of this text is an innovative
would get from an instructor. method for dealing with acid–base equilibria, the material the
typical student finds most difficult and frustrating. The key to
this approach involves first deciding what species are present
Hallmarks of Chemistry: in solution, then thinking about the chemical properties of
An Atoms First Approach these species. This method provides a general framework for
approaching all types of solution equilibria.
❯❯ Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach contains numerous
❯❯ The text contains almost 250 Examples, with more given
discussions, illustrations, and exercises aimed at overcom-
in the text discussions, to illustrate general problem-
ing misconceptions. It has become increasingly clear from
solving strategies. When a specific strategy is presented, it
our own teaching experience that students often struggle
is summarized in a Problem-Solving Strategy box and the
with chemistry because they misunderstand many of the
Example that follows it reinforces the use of the strategy
fundamental concepts. In this text, we have gone to great
to solve the problem. In general, we emphasize the use
lengths to provide illustrations and e xplanations aimed at
of conceptual understanding to solve problems rather than
giving students a more accurate picture of the fundamen-
an algorithm-based approach. This approach is strongly
tal ideas of chemistry. In particular, we have attempted to
reinforced by the inclusion of 204 Interactive Examples,
represent the microscopic world of chemistry so that stu-
which encourage students to thoughtfully consider the ex-
dents have a picture in their minds of “what the atoms and
amples step-by-step.
molecules are doing.” The art program along with the ani-
mations emphasize this goal. We have also placed a larger ❯❯ We have presented a thorough treatment of reactions that
emphasis on the qualitative understanding of concepts o ccur in solution, including acid–base reactions. This ma-
before quantitative problems are considered. Because us- terial appears in Chapter 6, “Types of Chemical Reactions
ing an algorithm to correctly solve a problem often masks and Solution Stoichiometry,” directly after the chapter on
misunderstanding—when students assume they under- chemical stoichiometry, to emphasize the connection be-
stand the material because they got the right “answer”—it tween solution reactions and chemical reactions in general.
is important to probe their understanding in other ways. Chapter 6 also includes oxidation–reduction reactions and
In this vein, the text includes a number of Active Learn- balancing by oxidation state, because a large number of
ing Questions at the end of each chapter that are intended interesting and important chemical reactions involve redox
for group discussion. It is our experience that students processes.
often learn the most when they teach each other. Students ❯❯ Descriptive chemistry and chemical principles are thor-
are forced to recognize their own lack of understanding oughly integrated in this text. Chemical models may ap-
when they try and fail to explain a concept to another pear sterile and confusing without the observations that
student. stimulated their invention. On the other hand, facts with-
With a strong problem-solving orientation, this text talks to out organizing principles may seem overwhelming. A
students about how to approach and solve chemical prob- combination of observation and models can make chem-
lems. We emphasize a thoughtful, logical approach rather istry both interesting and understandable. In the chapter
than simply memorizing procedures. This approach is thor- on the chemistry of the elements we have used tables
oughly described in Section 5.3 (Learning to Solve Prob- and charts to show how properties and models correlate.
lems), which promotes the importance of thoughtful, creative Descriptive chemistry is presented in a variety of ways—
problem solving. This section emphasizes to students that as applications of principles in separate sections, in
thinking through a problem produces more long-term, mean- Examples and exercises, in photographs, and in Chemical
ingful learning that can be applied to “real life” than memo- Connections.
rizing steps that apply only to a particular type of problem. To ❯❯ Throughout the book a strong emphasis on models pre-
help students adopt this way of thinking we have organized vails. Coverage includes how they are constructed, how
the problem-solving process in terms of: they are tested, and what we learn when they inevitably
fail. Models are developed naturally, with pertinent ob-
❯❯ Where are we going?
servation always presented first to show why a particular
❯❯ What do we know? model was invented.
❯❯ How do we get there? ❯❯ Chemical Connections boxes present applications of
❯❯ Reality check, which prompts students to check whether chemistry in various fields and in our daily lives. Margin
their answer makes sense notes in the Instructor’s Annotated Edition also highlight
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
To the Professor xi
many more Chemical Connections available on the stu- Professor Tom McGrath of Baylor University for providing a
dent Web site. great deal of useful insight as we prepared the third edition.
❯❯ We offer end-of-chapter exercises for every type of stu- We followed many of Professor McGrath’s suggestions as we
dent and for every kind of homework assignment: ques- revised the text.
tions that promote group learning, exercises that reinforce Thanks to others who supplied valuable assistance for
student understanding, and problems that present the this text: Nellie Mitchell, Product Assistant; Lizz Anderson,
ultimate challenge with increased rigor and by integrat- Designer; Timothy Cali, Marketing Manager; Nicole Hurst,
ing multiple concepts. To further encourage this approach Senior Market Development Manager; Beth McCracken,
we have included a selection of ChemWork Problems in Digital Delivery Lead; and Ann Hoffman, Intellectual Prop-
the text. These multiconcept problems (and additional erty Analyst.
ones) are found interactively online with the same type of We are especially thankful to all of the reviewers who
assistance a student would get from an instructor. We have participated in different aspects of the development process
also included biochemistry problems to make the con- from reviewing chapters to providing feedback on the devel-
nection for students in the course who are not chemistry opment of new features. We sincerely appreciate all of these
majors. suggestions.
❯❯ Judging from the favorable comments of instructors and
students who have used our books, the text seems to work
very well in a variety of courses. We are especially pleased
that readability is cited as a key strength when students are Reviewers
asked to assess our textbooks.
Third Edition Reviewers
Robin Bond, The Evergreen State College
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xii To the Professor
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
To the Student
As you jump into the study of chemistry we hope that you After you have read and studied each chapter of the text
will find our text helpful and interesting. Our job is to present you’ll need to practice your problem-solving skills. To do this
the concepts and ideas of chemistry in a way you can under- we have provided plenty of review questions and end-of-
stand. We hope to encourage you in your studies and to help chapter exercises. Your instructor may assign these on p aper
you learn to solve problems in ways you can apply in all areas or online; in either case, you’ll want to work with your fellow
of your professional and personal lives. students. One of the most effective ways to learn chemistry is
Our main goal is to help you learn to become a truly through the exchange of ideas that comes from helping one
creative problem solver. Our world badly needs people who another. The online homework assignments will give you in-
can “think outside the box.” Our focus is to help you learn to stant feedback, and, in print, we have provided a nswers to
think like a chemist. Why would you want to do that? Chem- some of the exercises in the back of the text. In all cases, your
ists are great problem solvers. They use logic, trial and error, main goal is not just to get the correct answer, but to under-
and intuition—along with lots of patience—to work through stand the process for getting the answer. Memorizing solu-
complex problems. Chemists make mistakes, as we all do in tions for specific problems is not a very good way to prepare
our lives. The important thing that a chemist does is to learn for an exam (or to solve problems in the real world!).
from the mistakes and to try again. This “can do” attitude is To become a great problem solver you’ll need these
useful in all careers. skills:
In this book we develop the concepts in a natural way:
1. Look within the problem for the solution. (Let the prob-
The observations come first and then we develop models to
lem guide you.)
explain the observed behavior. Models help us to understand
2. Use the concepts you have learned along with a system-
and explain our world. They are central to scientific thinking.
atic, logical approach to find the solution.
Models are very useful, but they also have limitations, which
3. Solve the problem by asking questions and learn to trust
we will point out. By understanding the basic concepts in
yourself to think it out.
chemistry we lay the foundation for solving problems.
Our main goal is to help you learn a thoughtful method You will make mistakes, but the important thing is to learn
of problem solving. True learning is more than memorizing from these errors. The only way to gain confidence is to prac-
facts. Truly educated people use their factual knowledge as a tice, practice, practice and to use your mistakes to find your
starting point—a basis for creative problem solving. Our weaknesses. Be patient with yourself and work hard to under-
strategy for solving problems is explained in Section 5.3. To stand rather than simply memorize.
solve a problem we ask ourselves questions, which help us We hope you’ll have an interesting and successful year
think through the problem. We let the problem guide us to the learning to think like a chemist!
solution. This process can be applied to all types of problems Steve and Susan Zumdahl and Don DeCoste
in all areas of life.
As you study the text, use the Examples and the problem-
solving strategies to help you. The strategies are boxed to
highlight them for you, and the Examples show how these
strategies are applied.
xiii
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
A Guide to Chemistry, An Atoms First Approach THIRD Edition
Connecting To Atoms This new boxed feature contains atoms first summaries that cover key atoms first
concepts at point-of-use.
Chemical Connections Interesting applications of modern chemistry show students the relevance of
chemistry to the real world. 48 ChApter 1 Chemical Foundations
maries that cover key atoms first concepts at point-of-use. They have 11 protons
12 neutrons Protons
11 protons
13 neutrons
Relative charge = +1
oms, Ions, and Isotopes: A Pictorial Summary, Lewis Structures and the
Relative charge = –1 Relative charge = –1
23 Relative mass = 1/1840 Relative mass = 1/1840 24
11 Na Neutrons 11 Na
Relative charge = 0
Isotopes
Zero-, First-, and Second-Order Reactions and the Collision Model 10 electrons
Neutral chlorine
discussed mechanisms for such mechanism occur at a much faster rate atom (Cl)
reactions. Let’s consider what each of than the second step, the decomposi-
these types of reactions would “look” tion of the excited state is the rate-
like at the molecular level. determining step. Thus the second step Gain of electron Anion
17+ 17+ Negative charge
Let’s consider the generic reaction dictates the rate and the rate law 5 Number of electrons > Number of protons
2AB n AB2 1 A, which we can repre- k[AB], which is first order.
sent as + n + . How In all three mechanisms, then, the
could various possible mechanisms molecules must collide for a reaction to 17 electrons
lead to different rate laws for this occur.
reaction? 18 electrons
Collision model
Pt
Possible mechanism that yields In Section 11.6, you learned about the
a second order rate law collision model, which tells us that in
Note the molecules still must collide to order for a reaction to occur, mol-
As we discussed in Section 11.6, the
react, but since the rate does not ecules must collide. We can see that
molecules must collide in order to
change with concentration of AB, then even with this simple model, we can
react. The most obvious rate law, then,
rate 5 k[AB]0, or rate 5 k. develop different mechanisms that
would seem to be second order since
we need two molecules to collide. A Possible mechanism that yields give rise to different rate laws. As we
simple mechanism for a second-order a first-order rate law have discussed, however, while a
63362_ch01_rev03.indd 48 07/10/19 4:49 PM
reaction could be: collision is necessary, it is not the
Because molecules must collide in
only factor required to result in a 3.1 Types of Chemical Bonds 101
order to react, first-order reactions may
1. + (slow) reaction. The molecules must be
seem impossible at first. For example,
oriented correctly (which is one way
2. + (fast) how can the slow step of a mechanism
in which a catalyst works to speed up
be + , if molecules do not
a reaction), and activation energy
The first step is the rate-determining
step, making the rate 5 k[AB]2, or
collide? The key to understanding this
is to realize that for a molecule to react,
must be overcome (which is why
reactions proceed at a higher rate
ChemiCal ConneCtions 3.1
second order. it must have enough energy to
with increased temperature). To
surmount the reaction energy barrier.
better understand how reactions
No Lead Pencils
Possible mechanism that yields a We will represent such an excited state
D
proceed and what factors are id you ever wonder why the part of The ratio of clay to graphite is adjusted atoms bound together in a “chicken-
zero-order rate law molecule with an asterisk in the
important in the rate of a reaction, a pencil that makes the mark is to vary the hardness of the lead—the wire” structure. Although the bonding
Zero-order reactions are often the mechanism below.
we need to take a molecular-level called the “lead”? Pencils have no lead in more clay in the mix, the harder the lead within each layer is very strong, the
result of catalysis. For example, approach to consider how the
1. + *+ (fast) them now—and they never have. and the lighter the line it makes. bonding between layers is weak, giving
suppose the reaction occurs on the molecules are interacting.
2. * + (slow) Apparently the association between Pencils are made from a slat of graphite its slippery, soft nature. In this
surface of a metal catalyst, such as
writing and the element lead arose wood with several grooves cut in it to way, graphite is much different from
platinum (Pt). Once the surface is 3. + (fast)
during the Roman Empire, when lead hold the leads. A similar grooved slat is diamond, the other common elemental
completely covered with AB mol-
rods were used as writing utensils then placed on top and glued to form a form of carbon. In diamond the carbon
ecules, increasing the concentration of Note that the AB molecules must because they leave a gray mark on “sandwich” from which individual atoms are bound tightly in all three
AB would have no effect on the rate collide in order to react. However, the paper. Many centuries later, in 1564, a pencils are cut, sanded smooth, and dimensions, making it extremely
deposit of a black substance found to be painted. Although many types of wood hard—the hardest natural substance.
very useful for writing was discovered in have been used over the years to make Pencils are very useful—especially
Borrowdale, England. This substance, pencils, the current favorite is incense for doing chemistry problems—
originally called “black lead,” was shown cedar from the Sierra Nevada Moun- because we can erase our mistakes.
in 1879 by Swedish chemist Carl Scheele tains of California. Most pencils used in the United States
to be a form of carbon and was Modern pencils are simple but have erasers (first attached to pencils in
subsequently named graphite (after the amazing instruments. The average 1858), although most European pencils
Greek graphein, meaning “to write”). pencil can write approximately 45,000 do not. Laid end to end, the number of
Originally, chunks of graphite from words, which is equivalent to a line 35 pencils made in the United States each
Borrowdale, called marking stones, were miles long. The graphite in a pencil is year would circle the earth about 15
used as writing instruments. Later, sticks easily transferred to paper because times. Pencils illustrate how useful a
of graphite were used. Because graphite graphite contains layers of carbon simple substance like graphite can be.
is brittle, the sticks needed reinforce-
63362_ch11_rev02.indd 483 24/10/19 11:16 AM
ment. At first they were wrapped in
string, which was unwound as the core
wore down. Eventually, graphite rods
were tied between two wooden slats or
480 ChapteR 11 Chemical Kinetics 11.7inserted into hollowed-out
Catalysis 481 wooden
sticks to form the first crude pencils.
Although Borrowdale graphite was
Sezeryadigarl/iStockphoto.com
pure enough to use directly, most
graphite must be mixed with other
ChemiCal ConneCtions 11.1 materials to be useful for writing
instruments. In 1795, the French chemist
Nicolas-Jaques Conté invented a process
Enzymes: Nature’s Catalysts in which graphite is mixed with clay and
R R'
cells, this reaction would be much too
R''
slow to be useful. One
of these enzymes is
The process just described for
carboxypeptidase-A is characteristic of
the behavior of other enzymes. Enzyme
scribe current applications of
H O
H
N N C C N C C N C C
H H O H H O H H
O H
carboxypeptidase-A, a
zinc-containing
catalysis can be represented by the
series of reactions shown below: chemistry. These special-interest
protein (Fig. 11.18).
NH2
metal to clean up contaminated
(carbonyl) group. This polarizes the process. The most amazing thing HO
xiv
63362_ch11_rev02.indd 480 24/10/19 11:16 AM
63362_ch11_rev02.indd 481 24/10/19 11:16 AM
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Conceptual Understanding Conceptual learning and problem solving are fundamental to
the approach of Chemistry. The text gives students the tools to become critical thinkers: to ask
questions, to apply rules and models, and to evaluate the outcome.
2.4 The Bohr Model 63
I
(b) The hydrogen line spectrum contains
only a few discrete wavelengths.
“The first principles of the universe are atoms and empty space; everything
+
Slit Prism
z z z z
The authors’ emphasis on modeling (or chemical theories) 4.1 Molecular Structure:
throughout the Hightext addresses the problem of rote memorization
voltage
x x x x The VSEPR Model
by helping students better understand and appreciate the pro- The structures of molecules play a very important role in determining their chemi-
cess ofy scientific− thinking. By stressing the ylimitations and uses of cal properties. As we will see later, this is particularly important for biological
Syringe
5.3 Learning to Solve Problems In Chapter 5, “Stoichiometry,” the authors dedicate a section, Learning to
One of the great rewards of studying chemistry is to become a good problem-solver.
Being able to solve complex problems is a talent that will serve you well in all walks
of life. It is our purpose in this text to help you learn to solve problems in a flexible,
Solve Problems, that emphasizes the importance of problem solving. This
creative way based on understanding the fundamental ideas of chemistry. We call this
approach conceptual problem solving. section helps students understand that thinking their way through a prob-
The ultimate goal is to be able to solve new problems (that is, problems you have
not seen before) on your own. In this text we will provide problems and offer solutions lem produces more long-term, meaningful learning than simply memorizing
by explaining how to think about the problems. While the answers to these problems
are important, it is perhaps even more important to understand the process—the think-
ing necessary to get the answer. Although at first we will be solving the problem for
steps, which are soon forgotten.
you, do not take a passive role. While studying the solution, it is crucial that you inter-
actively think through the problem with us. Do not skip the discussion and jump to the
answer. Usually, the solution will involve asking a series of questions. Make sure that
you understand each step in the process. This active approach should apply to prob-
lems outside of chemistry as well. For example, imagine riding with someone in a car
to an unfamiliar destination. If your goal is simply to have the other person get you to
that destination, you will probably not pay much attention to how to get there (pas-
5.2 Atomic Masses 193
sive), and if you have to find this same place in the future on your own, you will prob-
ably not be able to do it. If, however, your goal is to learn how to get there, you would
100 91
pay attention to distances, signs, and turns (active). This is how you should read the
Paul Brennan/Shutterstock.com
much as you solve a problem, you won’t really learn effectively. If we always “drive,”
40
you won’t interact as meaningfully with the material. Eventually you need to learn to
drive yourself. We will provide more help at the beginning of the text and less as we 20
9
proceed to later chapters. .3
There are two fundamentally different ways you might use to approach a problem. 0
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 20 21 22
One way emphasizes memorization. We might call this the “pigeonholing method.” In Mass number Mass number
this approach, the first step is to label the problem—to decide in which pigeonhole it a b c
fits. The pigeonholing method requires that we provide you with a set of steps that you
memorize and store in the appropriate slot for each different problem you encounter. FigURE 5.2 (a) In advertising signs, the red color is due to the emission of red light by neon gas.
The difficulty with this method is that it requires a new pigeonhole each time a prob- The relative intensities of the signals recorded when natural neon is injected into a mass spectrometer are
lem is changed by even a small amount. represented in terms of (b) “peaks” and (c) a bar graph. The relative areas of the peaks are 0.9092 (20Ne),
Consider the driving analogy again. Suppose you have memorized how to drive 0.00257 (21Ne), and 0.0882 (22Ne); natural neon is therefore 90.92% 20Ne, 0.257% 21Ne, and 8.82% 22Ne.
from your house to the grocery store. Do you know how to drive back from the grocery
store to your house? Not necessarily. If you have only memorized the directions and
do not understand fundamental principles such as “I traveled north to get to the store,
so my house is south of the store,” you may find yourself stranded. In a more compli- ExAMPLE 5.1 the Average Mass of an element
cated example, suppose you know how to get from your house to the store (and back)
When a sample of natural copper is vaporized and injected into a mass spectrometer,
and from your house to the library (and back). Can you get from the library to the store
the results shown in Fig. 5.3 are obtained. Use these data to compute the average mass
without having to go back home? Probably not if you have only memorized directions
of natural copper. (The mass values for 63Cu and 65Cu are 62.93 u and 64.93 u,
and you do not have a “big picture” of where your house, the store, and the library are
respectively.)
relative to one another. 5.4 The Mole 199
John Humble/The Image Bank/Getty Images
The second approach is conceptual problem-solving, in which we help you get the
Solution Where are we going?
Chapters 1–8 introduce a series of questions into the in- “big picture”—a
How real understanding
do we get there? of the situation. This approach to problem-solving
looks within the problem for a solution. In this method we assume that the problem is To calculate the average mass of natural copper
a new one,The and strategy forproblem
we let the doing this problem
guide us asiswe
to solve
convertit. from
In thismilligrams
approach ofwesilicon
ask a to grams
chapter Examples to engage students in the process of of silicon,
series of questions as then to molesand
we proceed of silicon,
use our and finally to
knowledge ofatoms of silicon:
fundamental principles to Arturo Limon/Shutterstock.com What do we know?
answer these questions. Learning this approach requires some patience, but the reward ❯ 63Cu mass 5 62.93 u
problem solving, such as Where are we going? and How for learning to solve problems this way is that
5.68 mg Si 3we
any new problem that confronts us in daily life or in 1000
each 1 gbecome
our work
Si
mg Si
5 5.68 3 10 g Si of
an effective solver
23
in any field. In summary,
❯ 65Cu mass 5 64.93 u
S D S D
Always check to see if your answer is 2.02 3 1024 mol Si 3 5 1.22 3 1020 atoms 100
1 mol Si u u
s69.09 atomsd 62.93 1 s30.91 atomsd 64.93
Relative number of atoms
It can be shown that this is the maximum possible separation of four pairs around a
To calculate the number of moles and the mass of a sample of Co H
What do we know? by requiring them toatom.
given think through
This the
means that example
whenever four step-by-step
pairs of electronsrather than
are present around an
❯ Sample contains 5.00 3 1020 atoms of Co
simply scanningatom,
the they shouldexample
written always be arranged tetrahedrally.
in the text as many students do.
How do we get there? 63362_ch05_rev02.indd 193 Now that we have the electron-pair arrangement that gives the least repulsion, we 22/10/19 10:09 PM
C
Russ Lappa/Science Source
Note that the sample of 5.00 3 1020 atoms of cobalt is less than 1 mole
H
(6.022 3 1023 atoms) of cobalt. What fraction of a mole it represents can be deter-
can determine the positions of the atoms and thus the molecular structure of CH4. In
mined as follows: H methane, each of the four electron pairs is shared between the carbon atom and a hy-
5.00 3 1020 atoms Co 3
1 mol Co
5 8.30 3 1024 mol Co H drogen atom. Thus the hydrogen atoms are placed as in Fig. 4.1, and the molecule has
▲ Fragments of cobalt metal. 6.022 3 1023 atoms Co
a tetrahedral structure with the carbon atom at the center.
be determined as follows: FIguRE 4.1 The molecular
Since the mass of 1 mole of cobalt atoms is 58.93 g, the mass of 5.00 3 1020 atoms can
Recall that the main idea of the VSEPR model is to find the arrangement of electron
58.93 g Co
structure of methane. The tetrahedral pairs around the central atom that minimizes the repulsions. Then we can determine
arrangement of electron pairs produces
24
8.30 3 10 mol Co 3 5 4.89 3 1022 g Co
1 mol Co the molecular structure from knowing how the electron pairs are shared with the pe-
a tetrahedral arrangement of hydrogen
Reality Check In this case the sample contains 5 3 1020 atoms, which is approxi- ripheral atoms. Use the following steps to predict the structure of a molecule using the
mately 1y1000 of a mole. Thus the sample should have a mass of atoms.
(58.93) > 0.06. Our answer of ,0.05 makes sense.
about (1y1000)
VSEPR model.
PROblEM-SOlVing STRaTEgy
Steps to apply the VSEPR Model
Notice that we need to determine the 1. Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule.
Lewis structure as a first step.
63362_ch05_rev02.indd 199 22/10/19 10:09 PM 2. Count the electron pairs and arrange them in the way that minimizes repulsion (that
is, put the pairs as far apart as possible).
Problem-Solving Strategy boxes focus students’ attention on the very im- 3. Determine the positions of the atoms from the way the electron pairs are
shared.
portant process of problem solving.
4. Determine the name of the molecular structure from the positions of
the atoms.
We will predict the structure of ammonia (NH3) using this stepwise approach.
1. Draw the Lewis structure:
xvi
2. Count the pairs of electrons and arrange them to minimize repulsions. The NH3
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be ▲ When
copied, fouror
scanned, uniform balloons
duplicated, molecule
areor in part. Due to electronic
in whole hassome
rights, four pairs
third partyof electrons:
content three bonding
may be suppressed from the pairs
eBook and
and/orone nonbonding
eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
tiedaffect the overall
together, theylearning form a Cengage Learningpair.
experience.
naturally From
reserves theto remove
the right discussion of content
additional the methane
at any timemolecule,
if subsequent we
rightsknow thatrequire
restrictions the best
it.
Dynamic Art Program Most of the glassware, orbitals, graphs, flowcharts, and molecules 6.3 The Composition of Solutions 245
have been redrawn to better serve visual learners and enhance the textbook. How do we get there?
What are the moles of NaCl (58.44 g/mol)? 246
1 g NaCl 1 mol NaCl
1.0 mg NaCl 3 3 5 1.7 3 1025 mol NaCl
1000 mg NaCl 58.44 g NaCl
What volume of 0.14 M NaCl contains 1.0 mg (1.7 3 1025 mol) NaCl?
There is some volume, call it V, that when multiplied by the molarity of this solution M3V5
1.1 Chemistry: An Atoms-First Approach 35 will yield 1.7 3 1025 moles of NaCl. That is,
0.14 mol NaCl
FiguRE 1.2 Sand on a beach looks V3 5 1.7 3 1025 mol NaCl
L solution
uniform from a distance, but up close What mass of K2Cr2O
the irregular sand grains are visible, and We want to solve for the volume:
each grain is composed of tiny atoms.
1.7 3 1025 mol NaCl
V5 5 1.2 3 1024 L solution
0.14 mol NaCl
L solution
The artThusprogram emphasizes molecular-level interactions that
0.12 mL of blood contains 1.7 3 10 moles of NaCl or 1.0 mg NaCl.
25
O
help students visualize the “micro/macro” connection.
See Exercises 6.35 and 6.36
Si
S CI E N
CE
and in Example 6.6.
PH
OT
LIB
O
RA
RY/
S ci e
nc e S o ur ce
O2
spark
2H2O 63362_ch06_rev02.indd 246
2H2
dipolar charge distribution. Thus we say that large atoms with many electrons exhibit
a higher polarizability than small atoms. This means that the importance of London
dispersion forces increases greatly as the size of the atom increases.
The dispersion forces in molecules with These same ideas also apply to nonpolar molecules such as H2, CH4, CCl4, and
63362_ch01_rev03.indd 35 large atoms are quite significant and CO2 [see Fig. 9.5(b)]. Since none of these molecules has a 07/10/19
permanent dipole mo-
4:48 PM
500 mL
are often actually more important than ment, their principal means of attracting each other is through London dispersion
dipole–dipole forces. forces.
a b c
TABLe 9.3 Intermolecular Forces iNTERACTivE ExAMplE 6.7 Concentration and Volume
Range of What volume of 16 M sulfuric acid must be used to prepare 1.5 L of a 0.10 M H2SO4
Type of Energies solution?
Interaction Nature of Attraction Model (kJ/mol) Examples
δ– δ+ δ– δ+
H H H H
xvii
63362_ch09_rev02.indd 367 23/10/19 10:57 pm
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Comprehensive End-of-Chapter Practice and Review We offer end-of-chapter exer-
cises for every type of student and for every kind of homework assignment.
For review
Key Terms Buffered Solutions
Section 14.1 ❯ Contains a weak acid (HA) and its salt (NaA) or a weak base (B) and its salt (BHCl)
common ion ❯ Resists a change in its pH when H1 or OH2 is added
common ion effect ❯ For a buffered solution containing HA and A2
Section 14.2 ❯ The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation is useful:
S D
buffered solution
Henderson–Hasselbalch pH 5 pKa 1 log
fA2g
fHAg
Each chapter has a For Review section to reinforce key con-
equation
Section 14.3 ❯ The capacity of the buffered solution depends on the amounts of HA and A2 present cepts and includes review questions for students to practice
buffering capacity
Section 14.4 ❯ The most efficient buffering occurs when the
fA2g
ratio is close to 1 independently.
fHAg
pH curve (titration curve)
millimole (mmol) ❯ Buffering works because the amounts of HA (which reacts with added OH2) and A2
equivalence point
fA2g
(stoichiometric point) (which reacts with added H1) are large enough that the ratio does not change signifi-
fHAg
Section 14.5
acid–base indicator cantly when strong acids or bases are added
phenolphthalein
Acid–Base Titrations
❯ The progress of a titration is represented by plotting the pH of the solution versus the volume
of added titrant; the resulting graph is called a pH curve or titration curve
❯ Strong acid–strong base titrations show a sharp change in pH near the equivalence point
❯ The shape of the pH curve for a strong base–strong acid titration before the equivalence point
is quite different from the shape of the pH curve for a strong base–weak acid titration
❯ The strong base–weak acid pH curve shows the effects of buffering before the equiva-
lence point
❯ For a strong base–weak acid titration, the pH is greater than 7 at the equivalence point
because of the basic properties of A2
❯ Indicators are sometimes used to mark the equivalence point of an acid–base titration
❯ The end point is where the indicator changes color
❯ The goal is to have the end point and the equivalence point be as close as possible
review Questions Answers to the Review Questions can be found on the Student Web site (accessible from www.cengagebrain.com).
1. What is meant by the presence of a common ion? How Is it necessary that the concentrations of the weak
does the presence of a common ion affect an equilib- acid and the weak base in a buffered solution be equal?
rium such as Explain. What is the pH of a buffer when the weak acid
and conjugate base concentrations are equal?
HNO2saqd m H1saqd 1 NO22saqd
A buffer generally contains a weak acid and its weak
What is an acid–base solution called that contains a conjugate base, or a weak base and its weak conjugate
common ion? acid, in water. You can solve for the pH by setting up
2. Define a buffer solution. What makes up a buffer solu- the equilibrium problem using the Ka reaction of the
tion? How do buffers absorb added H1 or OH2 with weak acid or the Kb reaction of the conjugate base. Both
little pH change? reactions give the same answer for the pH of the solu-
tion. Explain. 140 ChapTer 3 Bonding: general Concepts
the bonding in the substance. Why do we draw reso- octet rule in organic compounds so as to have a formula
nance structures? charge of zero?
7. Define formal charge and explain how to calculate it. 8. The compounds AlCl3, CrCl3, and ICl3 have similar
What is the purpose of the formal charge? Organic formulas, yet each follows a different set of rules to
compounds are composed mostly of carbon and hydro- name it. Name these compounds, and then compare and
gen but also may have oxygen, nitrogen, and/or halo- contrast the nomenclature rules used in each case.
gens in the formula. Formal charge arguments work 9. How would you name HBrO4, KIO3, NaBrO2, and
63362_ch14_rev02.indd 615 10/31/19 5:09 PM
very well for organic compounds when drawing the best HIO? Refer to Table 3.5 and the acid nomenclature
Lewis structure. How do C, H, N, O, and Cl satisfy the discussion in the text.
Active learning Questions 14. The following electrostatic potential diagrams represent H2,
HCl, or NaCl. Label each and explain your choices.
These questions are designed to be used by groups of students in
class.
1. Explain the electronegativity trends across a row and down a
column of the periodic table. Compare these trends with those a.
of ionization energies and atomic radii. How are they related?
2. Using only the periodic table, predict the most stable ion for (a)
Active Learning Questions are designed to promote dis- Na, Mg, Al, S, Cl, K, Ca, and Ga. Arrange these from largest
to smallest radius, and explain why the radius varies as it does.
cussion among groups of students in class. Compare your predictions with Fig. 3.5.
3. Which has the greater bond lengths: NO22 or NO32? Explain. b. + –
4. The following ions are best described with resonance struc-
tures. Draw the resonance structures, and using formal charge (b)
arguments, predict the best Lewis structure for each ion.
a. NCO2
b. CNO2
5. What is meant by a chemical bond? Why do atoms form bonds c.
with each other? Why do some elements exist as molecules in
(c)
nature instead of as free atoms?
6. Why are some bonds ionic and some covalent? 15. Describe the type of bonding that exists in the Cl2(g) mole-
7. How does a bond between Na and Cl differ from a bond cule. How does this type of bonding differ from that found in
between C and O? What about a bond between N and N? the HCl(g) molecule? How is it similar?
8. Does a Lewis structure tell which electrons come from which 16. Some of the important properties of ionic compounds are as
atoms? Explain. follows:
9. Evaluate each of the following as an acceptable name for i. low electrical conductivity as solids and high conductivity
water: in solution or when molten
a. dihydrogen oxide ii. relatively high melting and boiling points
b. hydroxide hydride iii. brittleness
c. hydrogen hydroxide iv. solubility in polar solvents
d. oxygen dihydride How does the concept of ionic bonding discussed in this chap-
10. Why do we call Ba(NO3)2 barium nitrate, but we call Fe(NO3)2 ter account for these properties?
iron(II) nitrate? 17. Label the type of bonding for each of the following.
11. Why is calcium dichloride not the correct systematic name for a. b.
CaCl2?
12. The common name for NH3 is ammonia. What would be the
systematic name for NH3? Support your answer.
xviii
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Comprehensive End-of-Chapter Practice and Review
lems are paired and organized by topic so that Development of the Atomic Theory Magnesium 1.500 g MgO
instructors can review them in class and assign 25. When mixtures of gaseous H2 and gaseous Cl2 react, a product
forms that has the same properties regardless of the relative
32. Indium oxide contains 4.784 g of indium for every 1.000 g of
them for homework. amounts of H2 and Cl2 used.
oxygen. In 1869, when Mendeleev first presented his version
a. How is this result interpreted in terms of the law of defi- of the periodic table, he proposed the formula In2O3 for indium
nite proportion? oxide. Before that time it was thought that the formula was
b. When a volume of H2 reacts with an equal volume of Cl2 InO. What values for the atomic mass of indium are obtained
at the same temperature and pressure, what volume of using these two formulas? Assume that oxygen has an atomic
product having the formula HCl is formed? mass of 16.00.
xix
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
23 28 20 190
89 76 Os
39 Y
50
27Co
35 44 36
15 16 32
Wealth of End-of-Chapter Problems The text offers an unparalleled variety of end-of- Number of Number of
Protons in Neutrons in Number of Net
52. Complete the following table.
chapter content with problems that increase in rigor and integrate multipleSymbol
concepts. 53 21
Nucleus Nucleus Electrons Charge
26Fe 120
50Sn
26 33 31 25 21
12 Mg
85 125 86
56 21
26 Fe
13 14 10
79
76 54 22 34Se
35
17Cl
63
29Cu
ChemWork problems
These multiconcept problems (and additional ones) are found in- 53.
For Review 52c teractively online with the same type of assistance a student would statements, correct them.
New ChemWork end-of-chapter multiconcept problems, with many additional get from an instructor. a.
55. The isotope of an unknown element, X, has a mass number of
problems, are found interactively online61.with
79. The most stable ion of this isotope has 36 electrons and has
Each of the following statements is true, but Dalton might
the same type of assistance a stu-
have had trouble explaining some of them with his atomic
49. Complete the following table, including the mass number and
the atomic number with the symbol for the isotope.
b.
in which electrons are embedded.
dent would get from an instructor. These problems
a 22 charge. Which of the following statements is(are) true? are available
theory. Give explanations to assign
for the following statements.online
c.
For the false statements, correct them. a. The space-filling models for ethyl alcohol and dimethyl Number of Number of the mass of the entire atom.
for more
a. This practice.
ion has more electrons than protons in the nucleus. ether are shown below. Protons Neutrons Symbol
d.
b. The isotope of X contains 38 protons. 9 10 the total volume of the atom.
C
c. The isotope of X contains 41 neutrons. 13 14 e.
O number of electrons.
d. The identity of X is strontium, Sr. 53 74
H 54. Which of the following is(are) correct?
56. An element’s most stable ion has a 21 charge. If the ion of 34 45
element X has a mass number of 230 and has 86 electrons, a. 40Ca21
These two compounds have the same composition by 16 16
what is the identity of the element, and how many neutrons b.
mass (52% carbon, 13% hydrogen, and 35% oxygen), yet
does it have?
the two have different melting points, boiling points, and
57. In a reaction, 34.0 g of chromium(III) oxide reacts with 12.1 g solubilities in water. c. An electron is heavier than a proton.
of aluminum to produce chromium and aluminum oxide. If d.
b. Burning wood leaves an ash that is only a small fraction
23.3 g of chromium is produced, what mass of aluminum
of the mass of the original wood.
oxide is produced?
c. Atoms can be broken down into smaller particles.
58. Using the information in Table 1.1, answer the following ques-
tions. In an ion with an unknown charge, the total mass of all the d. One sample of lithium hydride is 87.4% lithium by mass,
electrons was determined to be 2.55 3 10226 g, while the total while another sample of lithium hydride is 74.9% lithium
by mass. However, the two samples have the same chemi-
mass of its protons was 5.34 3 10223 g. What is the identity and
cal properties.
charge of this ion? What is the symbol and mass number of a
neutral atom whose total mass of its electrons is 3.92 3 10226 g, 62. Reaction of 2.0 L of hydrogen gas with 1.0 L of oxygen gas
while its neutrons have a mass of 9.35 3 10223 g? yields 2.0 L of water vapor. All gases are at the same tempera-
ture and pressure. Show how these data support the idea that
59. A single molecule has a mass of 7.31 3 10223 g. Provide an
oxygen gas is a diatomic molecule. Must we consider hydro-
example of a real molecule that can have this mass. Assume
gen to be a diatomic molecule to explain these results?
the elements that make up the molecule are made of light iso-
topes where the number of protons equals the number of neu- 63. A combustion reaction involves the reaction of a substance
trons in the nucleus of each element. with oxygen gas. The complete combustion of any hydrocar-
bon (binary compound of carbon and hydrogen) produces car-
Challenge problems
Challenge Problems take students one step
bon dioxide and water as the only products. Octane is a
hydrocarbon that is found in gasoline. Complete combustion
60. Confronted with the box shown in the diagram, you wish to further and challenge them more rigorously than
of octane produces 8 liters of carbon dioxide for every 9 liters 63362_ch01_rev03.indd 2
xx
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
About the Authors
xxi
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xxii About the Authors
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
review
Glassware used to measure volumes of liquids. (Alexander Raths/Shutterstock.com)
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Harpsichord composers. From top left to bottom right:
D. Scarlatti, Couperin, C. P. E. Bach, Clementi.
When a man like Alberti at last endeavored to write purely melodic
music on the harpsichord alone, which by the way was wholly
unfitted to sing, three methods of accompaniment were open to him.
One of these was to give to the left hand, as accompanist, a counter-
melody or counter-melodies, which, interweaving with the upper
melody, would create harmonic progressions. Allowing him to have
had the skill to do this, as Couperin or Bach had been able to do, it
would not have recommended itself to him as the best way to set off
the chief melody. Such a procedure inevitably tangled melody with
accompaniment. Secondly, he could give to the left hand a series of
chords. But owing to the nature of the harpsichord, these would
sound dry and detached, with cold harmonic vacancies between;
unless he chose to repeat the chords rapidly, which process was
decidedly clumsy. Finally he could break up the chords into their
separate notes, combine these in groups easily within the grasp of
the hand, and by playing these groups rapidly over and over again,
produce a constantly moving harmonic current on which his melody
might float along. This is in fact what Alberti did, and this is the
legitimate function of the Alberti bass, one which can no more be
dispensed with from pianoforte music than the tremolo from the
orchestra.
From the almost universal acceptance of the formula in the last half
of the eighteenth century one may deduce two facts: one, that a
good many composers were too lazy or too lacking in natural
endowment to bother with acquiring a skill in counterpoint; second,
that the whole trend of music was away from the contrapuntal style
towards the purely melodic. Both facts are true; but one should no
more deplore the former than be thankful for the latter, to which is
owing many an imperishable page of Mozart and of Beethoven.
and the perhaps even more monotonous ones which one finds even
in such a sublime masterpiece as the sonata in A-flat major (op. 110)
of Beethoven.
After the claim to attention had been thereby established the second
theme was allowed to sing. The general tendency was to give to this
second theme a gentler and more truly melodious character than the
first. Here was the great domain of the Alberti bass, for instance. And
following the second theme came another busy little passage,
service music again, of which the duty was to bring the first section
of the movement to an orderly close in the key of the dominant.
The last section differed little from the first except that the second
theme now appeared in the tonic key. The transitional passage was
taken, along with the themes themselves, from the first section; but,
relieved of one half its duty—that of bringing to pass a modulation
from tonic to dominant—was likely to be considerably shortened.
The closing measures, however, were usually an exact reduplication
in the tonic key of those which had closed the first section in the
dominant. The first section was always repeated, and so were the
second and third, en bloc.
III
The pianoforte sonata was a sufficiently clearly defined product of
musical craftsmanship, if not art, before Haydn and Mozart began
seriously to express themselves in it. It is right then to summarize
briefly the musical value of the chief sonatas before their day.
Christian Bach, on the other hand, is full of the new idea. His life
itself may well claim attention. It is sufficiently remarkable that he
almost alone of the great Bach family which had for generations
played a part in the development of music in Germany, and was to
play such a part there for many years to come, broke the traditions of
his fathers, went to Italy for eight years, even became a Catholic,
and finally decided to pass the last twenty years of his life in London.
Though the many stories of his extravagances and dissipations have
been most unrighteously exaggerated, he was none the less of a
gay, light-hearted and pleasure-loving nature which is in sharp
contrast to the graver and more pious dispositions of his ancestors.
His father died when he was but fifteen years old. He had already
shown marked ability as a player of the harpsichord, and his brother
Emanuel took him to Berlin after the father’s death and trained him
further in the art for four years. Then followed the eight years in Italy
where he was beloved and admired by all with whom he came in
contact, not the least by the great Padre Martini in Bologna, with
whom he studied for many years. In 1762 he went to London, chiefly
to write operas. He was enormously popular and successful. He was
court clavecinist to Queen Anne and in 1780 a Bath paper spoke of
him as the greatest player of his time.
At some time not long after his arrival in England he published a set
of six sonatas for the harpsichord, dedicated to the amusement of
‘His Serene Highness, Monseigneur le duc Ernst, duc de
Mecklenburg.’ Of these the second, in D major, offers a particularly
excellent example of clear, lucid writing in the sonata form. The first
movement is admirable. The first theme is composed of vigorous
chords. It is given twice, then followed by a transitional passage full
of fire; the right hand keeping a continuous flow of broken chord
figures, over the rising and falling powerful motives in the left. The
preparation for the announcement of the second theme is in
remarkably mature classical manner, and the lovely melodious
second theme, with its gentle Albertian accompaniment, is clearly a
promise of Mozart to come. There is a fine free closing passage. The
development section is long and varied, astonishingly modern; and
the return to the first theme, prepared by a long pedal point and a
crescendo, is not a little fiery and dramatic. The second movement,
an andante in G major, and the quick final movement in D again,
round off a work which for clearness of form, for balance in
proportions, and for a certain fine and healthy charm, is wholly
admirable. Above all there is about all his work a real grace which,
superficial as it may be, is a precious and perhaps a rare quality in
pianoforte music, a quality both of elegance and amiability. It is a
reflection of his own amiable nature, so conspicuous in all his
dealings with the little Mozart during the spring of 1765.
Muzio Clementi was born in Rome in 1752, but when hardly more
than a lad of fourteen was brought to London by an English
gentleman, and London was henceforth his home until he died in
1832. He was a brilliant virtuoso, though he travelled but little to
exhibit his powers; an excellent pedagogue; a very shrewd business
man. Among his many compositions of all kinds, about sixty are
sonatas for pianoforte. The first series of three was published in
1770 and is usually taken to determine the date at which the
pianoforte began really to supplant the harpsichord.
And this in spite of many beauties in his sonatas. Even among the
early ones there are some distinguished by a fineness of feeling and
a true if not great gift of musical expression. Take, for example, the
sonata in G minor, number three of the seventh opus. The first
movement, allegro con spirito, has more to recommend it than
unusual formal compactness and perfection. The opening theme has
a color not in the power of the mere music-maker. It is true that there
is the almost ever-present scale passage in the transition to the
second theme; but the second theme itself has a grace of movement
and even a certain sinuousness of harmony that cannot but suggest
Mozart. There are sudden accents and rough chords that
foreshadow a mannerism of Beethoven; and the full measure of
silence before the restatement begins is a true romantic touch.
Of the later sonatas that in B minor, op. 40, No. 2, and that in G
minor, op. 50, No. 3, have been justly admired. Yet excellent as they
are, one can hardly pretend to do more than lay a tribute on their
graves. Only some unforeseen trump can rouse them from what
seems to be their eternal sleep. One feature of the former may be
noted: the return of a part of the slow movement in the midst of the
rapid last movement. Such a process unites at least the last two
movements very firmly together, tends to make of the sonata as a
whole something more than a series of independent movements put
in line according to the rule of convention.
IV
Both Schobert in Paris and Wagenseil in Vienna are more than
straws which show the way the wind blew through the classical
sonata. They are streaks in the wind itself. On the one came the
seeds of the new works in Mannheim to the clavecins in Paris; and
on the other such seeds were blown to harpsichords in Vienna. Both
men wrote great quantities of music for the harpsichord, but oftenest
with a part for violin added. This part was, however, usually ad
libitum.
The works by which he is best known are the six sets of sonatas,
with rondos and fantasies too, which he published between 1779
and 1787 in Leipzig under the title of Sonaten für Kenner und
Liebhaber (‘Sonatas for Connoisseurs and Amateurs’). Many of the
sonatas, however, had been composed before 1779.
A sonata in A major, on the other hand, written not long after, and
published in 1779, is charming throughout. The first theme in the first
movement is conventional enough, but it has sparkle; and though the
second theme is not very distinctly different from the first, the
movement is full of variety and life. Particularly charming are the
measures constituting an unusually long epilogue to the first section.
The harmonies are richly colored, if not striking; and the use of the
epilogue in the development section is most effective. So is the full
measure pause before the cascade of sound which flows into the
restatement. The andante is over-ornamented, but the harmonic
groundwork is solid and interesting. The last movement suggests
Scarlatti, and has the animated and varied flow which characterizes
the first.
A sonata in A minor, written about 1780 and published in the second
series for Kenner und Liebhaber, is in many ways typical of Emanuel
Bach at his best. There is still in the first movement that vagueness
of structure which may usually be attributed to the lack of
distinctness of his second theme. But the first theme has a fine
declamatory vigor, in the spirit of the theme out of which his father
built the fifth fugue in the first book of the ‘Well-tempered Clavichord’;
and the movement as a whole has the broad sweep of a brilliant
fantasy.
His excellent book on how to play the clavier counsels clearness and
exactness, but it is a heartfelt appeal for beauty and expressiveness
as well. What is the long, detailed analysis of agrémens but the
explanation of practically the only means of subtle expression which
the cembalist could acquire? His love for the clavichord, which, for all
the frailty of its tone, was capable of fine shadings of sound, never
waned. He commended it to all as the best instrument upon which to
practise, for the clumsy hand had no power to call forth the charm
which was its only quality. Indeed, he received the pianoforte coldly.
His keyboard music was probably conceived, the brilliant for the
harpsichord, the more intimate for the clavichord. And towards the
end of his life he gave utterance to his belief that the only function of
music was to stir the emotions and that the player who could not do
that might as well not play.
[22] Antonio Vivaldi, b. Venice, ca. 1680; d. 1743; completed Torelli’s and
Albinoni’s work in the creation of the violin concerto.
[23] Jean Benjamin de Laborde: Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne, 1780.
[24] It seems hardly worth while to add that there are well-known sonatas in which
no movement is in the triplex form. Cf. the Mozart sonata in A major (K. 331) and
the Beethoven sonata in A-flat major, op. 26.
[25] It is worthy of note that a sonata in G minor for violin by Tartini was at one
time known by the name Didone abbandonata. Cf. Wasielewski: Die Violine und
ihre Meister.
[29] The sonatas of Rust as printed by his grandson showed many extraordinary
modern features which have since been proved forgeries. The fiery discussions to
which they gave rise have been summarized by M. D. Calvocoressi in two articles
in the Musical Times (London) for January and February, 1914.