CHAPTER 5

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

Introduction:

A volcanic eruption occurs when hot materials from the Earth's interior are thrown out
of a volcano. Lava, rocks, dust, and gas compounds are some of these "ejecta" or
matters thrown out of crater by an erupting volcano.

Objectives:

1. Explain various volcano-related hazards.

2. Differentiate among the different volcano hazards.
3. Recognize signs of an impending volcanic eruption.
4. Interpret different volcano hazard maps.
5. Apply appropriate measures/interventions before, during, and after a volcanic
eruption.

What is a Volcano?
Definition:
- A vent. Hill or mountain from which molten or hot rocks with gaseous
materials are ejected.
- A mountain or hill, typically conical, having a crater or vent through which
lava, rock fragments, hot vapor, and gas are being or have been erupted from
the earth’s crust.

Parts of a Volcano
1. Magma - Molten rock beneath Earth's surface.
2. Parasitic Cone - A small cone-shaped volcano formed by an accumulation of
volcanic debris.
3. Sill - A flat piece of rock formed when magma hardens in a crack in a volcano.
4. Vent - An opening in Earth's surface through which volcanic materials escape.
5. Flank - The side of a volcano.
6. Lava - Molten rock that erupts from a volcano that solidifies as it cools.
7. Crater - Mouth of a volcano - surrounds a volcanic vent.
8. Conduit - the pipe or vent at the heart of a volcano where material wells up
from beneath the surface.
9. Summit - Highest point; apex
10. Throat - Entrance of a volcano. The part of the conduit that ejects lava and
volcanic ash.
11. Ash - Fragments of lava or rock smaller than 2 mm in size that are blasted into
the air by volcanic explosions.
12. Ash Cloud - A cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions.
Pacific Ring of Fire
● The Ring of Fire refers to a geographical area of high volcanic and seismic
activity around the edges of the Pacific Ocean.
● Some 75 percent of the world's active volcanoes are positioned around the ring
of fire, a 25,000-mile long, horseshoe-shaped zone that stretches from the
southern tip of South America across the West Coast of North America, through
the Bering Sea to Japan, and on to New Zealand.
● This region is where the edges of the Pacific and Nazca plates butt up against an
array of other tectonic plates. Importantly, however, the volcanoes of the
ring aren't geologically connected. In other words, a volcanic eruption in
Indonesia is not related to one in Alaska, and it could not stir the infamous
Yellowstone super volcano.
● The Ring of Fire is roughly situated along the edges of the Pacific Ocean,
although it is really more of a Horseshoe of Fire than a Ring of Fire. It stretches
for approximately 25,000 miles from New Zealand, along the West side of the
Pacific through Indonesia, the Philippines and Japan, along the Bering Strait
between Russia and Alaska, and down the West coasts of North America and
South America.
● The Philippines belong to the Pacific Ring of Fire where the oceanic Philippine
plate and several smaller micro-plates are subducting along the Philippine
 Trench to the East, and the Luzon, Sulu and several other small Trenches to the
West.

Types of Volcanoes
1. Composite Volcanoes
● Composite volcanoes, sometimes known as stratovolcanoes, are steep sided
cones formed from layers of ash and lava flows. The eruptions from these
volcanoes may be a pyroclastic flow rather than a flow of lava.
● They are typically steep-sided, symmetrical cones of large dimension built of
alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, cinders, blocks, and bombs.
Composite volcanoes can rise over 8000 feet.

Mt. Bulusan

2. Shield Volcanoes
 ● Shield volcanoes are low with gently sloping sides and are formed from layers
of lava. Eruptions are typically non-explosive. Shield volcanoes produce fast
flowing fluid lava that can flow for many miles. Eruptions tend to be frequent
but relatively gentle. Although these eruptions destroy property, death or
injury to humans rarely occurs.
● These are typically island volcanoes, partially submerged and formed by
frequent long-period (can last for years) lava eruptions in rift zones.

Mt. Mauna Loa – Hawaii

3. Lava Domes
● Volcanic or lava domes are formed by relatively small, bulbous masses of
lava too viscous to flow any great distance; consequently, on extrusion, the
lava piles over and around its vent. A dome grows largely by expansion from
within. As it grows its outer surface cools and hardens, then shatters, spilling
loose fragments down its sides. Some domes form craggy knobs or spines
over the volcanic vent, whereas others form short, steep-sided lava flows
known as “coulees.”
 Mont Pelee in Martinique

4. Cinder Cones
● Cinder cones are the simplest type of volcano. They are built from particles
and blobs of congealed lava ejected from a single vent. As the gas-charged
lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify
and fall as cinders around the vent to form a circular or oval cone. Most cinder
cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit and rarely rise more than a
thousand feet or so above their surroundings. Cinder cones are numerous in
western North America as well as throughout other volcanic terrains of the
world.

Mt. Paricutin in Mexico

Classification of Volcanoes
1. Active
● Active volcanoes have a recent history of eruptions; they are likely to erupt
again.
● Inside an active volcano is a chamber in which molten rock, called magma,
collects. Pressure builds up inside the magma chamber, causing the magma
to move through channels in the rock and escape onto the planet’s surface.
Once it flows onto the surface the magma is known as lava.
2. Dormant
● These have not erupted for a very long time but may erupt at a future time.

● A dormant volcano is one that is not currently erupting but has erupted within
recordable history and is expected to erupt again in the future. The line
between active and dormant volcanoes is sometimes blurred; some
volcanoes can remain dormant for thousands of years between eruptions, so
technically they are expected to erupt in the future, but it could take many
lifetimes before that happens.
 ● Dormant volcanoes are often the most dangerous as people are complacent
living within their vicinity and are generally unprepared when an eruption does
come.
3. Extinct
● An extinct volcano has not had an eruption for at least 10,000 years and is
not expected to erupt again in a comparable time scale of the future.
● If it has been more than 10 thousand years since the volcano has erupted,
and the volcano is cut off from its magma supply, it’s considered to be extinct.

Volcano Hazards and Their Effects

1. Lava Flows
● Lava flows are streams of molten rock that pour or ooze from an
erupting vent.
● Lava is erupted during either non-explosive activity or explosive lava
fountains. The speed at which lava moves across the ground depends on
several factors: (1) type of lava erupted and its viscosity
(2) steepness of the ground over which it travels
(3) whether the lava flows as a broad sheet, through a confined channel, or
down a lava tube
(4) rate of lava production at the vent.
● Devastating Effects of Lava Flows:
(1) Lava flows may instigate other types of hazards.
(2) Everything in the path of an advancing lava flow will be knocked over,
surrounded, buried, or ignited by the extremely hot temperature of lava.
(3) When lava erupts beneath a glacier or flows over snow and ice, melted
water from the ice and snow can result in far-reaching lahars.
(4) If it enters a body of water or water enters a lava tube, the water may boil
violently and cause an explosive shower of molten spatter over a wide
area.
(5) Methane gas, produced as lava buries vegetation, can migrate in
subsurface voids and explode when heated.
(6) Thick viscous lava flows, especially those that build a dome, can collapse
to form fast-moving pyroclastic flows.
2. Pyroclastic Flows
● These contain a high-density mix of hot lava blocks, pumice, ash and volcanic
gas. They move at very high speed down volcanic slopes typically following
valleys. Most pyroclastic flows consist of two parts: a lower (basal) flow of
coarse fragments that moves along the ground, and a turbulent cloud of ash
that rises above the basal flow. Ash may fall from this cloud over a wide area
downwind from the pyroclastic flow.

● Pyroclastic flows form in different ways:

(1) Collapse of eruption column
▪ During a highly explosive eruption, the column ejected upwards into
the atmosphere cools and can become too cool and dense to maintain
upward momentum.
(2) “Boiling over” from eruptive vent
▪ During an explosive eruption, material is erupted without forming a
high plume and rapidly moves down slope.
(3) Collapse of lava domes or flows
 ▪ The fronts of lava flows or domes can become so steep that they
collapse due to gravitational force.
3. Lahars
● These are a specific kind of mudflow made up of volcanic debris.

● They can form in a number of situations:

a) When small slope collapses and gather water on their way down a
volcano
b) Through rapid melting of snow and ice during an eruption
c) From heavy rainfall on loose volcanic debris
d) When a volcano erupts through a crater lake
e) When a crater lake drains because of overflow or wall collapse.
● Destructive Characteristics of Lahars:
a) Lahars move rapidly down valleys like rivers of concrete.
b) Lahars can occur with or without a volcanic eruption.
c) Lahars pick up materials as they travel, which can cause damage to
structures in their path.
d) Lahars and excess sediment cause serious economic and environmental
damage to river valleys and flood plains.

Lahar at Pampanga River

4. Ash Fall
● Volcanic ash consists of fragments of pulverized rock, minerals and volcanic
glass, created during volcanic eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm in
diameter. The term volcanic ash is also often loosely used to refer to all
explosive eruption products (referred to as tephra), including particles larger
than 2 mm. volcanic ash is formed during volcanic eruptions when dissolved
gases in magma expand and escape violently into the atmosphere.
● Devastating Effects of Ash Fall:
 a) As a result of its fine-grained abrasive character and widespread
distribution by wind, ash fall and volcanic ash clouds are a major hazard to
aviation.
b) Ash fallout to the ground can pose significant disruption and damage to
buildings, transportation, water and wastewater, power supply,
communications equipment, agriculture, and primary production leading to
potentially substantial societal impacts and costs.
c) Fine-grained ash, when ingested can cause health impacts to humans and
animals.

Taal Ash Fall in Jan. 2020

5. Volcanic Gases
● Magma contains dissolved gases, which provide the driving force that causes
most volcanic eruptions. As magma rises towards the surface and pressure
decreases, gases are released from the liquid portion of the magma and
continue to travel upward and are eventually released into the atmosphere.
Lage eruptions can release enormous amounts of gas in a short time.
● Harmful Effects of Volcanic Gases
a) Carbon dioxide (CO2) trapped in low-lying areas can be lethal to people
and animals.
b) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is irritating to eyes, skin and respiratory system.
c) Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is very toxic in high concentrations.
d) Hydrogen halides (HF, HCI, HBr) are strong, toxic acids.

Taal Explosive Eruption as Gas Builds Up

 6. Ballistic Projectiles
● These are rocks that an erupting volcano may hurl into the air. These blocks
and bombs travel like cannonballs and usually land within 2 kms of the vent.
These events may occur without warning and in the absence of a larger
magmatic eruption. Ballistic projectiles are limited to within about 5 kms of
vent.
● Devastating Effects of Ballistic Projectiles:
o Ballistic Projectiles endanger life and property by:
a) The force of impact of falling fragments, but this occurs only close to
an eruption.
b) Loss of agricultural lands if burial is greater than 10 cm depth.
c) Producing suspensions of fine-grained particles in air and water which
clogs filters and vents of motors, human lungs, industrial machines,
and nuclear power plants.
d) Carrying of noxious gases, acids, salts, and close to the vent, heat.
e) Burial by tephra can collapse roofs and buildings, break power and
communication lines and damage or kill vegetation.

Signs of Eruption
1. Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with rumbling sounds; occurrence
of volcanic tremor.
2. Increase in the frequency of volcanic activity; change in color of steam emission
from white to gray due to entrained ash.
3. Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the crater.
4. Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and ground fissuring due to magma
intrusion.
 5. Localized landslides and rock falls from the summit area which is not attributable
to heavy rains.
6. Noticeable increase in the extent of drying up of vegetation around the volcano’s
upper slopes.
7. Increase in the temperature of hot springs and crater lake.
8. Noticeable variation in the chemical content of springs, crater lakes within the
vicinity of the volcano.
9. Drying up of spring well around the volcano.
10. Development of new thermal areas and/or reactivation of old ones; appearance
of solfatara (a volcanic vent emitting only Sulphur gases and water vapor or
sometimes hot mud).

Family Emergency Preparedness Plan Before, During, and After a Volcanic

Eruption

Before During After

Each one should be aware Avoid all low-lying places Go back to your house but
of the dangers that because lava flows and leave the kids behind
volcanic eruptions pose to mudflows are more likely someone who can take
lives and be prepared to to pass here. care of them while you
face whatever check your house.
circumstances the eruption
may bring.
Prepare all necessary Seek cover in case of ash Clean everything around
things to bring once falls and rock falls. and check all the damages
evacuation is needed. incurred.
Those in danger zones are
warned when to evacuate.
Once given the signal
refrain from saying you will
be alright. Refusing to
evacuate will pose more
serious problems.
Store as much food, water, Use masks and cover your Use masks while cleaning
light sources and batteries mouth and nose to avoid ash and other debris.
that are very useful in case breathing in ashes.
of emergency.
Volcanic eruptions have If you are inside a house, Wait for further
ash falls so be prepared close all doors and announcement related to
for masks or anything to windows to avoid ashes the volcano activities.
cover the nose and mouth. from getting inside.
Prioritize the safety of kids Always stay indoors. Make sure that your house
before other things. If you is still safe for all of you.
have relatives or friends
who are far from the
volcano, take your children
there until such time that
your place is safe.
Stay in the evacuation
center until further
instructions. Do not
attempt to leave the place
unless told to do.
Keep a watchful eye on the
kids because they might
be tempted to go out and
see what’s going on
outside.

Interpreting Different Volcano Hazard Maps

A. What are Volcano Hazard Maps?

● Volcano Hazard Maps are visual, geospatial predictions of the areas that
could be impacted by various volcanic phenomena during or subsequent
to an eruption. They are developed to communicate a complex array of
hazard information to those at risk, or those responsible for managing
those at risk.

1. World Major Volcanoes

2. Major Volcanoes of the Philippines
3. Map Showing Pyroclastic Flows from Mt. Pinatubo
4. Simplified Hazards Map Showing Potential Impact for Ground-Based
(Lassen Volcanic Center, California)
5. Map Showing Volcanic Hazard Zones
6. Simplified Hazard Map Showing Potential Impact Area for Ground-Based
Hazards (Crater Lake, Oregon)
7. A Map Illustrating Hazards at the Ampato-Sabancaya Volcanic Complex