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 Engaging & Empowering
Students
Severe and Hazardous Weather ▶
The text contains 15 Severe and Hazardous Weather features devoted
to a broad variety of topics—heat waves, winter storms, floods, air
pollution episodes, drought, wildfires, cold waves, and more.
Box 3.1 North America’s Hottest and Coldest Places
Most people living in the United States have
experienced temperatures of 38°C (100°F) or
more. When statistics for the 50 states are
examined for the past century or longer, we
find that every state has a maximum temper-
ature record of 38°C or higher. Even Alaska
has recorded a temperature this high—set
June 27, 1915, at Fort Yukon, a town along
the Arctic Circle in the interior of the state.
Maximum Temperature Records
Surprisingly, the state that ties Alaska for
the “lowest high” is hawaii. Panala, on the
south coast of the Big Island, recorded 38°C
on April 27, 1931. Although humid tropical
and subtropical places such as hawaii are
known for being warm throughout the year,
they seldom experience maximum tempera-
tures that surpass the low to mid-30s Celsius
(90s Fahrenheit).
The highest accepted temperature record
for the United States as well as the entire
world is 57°C (134°F). This long-standing
record was set at Death Valley, California, on
July 10, 1913. Summer temperatures at Death
the Western hemisphere. During June, July,
384
Valley are consistently among the highest in
The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology
and August, temperatures exceeding 49°C
(120°F) are to be expected. Fortunately, Death
Valley has few human summertime residents
(Fig. 3.A).
Why are summer temperatures at Death
Valley so high? In addition to having the
lowest elevation in the Western hemisphere
(53 meters [174 feet] below sea level), Death
Valley is a desert. Although it is only about
300 kilometers (less than 200 miles) from
the Pacific Ocean, mountains cut off the
valley from the ocean’s moderating influ-
Special Feature Box▲
representing 5° or 10° differences in temperature are used,
but any interval may be chosen. Figure. 3.2 illustrates how iso-
therms are drawn on a map. Notice that most isotherms do
not pass directly through the observing stations because the
Special Feature BoxesPacific
throughout the chapters present compelling
station readings may not coincide with the values chosen for
the isotherms. Only an occasional station temperature will be
Ocean
exactly the same as the value of the isotherm, so it is usually
case studies or further illuminate interesting concepts discussed.
necessary to draw the lines by estimating the proper position
between stations.
M03_LUTG9846_13_CH03_p058-087.indd 61
High Clouds: Cloud Bases Above 6 km (20,000 ft)
Glacial ice
▲ Figure 14.4 Where was the ice? This map shows the maximum
extent of ice sheets in the Northern hemisphere during the Quaternary
Ice Age.
SHUTTERSTOCK
Cirrus These clouds are made exclusively of ice crystals. They are not
as horizontally extensive as cirrostratus clouds.
Cirrocumulus These high clouds can produce striking skies.
Composed of ice crystals, they often contain linear bands,
numerous patches of greater vertical development, or both.
climate history. We then explore some significant natural
causes of climate change.
Proxy Data High-technology and precision instrumentation
are now available to study the composition and dynam-
ics of the atmosphere. But such tools are recent inventions
and therefore have been providing data for only a short time
GIANNI MURATORE/ALAMY
Cirrostratus These are thin layered clouds composed of ice crystals.
span. To understand fully the behavior of the atmosphere
They are relatively indistinct and give the sky a whitish appearance.
and to anticipate future climate change, we must somehow
discover how climate has changed over broad expanses of
time.
Instrumental records go back only a couple ▼ Figure 14.5 Ancient bristlecone pines Some of these trees in California’s White
Z08_LUTG9846_13_SE_CloudGuide.indd 1
centuries, at best, and the further back we go, Mountains are more than 4000 years old. The study of tree-growth rings is one way
144 The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology
severe&
hazardous
weather Box 5.1
Worst Winter Weather
Extremes, whether the tallest building or the record low temperature
for a location, fascinate many humans. When it comes to weather,
some places take pride in claiming to have the worst winters on re-
cord. In fact, both Fraser, Colorado, and International Falls, Minneso-
ta, have proclaimed themselves the “ice box of the nation.” Although
Fraser recorded the lowest temperature for the 48 contiguous states
23 times in 1989, its neighbor Gunnison, Colorado, recorded the low-
est temperature 62 times, far more than any other location.
Such facts do not impress the Although impressive, the
residents of hibbing, Minnesota, temperature extremes cited
where the temperature dropped here represent only one
to –38°C (–37°F) during the first
aspect of winter weather.
week of March 1989. But this is
mild stuff, say the old-timers in parshall, North Dakota, where the
temperature fell to –51°C (–60°F) on February 15, 1936. Not to be
left out, Browning, Montana, holds the record for the most dramatic
24-hour temperature drop. here the temperature plummeted 56°C
ChAPTEr 3 Temperature 61 (100°F), from a cool 7°C (44°F) to a frosty –49°C (–56°F) during a
January evening in 1916.
Although impressive, the temperature extremes cited here represent
only one aspect of winter weather. What about snowfall (Fig. 5.A)?
Cooke City holds the seasonal snowfall record for Montana, with 1062
ence and moisture. Clear centimeters (418.1 inches) during the winter of 1977–1978. But what
skies allow a maximum about cities like Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and Buffalo, New York? The
of sunshine to strike the winter snowfalls associated with the Great Lakes are legendary. Even
dry, barren surface. Be- larger snowfalls occur in many sparsely inhabited mountainous areas.
cause no energy is used Try telling residents of the eastern United States that heavy snow- ▲ Figure 5.A A winter snowstorm of historic proportions
to evaporate moisture, as fall alone makes for the worst weather. A blizzard in March 1993 struck Chicago, Illinois, on February 2, 2011.
occurs in humid regions, produced heavy snowfall along with hurricane-force winds and
all the energy is available
to heat the ground. In
addition, subsiding air
that warms by compres-
sion as it descends is
also common to the re- Standard Instruments As Figure 5.26C illustrates, the tipping-bucket gauge
consists of two compartments, each one capable of holding
gion and contributes to The standard rain gauge (Fig. 5.26B) has a diameter of about
0.025 centimeter (0.01 inch) of rain, situated at the base of a
its high maximum 20 centimeters (8 inches) at the top. Once the water is caught,
funnel. When one “bucket” fills, it tips and empties its water.
temperatures. a funnel conducts the rain through a narrow opening into a Meanwhile, the other “bucket” takes its place at the mouth of
Minimum Temperature
Records
The temperature con-
▲ Figure 3.A Almost a record! On June 30, 2013, 100 years after
Death Valley set the all-time high recorded temperature, it came
close to equaling it. On that date, Death Valley’s air temperature
Students Sometimes Ask...▼ cylindrical measuring tube that has a cross-sectional area only
one-tenth as large as the receiver. Consequently, rainfall depth
is magnified 10 times, which allows for accurate measurements
the funnel. Each time a compartment tips, an electrical circuit
is closed, and 0.025 centimeter (0.01 inch) of precipitation is
automatically recorded on a graph.
peaked at 54°C (129.2°F). to the nearest 0.025 centimeter (0.01 inch). When the amount A weighing gauge collects precipitation in a cylinder that
Students Sometimes Ask features are integrated throughout the
trols that produce truly of rain is less than 0.025 centimeter (0.01 inch), it is generally rests on a spring balance. As the cylinder fills, the movement is
frigid temperatures are reported as being a trace of precipitation. transmitted to a pen that records the data.
predictable and should Prospect Creek, located north of the Arctic In addition to the standard rain gauge, several types of All rain gauges are susceptible to inaccuracies. The tip-
come as no surprise. We expect extremely
cold temperatures during winter in high-
Circle in the Endicott Mountains of Alaska,
came close to the North American record
chapters, addressing high-interest topics and common student
recording gauges are routinely used. These instruments not ping-bucket rain gauge is known to underestimate heavy
only record the amount of rain but also its time of occurrence rainfall by perhaps 25 percent because of the rainwater that
latitude places that lack the moderating
influence of the ocean. Moreover, stations
on January 23, 1971, when the temperature
plunged to –62°C (–80°F). In the lower 48 misconceptions. and intensity (amount per unit of time). Two of the most com- is not collected during the tipping movement of the bucket.
mon gauges are the tipping-bucket gauge and the weighing Also, wind can lead to measurement errors, by either caus-
located on ice sheets and glaciers should be states, the record of –57°C (–70°F) was set
especially cold, as should stations positioned
gauge. ing too much or too little precipitation to enter the collecting
in the mountains at rogers Pass, Montana,
high in the mountains. All these criteria on January 20, 1954. remember that many
apply to Greenland’s North Ice Station (el-
evation 2307 meters [7567 feet]). here on RUSSIA
other places have no doubt experienced
equally low or even lower temperatures; they
students
January 9, 1954, the temperature plunged just were not recorded.
to –66°C (–87°F). If we exclude Green-
land from consideration, Snag, in Canada’s Question
sometimes If Earth’s atmosphere had no
ask... greenhouse gases, what would
Yukon, holds the record for North America. 1. Death Valley is not a great distance from
This remote outpost experienced a tempera- North Pole
the cool Pacific Ocean yet experiences M05_LUTG9846_13_CH05_p122-155.indd 144 13/11/14 4:07 PM
ture of –63°C (–81°F) on February 3, 1947.
When only U.S. locations are considered,
very high temperatures. Why is there no
moderating ocean influence? surface-air temperatures be like?
Arctic
Ocean Cold! Earth’s average surface temperature would
be a chilly –18°C (–0.4°F) instead of the relatively
GREENLAND Alps
Isothermal maps are valuable tools because they make comfortable 14.5°C (58°F) that it is today.
temperature distribution clearly visible at a glance. Areas
of low and high temperatures are easy to pick out. In addi-
tion, the amount of temperature change per unit of distance,
called the temperature gradient, is easy to visualize. Closely
spaced isotherms indicate a rapid rate of temperature change,
whereas more widely spaced lines indicate a more gradual
rate of change. For example, notice in Figure 3.2 that the iso-
therms are more closely spaced in Colorado and Utah (steeper
Earth system are linked so that a change in one part can pro-
Atlantic duce changes in any or all of the other parts. In this section you
CANADA Ocean
will see how changes in atmospheric and oceanic temperatures
are reflected in the nature of life in the sea.
23/09/14 2:18 PM
Most seafloor sediments contain the remains of organisms
Lutgens • Tarbuck
Illustrated by Tasa
that once lived near the sea surface (the ocean–atmosphere
THE
UNITED STATES
interface). When such near-surface organisms die, their shells
Middle Clouds: Cloud Bases 2–6 km (6,500–20,000 ft)
slowly settle to the floor of the ocean, where they become part
of the sedimentary record (Fig. 14.6). These seafloor sediments
Sea ice are useful recorders of worldwide climate change because the
numbers and types of organisms living near the sea surface
change with the climate. For this reason scientists have become
increasingly interested in the huge reservoir of data contained
SHUTTERSTOCK SHUTTERSTOCK
Altocumulus These midlevel clouds are horizontally layered but
exhibit varying thicknesses across their bases. Thicker areas can be
in seafloor sediments. The sediment cores gathered by drilling
Altocumulus (Lenticular) These clouds are marked by their lens-
shaped appearance. They usually form downwind of mountain
SHUTTERSTOCK
arranged as parallel linear bands or as a series of individual puffs.
ships and other research vessels have provided invaluable data
barriers as horizontal airflow is disrupted into a sequence of
waves.
that have significantly expanded our knowledge and under-
standing of past climates (Fig. 14.7).
◀ example of how seafloor sediments add to our
One notable Cloud Guide
understanding of climate change relates to unraveling the fluc-
A foldout
tuating atmospheric cloudofguide
conditions at the back
the Quaternary of the
Ice Age. The
book provides
records of temperature changesstudents
containedwith a tool
in cores and
of sediment
RICHARD NEWSTEAD/CORBIS
Contrails A contrail is a long, narrow cloud that is formed as exhaust
Denise Dethlefsen/Alamy
Altostratus These are midlevel, layered clouds that produce from the ocean reference
floor havefor
BRIAN COSGROVE/DORLING KINDERSLEY
Altostratus (Multilayer) These are midlevel layered clouds real-world
been critical toobservation.
our present knowl-
from a jet aircraft condenses in cold air at high altitude. Upper level gray skies and obscure the Sun or Moon enough to make that are dense enough to completely hide the Sun or Moon.
edge of this recent span of Earth history.
winds may gradually cause contrails to spread out. them appear as poorly defined bright spots. In this example,
the setting sun brightens the clouds near the horizon but the
gray appearance remains elsewhere.
© 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.
11/22/14 4:10 PM
Global Climate Change ChApTEr 10 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 269

plentiful moisture, and instability are present. Thus, thunder-

This new edition features extended coverage of global
stormsclimate
characterize manychange
tropical areasand
year-round. In the
middle latitudes, these storms are largely warm-season
includes the findings of the IPCC’s 5th Assessment Report.phenomena. About 45,000 thunderstorms take place
each day, and more than 16 million occur annu-
ally around the world. The lightning from these
◀ Our Changing Climate
storms strikes Earth 100 times each second

14
Focus on Concepts
(Fig. 10.2).
The Changing Climate The latest data and applications
Annually the United related to experiences
States
Each statement represents the primary learning objective for the
corresponding major heading within the chapter. After you complete
the chapter, you should be able to:

14.1

global climateabout 100,000 thunderstorms and millions of

Explain how unraveling past climate changes is related to

change are presented throughout

the climate system and discuss several ways in which such
changes are detected.
14.2
lightning strikes. A glance at Figure 10.3 shows
Discuss four hypotheses that relate to natural causes of

the 13th edition, for the most current and

climate change.
14.3 Summarize the nature and cause of the atmosphere’s

that thunderstorms are most frequent in Florida

changing composition since about 1750. Describe the
climate’s response.
14.4

14.5
comprehensive and thecoverage.
eastern Gulf Coast region, where activity
Contrast positive- and negative-feedback mechanisms and
provide examples of each.
Discuss several likely consequences of global warming.

is recorded between 70 and 100 days each year. The

T
he focus of this chapter and Chapter 15 is climate, the
long-term aggregate of weather. Climate is more than
just an expression of average atmospheric conditions. In
region on the east side of the Rock-
ies in Colorado and New Mexico is
order to accurately portray the character of a place or an area,

2 MapMaster ▶
variations and extremes must also be included. Anyone who

Lightning flashes (per km per year) World

has the opportunity to travel around the world will find such an

Physical Environment
incredible variety of climates that it is hard to believe they could
all occur on the same planet.
next, with thunderstorms occur-
▶ Lightning Strikes ring 60 to 70 days annually. Most
0.1 0.4 1.4 5 20 70
of the rest of the nation experiences
▲ Figure 10.2 World distribution of lightning Data from space- thunderstorms 30 to 50 days a year. Clearly, the western mar-
based optical sensors show the worldwide distribution of lightning,
gin of the United States has little thunderstorm activity. The
with color variations indicating the average annual number of lightning
same is true for the northern tier of states and for Canada,
flashes per square kilometer.
where warm, moist, unstable maritime tropical (mT) air sel-
dom penetrates.
Glaciers are sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation
and therefore provide clues about changes in climate. Like most other

cloud and influence only a small area, or it may be associated glaciers in Alaska, Bear Glacier near Seward is steadily retreating back
into the mountains.

with clusters of cumulonimbus clouds covering a large area. 381

Thunderstorms form when warm, humid air rises in an Thunderstorms and Climate Change
unstable environment. Various mechanisms can trigger the
M14_LUTG9846_13_CH14_p380-409.indd 380-381 11/22/14 4:38 PM

396 upward air movement

The Atmosphere: An Introduction needed to create thunderstorm-producing
to Meteorology In the preceding discussion, you learned that the occurrence
cumulonimbus clouds. One mechanism, the unequal heat- of thunderstorms varies seasonally and from place to place.
ing of Earth’s surface, significantly contributes to the forma- Thunderstorm activity will likely increase in many areas in the
tion of air-mass thunderstorms. These storms are associated yearsWhatto comeabout due the future?
to global Projections
climate change. Globalfor tempera-
460
with the scattered puffy cumulonimbus clouds that commonly the turesyears
haveahead dependfor
been warming indecades
part onlargelythe quan-
440 due toofhuman activitiesgases
that are altering
420
form within maritime tropical air masses and produce scattered tities greenhouse that are the emitted.Video
thunderstorms on summer days. Such storms are usually short- Figure composition of the atmosphere. This trend
14.25 shows the best estimates of globalThundersnow
Thundersleet and
400 2014 is expected to continue for the foreseeable
lived and seldom produce strong winds or hail. warming for several different scenarios. The
380 In contrast, thunderstorms in a second category not only future. A thorough discussion of this phe-
CO2 parts per million

360 benefit from uneven surface heating but are associated with
2013
nomenon IPCC report
appears also states
in Chapter 14. that if there is
340 the lifting of warm air, as occurs along a front or a a doubling of the pre-industrial level of car-
http://goo.gl/GOm7IV
320 mountain
For 650,000 years,
270atmospheric slope. Moreover,
CO2 was never
The Atmosphere: diverging
higher than
An Introduction winds aloft
this level
to Meteorology fre- bon dioxide
MapMaster (280 ▶ ppm)
North to
America560 ppm,
Physical the likely
300 quently contribute to the formation of these storms Environment ▶ Thunderstorm Occurrence
temperature increase will be in the range of 2° Per Year
10
280 because they tend to draw air from lower 1950 levels (3.5° to 8.1°F). The increase is very
Recent studies using sophisticated climate model simu- to 4.5°C
20
30
260 upward beneath them. Some of the thunderstorms in unlikely (1
30
to 10 percent probability) to be less 20
lations indicate that continued global warming will enhance
240 this second category may produce high winds, dam- 30
the atmospheric conditions that promote severe thunderstorm
aging hail, flash floods, and tornadoes. Such storms 10 20 than 1.5°C (2.7°F), and values higher than
220 formation. Springtime severe thunderstorms in some areas 4.5°C (8.1°F)
40
40 are possible.
40 30 20
200 are described as severe.
east of the Rockies could increase by as much as 40 percent 5
180 by 2100. As Figure 10.4 illustrates, the number of days per year 20 30 50
40
160 that severe thunderstorms occur may increase significantly in the 60 50
Distribution
400,000 350,000 300,000 250,000 200,000 and 150,000
Frequency 100,000 50,000
eastern and southern United States. Cities such as Atlanta and
0 50
The Role of Trace Gases
40

At any Yearstime,
given beforean today
estimated 2000 thunderstorms
New York City could see a doubling of the number of days per
are when
in progress. As arewe conducive
would expect, Carbon dioxide 70 is not the only gas contribut-
year conditions to thethe greatest of severe
development 5 50
▲ Figure 14.22 CO2 concentrations
proportionoverof
thunderstorms. thethese
paststorms
400,000 yearswhere
occur Most warmth,
of these data
10
ing
10 to a possible global increase in tempera-
50
20 60
come from analyses of air bubbles trapped
Each year, in ice cores. The
significant record since 1958
weather-related damages comesand fatali- ture. 30 40In recent
40
years atmospheric scientists 70
5
from direct measurements at Mauna
ties Loa
are Observatory,
associated with hawaii.
the The
lightning,
▶ Figure 10.3 Average number of days per rapid increase
strong winds, in CO
hail,2 torna- 10 have come to realize 50that
60 human
70
industri-
80
20
concentrations since the onset of thewith
does,
year Industrial
and floodsrevolution Theishumid
that accompany
thunderstorms obvious.
severe thunderstorms. This
(NOAA)
subtropical 10 al and agricultural activities 40 are causing 100
a
impact is likely
climate that to increase
dominates in the decades
the southeastern United to come due to the 5 30
buildup of several trace gases that also play 80
States receives
influence much of its precipitation
of human-induced climate in change.
the form 10 Severe Thunderstorm Environment Days
8
of thunderstorms. Most of the Southeast averages 6
The Atmosphere’s Response
50 or more days each year with thunderstorms. 8–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

✔ ConceptCO Checks 10.2 ▼ Figure 14.23 Global temperatures,

▲ Figure 10.4 Future 1880–2013
thunderstormWith the This map shows changes
activity
Given the increase in the atmosphere’s content, have global
Projected Impacts of Climate Change
temperatures actually increased?What
2
Theareanswer is yes.
the primary According
requirements
▲exception of 1998, 10inof
for the formation of
thethe warmest
number years
of days in this
per year when134-year
the environmental conditions that
temperature record have occurred
promote severe since 2000. activity occur. The map is based on a climate
thunderstorm
to a 2013 coverage
report byofthe thunderstorms? Panel on Climate
Integrated theIntergovernmental
findings and data of the 2013-2014 IPCC model comparing summer climate during 2072–2099 with a similar span
Change
5th (IPCC),
Assessment “Warming
Report of the
are presentedWhere climate
M10_LUTG9846_13_CH10_p266-297.indd 269
would
throughout system
you expect isthunderstorms
the unequivo-
chapters, to be most common on during 1962–1989. Most of the area east of the rocky Mountains is 21/11/14 9:47 PM

cal, as is discussion
now evident Earth?
from observations In the United States? in glob-
of increases .6 projected to experience an increase in these environmental conditions.
including of possible future scenarios for Earth’s climate.
al average air and ocean temperatures, how might widespread
severe thunderstormmelting ofeast of the rockies
activity
snow and ice, and rising global sea level.”*
change in theMost
years toofcome?
the observed .4
increase in global average temperatures since the mid-twenti-
 tions in the atmosphere convert the sulfur dioxide into sulfate
aerosols, the same material that produces acid precipitation
(see Chapter 13).
How do aerosols affect climate? Most aerosols act direct-

Structured Learning
ly by ref lecting sunlight back to space and indirectly by mak-
ing clouds “brighter” ref lectors. The second effect relates to ▲ Figure 14.27 Aerosol haze human-generated aerosols are
the fact that many aerosols (such as those composed of salt or concentrated near areas that produce them. Because most aerosols
sulfuric acid) attract water and thus are especially effective reduce the amount of solar energy available to the climate system, they
as cloud condensation nuclei. The large quantity of aerosols have a net cooling effect. This satellite image shows a dense blanket of
produced by human activities (especially industrial emis- pollution moving away from the coast of China. The plume is about 200
The 13th Edition provides an active structured learning path to help guide
sions) triggers an increase in the number of cloud droplets kilometers (125 miles) wide and more than 600 kilometers (375 miles)
long.
that form within a cloud. A greater number of small droplets
students toward mastery of key meteorological concepts.
increases the cloud’s brightness, causing more sunlight to be
ref lected back to space.
One category of aerosols, called black carbon, is soot gen-
erated by Focuscombustion on Conceptsprocesses and fires. Unlike other aero- ◀effect UPDATED! on today’s Focusclimate.on Concepts
Because of their short lifetime in the
sols, black carbon warms the atmosphere because it is an effec- Focus on Concepts learning goals are listed troposphere, aerosols are distributed unevenly over the globe.
As expected, human-generated aerosols in the chapter-
are
tive absorber
Each statement of incoming
represents the solar radiation.
primary When deposited
learning objective for the on opening spreads and correlate to Concept Check and GIST
snow and ice, black
corresponding major carbon
heading also withinreduces
the chapter. surface
After you albedo,
completethus concentrated near the areas that produce
the chapter, you should be able to: questions
them, to help industrialized
namely students focus on and prioritize
regions that the
increasing the amount of light absorbed. Nevertheless, despite learning goals for each chapter.
the warming effect of burn fossil fuels and places where vegeta-
3.1 Calculate fiveblack
commonly carbon, used thetypesoverall effect of
of temperature data atmo-
spheric aerosols and is to
interpret cool
a Earth.
map that depicts temperature data using
tion is burned (Fig. 14.27).
86 The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology
Studies indicate isotherms. that the cooling effect of human-generated
3.5 Temperature
aerosols 3.2 Namea the
offsets Measurement
portion
principal of controls
the global Explain
▶of warming
how
temperature
• Tocaused
and useThe by
obtain an accurate
important.
the ✔ Concept Checks
air temperature, thermometer placement is
best location is a properly situated instrument shelter. 14.3
different types of thermometers work and why the placement of
growing quantities
thermometers examples of
is an important
greenhouse
tofactor
describe their
in obtaining
gases
effects.
accurate
in
readings.
the •atmosphere.
Temperature The
scales are established using reference points called
fixed points. Three common scales are theWhy has scale,
Fahrenheit the CO
Celsius level of the atmosphere
magnitudeDistinguishand extent Celsius,
among Fahrenheit, of the cooling
and Kelvin effect
temperature scales. of aerosols is uncer- 2
3.3 Interpret the patterns depicted on world temperature scale, and Kelvin,
maps.or absolute, scale.
been increasing over the past 200 years?
tain. This
Key Terms:uncertainty is a hurdle
thermometer, liquid-in-glass to advancing our understand-
thermometer,
3.4
maximum thermometer, minimum thermometer, bimetal
ing ofstrip,
how Discussthermistor,
humans
thermograph,
the basic
alter daily
Earth’s
fixed
and annual
climate.
points, Fahrenheit
cycles of air temperature.
scale,
Constriction
–40 –30 –20 –10 how 0 10has20 the
30 atmosphere responded to the growing CO2 levels?

Iticeis important
point, to
steam point, Celsius point
scale, Kelvinout some
(absolute) scale, significant differences
3.5 Explain how different types of thermometers work and why how are temperatures in the lower atmosphere likely to change
absolute zero
between global warming
the placement by greenhouse
of thermometers gases and
is an important factoraerosol
in as CO2 levels continue to increase?
• Thermometers measure temperature either mechanically or
cooling.
electrically.After beingthermometers
Mostobtaining
mechanical emitted,
accurate are carbon
readings.
based on the dioxide
Distinguish
ability and Fahrenheit,
among trace Mercury
gases Aside from CO2, what trace gases are contributing to global
remain in Celsius,
of a material to expand
the and
when
atmosphere Kelvin
heated temperature
and contract
and scales. climate
when cooled.
influence Q for
This sketch showsmany temperature
a portion of a thermometer that has achange?
Electrical thermometers use a thermistor (a thermal resistor) to
specific function. What is that function? How did you figure
decades.
measure By contrast, aerosols
3.6 Summarize several applications of temperature
temperature. released into the troposphere
data.
it out?
List the main sources of human-generated aerosols and describe
remain there for only a few days or, at most, a few weeks
their net effect on atmospheric temperatures.
before they are “washed out” by precipitation, limiting their

T
3.6 Applying Temperature
emperature Data
is one of the basic • of
elements
▶ Summarize
Growing degree days is a practical application used to determine
weather and
the approximate date when crops will be ready to harvest.
several applications of temperature data.
climate. When someone asks what the• weather
Concept Checks▲
Heat stressisand
like
windchill are two familiar uses of temperature
Key Terms: Give
UPDATED! Itdays,Some
heating degree Thought
cooling degree days, data▼ UPDATED!
that relate to apparent temperature—the temperature people
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mention. From everyday experience, we
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Continuous Learning Before, During & After Class
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A01_AGUA7303_07_SE_FM.indd 7 9/10/14 3:55 PM

A01_AGUA7303_07_SE_FM.indd 7
 MasteringMeteorology ™

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 THE

Atmosphere
An Introduction to Meteorology
13e

Frederick K. Lutgens
Edward J. Tarbuck
Illustrated by Dennis Tasa
Senior Meteorology Editor: Christian Botting
Executive Marketing Manager: Neena Bali
Program Manager: Anton Yakovlev
Project Manager: Crissy Dudonis
Editorial Assistant: Amy De Genaro
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Photo and Illustration Support: International Mapping
Photo Researcher: Kristin Piljay
Operations Specialist: Maura Zaldivar-Garcia
Cover Photo Credit: Supercell moves across the country near West Point Nebraska. Mike Hollingshead/Corbis

Credits and acknowledgments for materials borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this
textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on p. C-1.

Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of
America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to
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Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks.
Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations
have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

MasteringMeteorology is a trademark, in the U.S. and/or other countries, of Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lutgens, Frederick K.
The atmosphere : an introduction to meteorology / Frederick K. Lutgens, Edward J. Tarbuck ; illustrated by Dennis
Tasa Pearson. — Thirteenth edition.
pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-321-98462-3 — ISBN 0-321-98462-5
1. Atmosphere. 2. Meteorology. 3. Weather. I. Tarbuck, Edward J. II. Title.
QC861.2.L87 2014
551.5—dc23
2014031628
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—V382—16 15 14

Student edition ISBN 10: 0-321-98462-5; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-98462-3

Instructor’s Review Copy ISBN 10: 0-321-98753-5; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-98753-2

www.pearsonhighered.com
Brief Contents

1 Introduction to the Atmosphere 2

2 Heating Earth’s Surface and Atmosphere 28

3 Temperature 58

4 Moisture and Atmospheric Stability 88

5 Forms of Condensation and Precipitation 122

6 Air Pressure and Winds 156

7 Circulation of the Atmosphere 184

8 Air Masses 216

9 Midlatitude Cyclones 234

10 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 266

11 Hurricanes 298

12 Weather Analysis and Forecasting 322

13 Air Pollution 358

14 The Changing Climate 380

15 World Climates 410

16 Optical Phenomena of the Atmosphere 446

APPENDIX A Metric Units A-1

APPENDIX B Explanation and Decoding of the Daily Weather Map A-5
APPENDIX C Relative Humidty and Dew-Point Tables A-11
APPENDIX D Laws Relating to Gases A-13
APPENDIX E Newton’s Laws, Pressure–Gradient Force, and
Coriolis Force A-14

APPENDIX F Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale A-16

APPENDIX G Climate Data A-17

Glossary G-1

Credits C-1

Index I-1

v
MasteringMeteorology Media ™

1 Introduction to the 3 Temperature 5 Forms of Condensation

Atmosphere SmartFigures and Precipitation
3.2 Isotherm Maps
SmartFigures SmartFigures
3.5 Maritime Temperatures
1.18 The Mauna Loa CO2 Record 5.1 Types of Clouds
3.14 Cloudy vs. Clear Days
1.20 The Ozone Hole 5.12 Fog
3.18 January vs. July
5.22 Hail
Geoscience Animations
Ozone Depletion Geoscience Animations Videos
The Gulf Stream Identifying Clouds in Satellite Imagery
Videos Ocean Circulation Patterns Clouds Developing Over Florida
Ozone Hole Is That a Cloud?
Global Carbon Uptake by Plants Videos
Clouds and Aviation
Global Changes in Carbon Dioxide Global Sea-Surf Temperatures—Climatology
A Satellite View of Fog
Concentrations Seasonal Changes in Land Surface
The Importance of Wind Resistance
Temperatures
GEODe Global Precipitation
Heavy Convection over Florida
The Importance of Weather Record-Breaking Hailstorm as Seen
Urban Heat Islands
Weather and Climate by Radar
Temperatures and Agriculture
Composition of the Atmosphere Earth Observatory-Global Maps
Extent of the Atmosphere GEODe MapMaster
Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere Basic Temperature Data Days with Heavy Fog
In the Lab: Reading Weather Maps Controls of Temperature
The Influence of Volcanic Ash GEODe
Classifying Clouds

2 Heating Earth’s Surface 4 Moisture and Atmospheric Types of Fog

How Precipitation Forms
Stability Forms of Precipitation
and Atmosphere
SmartFigures
SmartFigures
2.6 Solstices & Equinoxes
4.1 The Water Cycle 6 Air Pressure and Winds
4.3 Changes of State in Water
2.11 Three Mechanisms of Heat Transfer SmartFigures
4.13 Dew Point
2.15 Solar Radiation Paths 6.2 Air Pressure
4.20 Frontal Wedging and Convergence
2.22 Three Planets, Three Climates 6.14 The Coriolis Effect
4.24 Atmospheric Stability
Geoscience Animations Geoscience Animations Geoscience Animations
Earth-Sun Relations The Coriolis Effect
Earth’s Water and Hydrologic Cycle
Atmospheric Energy Balance Wind Pattern Development
Water Phase Changes
Atmospheric Stability Cyclones and Anticyclones
Videos
Seasonal Changes in Global Snow Cover Videos
Videos
July Global Movie The Coroliolis Effect on a
Hydrologic Cycle
January Global Movie Merry-Go-Round
Global Evaporation Rates
Global Variations in Insolation Through the Year Winds During a Drought
January Water Vapor
Net Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere Hurricane Winds
July Water Vapor
Solar Eclipse The Growth of Wind Power in the U.S.
Forecasting Relative Humidity
Tour of the Electromagnetic Spectrum Forecasting Wind Patterns
Gravity Wave Clouds
The Sun in Ultraviolet
Solar Power GEODe GEODe
Water’s Changes of State Measuring Air Pressure
GEODe Factors Affecting Wind
Humidity: Water Vapor in the Air
Understanding Seasons, Part 1 Highs and Lows
The Basics of Cloud Formation: Adiabatic
Understanding Seasons, Part 2 Cooling
Solar Radiation
What Happens to Incoming Solar Radiation
Processes That Lift Air
The Critical Weathermaker: Atmospheric
7 Circulation of the Atmosphere
The Greenhouse Effect Stability SmartFigures
In the Lab: The Influence of Color on Albedo In the Lab: Atmospheric Stability 7.2 Local Winds

vi
 7.7 Global Circulation
7.21 Gyres
Short Waves and Long Waves
Winds During the Floods of 1993
13 Air Pollution
A Midlatitude Cyclone’s Dry Slot SmartFigures
Geoscience Animations
13.7 U.S. Energy Consumption
Global Wind Patterns with Hadley Cell GEODe
Global Wind Patterns Fronts Videos
Jet Stream and Rossby Waves Introducing Middle-Latitude Cyclones Global Carbon Monoxide Concentrations
Ocean Circulation In the Lab: Examining a Middle-Latitude Smog Bloggers
Ekman Spiral Coastal Upwelling/ Cyclone Hello Crud
Downwelling
El Niño and La Niña
Seasonal Pressure and Precipitation 10 Thunderstorms and 14 The Changing Climate
Patterns
Tornadoes SmartFigures
Videos
Global Fire Patterns SmartFigures 14.9 The Climate Record in Glacial Ice
Black Carbon Aerosols Trace Global Winds 10.05 Thunderstorms 14.17 Orbital Forcing of Ice Ages
El Niño 10.22 Mesocyclones and Tornadoes 14.32 Shoreline Shift
La Niña Geoscience Animations
Videos
Floods and Droughts Orbital Variations and Climate Change
Forecasting Thunderstorms
MapMaster Tornado Wind Patterns Global Warming
La Niña The Deadliest Tornado Since Modern Videos
El Niño Recordkeeping Began 20,000 Years of Pine Pollen
Identifying Tornadic Thunderstorms Using Climate, Crops, and Bees
Radar Velocity Data
8 Air Masses Identifying Tornadic Thunderstorms Using
Taking Earth’s Temperature
Climate Change Through Native Alaskan
Radar Reflectivity Data
Videos Eyes
Radar Reflectivity and Air Masses MapMaster Sea Level Rise
Effects of the 2011 Groundhog Day Blizzard Lightning Strikes Retreat of Continental Ice Sheets
An Infrared View of the 2011 Groundhog Day Thunderstorm Occurrence Per Year
Blizzard Tornado Incidence/Tornado Alley
Lake Effect Snow 15 World Climates
GEODe
Air Masses 11 Hurricanes SmartFigures
15.6 Tropical Climates
Geoscience Animations 15.11 Deserts
9 Midlatitude Cyclones Hurricane Wind Patterns 15.25 Highland Climates

SmartFigures Videos Videos

9.3 Fronts Hurricane Eye Wall Diurnal Variability in Global Precipitation
A Hurricane in the Middle Latitudes Supercomputing the Climate
Geoscience Animations Hurricane Katrina Lightning Seasonality
Warm Fronts Hot Towers and Hurricane Intensification Studying Fires Using Multiple Sensors
Cold Fronts Improving Hurricane Predictions Operation IceBridge in Greenland
Midlatitude Cyclones The Making of a Super Storm
MapMaster
Videos Physical Environment
A Midlatitude Cyclone’s Dry Slot 12 Weather Analysis Climate: Tropical Wet and Dry
A Midlatitude Cyclone’s Effect on Climate: Humid Subtropical
Society and Forecasting Climate: Marine West Coast
Tornadoes Ahead of a Cold Front Videos Climate: Dry Summer Subtropical
Hurricanes and Air Masses Uncertainty in Numerical Model Climate: Humid Continental
A Midlatitude Cyclone’s Effect on Society Modeling the Atmosphere on Your Desktop Climate: Ice Cap
Water Vapor Transport by Midlatitude Forecasting Thunderstorms Climate: Highland
Cyclones Forecasting Precipitation

vii
Contents

What Causes the Seasons? 30

Book, Media, and MasteringMeteorology Walkthrough
™

Earth’s Orientation 31
MasteringMeteorology Media™

Solstices and Equinoxes 33

Preface xv
Box 2.1 Calculating the Noon Sun Angle 34
Digital & Print Resources xviii
Box 2.2 When Are the Seasons? 36

1 Introduction to the Atmosphere 2 Energy, Temperature, and Heat 37

Forms of Energy 37
Focus on Concepts 3
Eye on the Atmosphere 2.1 37
Focus On the Atmosphere 4
Weather in the United States 4 Temperature 38
Meteorology, Weather, and Climate 5 Heat 38
Atmospheric Hazards: Assault by the Elements 6 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 39
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry 7 Conduction 39
Hypothesis 8 Convection 39
Radiation 40
Box 1.1 Monitoring Earth from Space 8
Laws of Radiation 42
Theory 9
Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 2.3: The Ultraviolet
Scientific Methods 9
Index 42
Earth as a System 10
Earth’s Spheres 10 What Happens to Incoming Solar Radiation? 44
Earth System Science 12 Transmission 44
The Earth System 13 Absorption 44
Reflection and Scattering 45
Composition of the Atmosphere 14
Eye on the Atmosphere 2.2 47
Box 1.2 Origin and Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere 15
Carbon Dioxide 16 The Role of Gases in the Atmosphere 48
Variable Components 16 Heating the Atmosphere 48
Ozone Depletion: A Global Issue 18 The Greenhouse Effect 49

Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 19 Earth’s Energy Budget 50

Pressure Changes 19 Annual Energy Budget 50
Latitudinal Energy Budget 52
Eye on the Atmosphere 1.1 20
Concepts in Review 53
Temperature Changes 20
Give it Some Thought 54
Eye on the Atmosphere 1.2 22
Problems 56
The Ionosphere 23
Concepts in Review 24
Give it Some Thought 26
3 Temperature 58

Problems 27 Focus on Concepts 59

For the Record: Air-Temperature Data 60
Basic Calculations 60
2 Heating Earth’s Surface Isotherms 60
and Atmosphere 28 Box 3.1 North America’s Hottest and
Focus on Concepts 29 Coldest Places 61
Earth–Sun Relationships 30
Earth’s Motions 30

viii
Why Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature 62 Vapor Pressure and Saturation 94
Differential Heating of Land and Water 63 Eye on the Atmosphere 4.1 96
Ocean Currents 64
Altitude 66
Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Temperature 97
How Relative Humidity Changes 97
Geographic Position 67
Albedo Variations 68 Box 4.1 Dry Air at 100 Percent Relative Humidity? 98
Eye on the Atmosphere 3.1 68 Natural Changes in Relative Humidity 99

World Distribution of Temperatures 70 Box 4.2 Humidifiers and Dehumidifiers 99

Eye on the Atmosphere 3.2 71 Dew-Point Temperature 100

How Is Humidity Measured? 101
Cycles of Air Temperature 72
What’s Your Forecast? 102
Daily Temperature Cycle 72
Box 3.2 Latitude and Temperature Range 73 Adiabatic Temperature Changes and Cloud Formation 103
Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation 103
Variations in Daily Temperature Range 75
Annual Temperature Cycle 75
Processes That Lift Air 105
Orographic Lifting 105
Eye on the Atmosphere 3.3 75
Frontal Lifting 105
Temperature Measurement 76 Convergence 105
Thermometers 76 Box 4.3 Precipitation Records and Mountainous
Box 3.3 How Cities Influence Temperature: The Urban Heat Terrain 106
Island 76 Localized Convective Lifting 107
Instrument Shelters 79 Eye on the Atmosphere 4.2 108
Temperature Scales 79
The Critical Weathermaker: Atmospheric Stability 108
Applying Temperature Data 81
Degree Days 81 Types of Stability 108

Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 3.4: Heat Waves 82 Stability and Daily Weather 112
How Stability Changes 112
Indices of Human Discomfort 82
Concepts in Review 85 Eye on the Atmosphere 4.3 113
Give it Some Thought 86 Box 4.4 Orographic Effects: Windward Precipitation and
Problems 87 Leeward Rain Shadows 114
Temperature Inversions and Stability 114

4 Moisture and Atmospheric Concepts in Review 117

Stability 88 Give it Some Thought 119

Problems 120
Focus on Concepts 89
Water on Earth 90
Movement of Water Through the Atmosphere 90 5 Forms of Condensation and
Water: A Unique Substance 90
Precipitation 122
Water’s Changes of State 91
Focus on Concepts 123
Ice, Liquid Water, and Water Vapor 91
Latent Heat 91 Cloud Formation 124
How Does Air Reach Saturation? 124
Humidity: Water Vapor in the Air 93
The Role of Condensation Nuclei 124
How Is Humidity Expressed? 94
Growth of Cloud Droplets 124

ix
Cloud Classification 125
Cloud Forms 125
Cloud Height 126
High Clouds 126
Middle Clouds 127
Low Clouds 127
Clouds of Vertical Development 128
Cloud Varieties 129
Eye on the Atmosphere 5.1 130
Types of Fog 131
Fogs Formed by Cooling 131
Evaporation Fogs 132
How Precipitation Forms 134
Precipitation from Cold Clouds: The Bergeron Process 134
Eye on the Atmosphere 5.2 135
Precipitation from Warm Clouds: The Collision–Coalescence Process 136
Forms of Precipitation 138
Rain, Drizzle, and Mist 139
Snow and Graupel 140
Sleet and Freezing Rain or Glaze 140
Hail 141
Rime 143
Precipitation Measurement 143
Standard Instruments 144
Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 5.1: Worst Winter
Weather 144
Measuring Snowfall 145
Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar 146
Eye on the Atmosphere 5.3 146
What’s Your Forecast? 147
Planned and Inadvertent Weather Modification 148
Planned Weather Modification 148
Inadvertent Weather Modification 151
Concepts in Review 152
Give it Some Thought 153
Problems 155
6 Air Pressure and Winds
Focus on Concepts 157
Atmospheric Pressure and Wind 158
What Is Atmospheric Pressure? 158
Measuring Atmospheric Pressure 158
x
Displaying Atmospheric Pressure on Surface and
Upper-Air Maps 160
Why Does Air Pressure Vary? 162
Pressure Changes with Altitude 162
Pressure Changes with Temperature 163
Pressure Changes with Moisture Content 163
Box 6.1 Air Pressure and Aviation 164
Pressure Changes Caused by Airflow Aloft 165
Factors Affecting Wind 165
Pressure Gradient Force 165
Coriolis Force 166
Friction 168
Winds Aloft Versus Surface Winds 169
Straight-line Flow and Geostrophic Winds 169
Curved Flow and Gradient Winds 171
Surface Winds 172
Eye on the Atmosphere 6.1 172
How Winds Generate Vertical Air Motion 174
Vertical Airflow Associated with Cyclones and
Anticyclones 174
Other Factors Promoting Vertical Airflow 175
Eye on the Atmosphere 6.2 175
Wind Measurement 176
Measuring Wind Direction 176
Eye on the Atmosphere 6.3 176
Measuring Wind Speed 178
Box 6.2 Wind Energy: An Alternative with
Potential 178
Concepts in Review 180
Give it Some Thought 182
Problems 183
7 Circulation of the Atmosphere 184
Focus on Concepts 185
Scales of Atmospheric Motion 186
Microscale Winds 186
156
Mesoscale Winds 186
Macroscale Winds 186
Wind Patterns on All Scales 186
Local Winds 188
Land and Sea Breezes 188
Box 7.1 Dust Devils 188 Source Regions 219
Mountain and Valley Breezes 189 Air-Mass Classification 219
Chinook (Foehn) Winds 190 Air-Mass Modification 220
Katabatic (Fall) Winds 190 Properties of North American Air Masses 221
Country Breezes 190 Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic (cA) Air Masses 221
Global Circulation 191 Lake-Effect Snow: Cold Air over Warm Water 223
Single-Cell Circulation Model 191 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 8.1: The Siberian
Three-Cell Circulation Model 191 Express 224
Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 7.2: Santa Ana Winds Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses 225
and Wildfires 192 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 8.2: An Extraordinary
Pressure Zones Drive the Wind 194 Lake-Effect Snowstorm 226
Idealized Zonal Pressure Belts 194
Eye on the Atmosphere 8.1 227
Eye on the Atmosphere 7.1 194
Eye on the Atmosphere 8.2 228
The Real World: Semipermanent Pressure Systems 195
Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses 228
Monsoons 197
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses 230
The Asian Monsoon 197
The North American Monsoon 198 Concepts in Review 231
The Westerlies 199 Give it Some Thought 232
Why Westerlies? 199 Problems 233
Waves in the Westerlies 200
Jet Streams 200 9 Midlatitude Cyclones 234
The Polar Jet Stream 200 Focus on Concepts 235
Subtropical Jet Stream 202 Frontal Weather 236
Jet Streams and Earth’s Heat Budget 202 What Is a Front? 236
Global Winds and Ocean Currents 203 Warm Fronts 236
Ocean Currents Influence Climate 203 Cold Fronts 238
Ocean Currents and Upwelling 205 Stationary Fronts 239
El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation 205 Occluded Fronts 239
Eye on the Atmosphere 7.2 205 Drylines 240

Global Impact of El Niño 206 Eye on the Atmosphere 9.1 241

Global Impact of La Niña 207 Midlatitude Cyclones and the Polar-Front Theory 242
Southern Oscillation 208 Polar-Front Theory 242
Global Distribution of Precipitation 209 Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone 244
Zonal Distribution of Precipitation 209 What’s Your Forecast? 244
Distribution of Precipitation over the Continents 210
Eye on the Atmosphere 9.2 246
Eye on the Atmosphere 7.3 211
Idealized Weather of a Midlatitude Cyclone 247
Concepts in Review 211
Flow Aloft and Cyclone Formation 248
Give it Some Thought 214
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Circulation 249
Divergence and Convergence Aloft 249
8 Air Masses 216
What’s Your Forecast? 250
Focus on Concepts 217
Flow Aloft and Cyclone Migration 251
What Is an Air Mass? 218
Where Do Midlatitude Cyclones Form? 252
Classifying Air Masses 219 Sites of Midlatitude Cyclone Formation that Affect North America 252
xi
 Patterns of Movement 253 Tornado Forecasting 289
A Modern View: The Conveyor Belt Model 254 Eye on the Atmosphere 10.2 290
Warm Conveyor Belt 254
Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 10.3: Surviving a
Eye on the Atmosphere 9.3 254 Violent Tornado 291
Cold Conveyor Belt 255
What’s Your Forecast? 292
Dry Conveyor Belt 255
Anticyclonic Weather and Atmospheric Blocking 256 Concepts in Review 294
Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 9.1: The Midwest Give it Some Thought 297
Flood of 2008 256 Problems 297

Case Study of a Midlatitude Cyclone 258

Concepts in Review 261
11 Hurricanes 298
Focus on Concepts 299
Give it Some Thought 263
Profile of a Hurricane 300
Problems 264
Box 11.1 Conservation of Angular Momentum 302
10 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 266 Hurricane Formation and Decay 303
Focus on Concepts 267 Hurricane Formation 303
What’s in a Name? 268 From Tropical Disturbance to Hurricane 304
Hurricane Decay 304
Thunderstorms 268
Distribution and Frequency 269 Box 11.2 Naming Tropical Storms and Hurricanes 305
Thunderstorms and Climate Change 269 Hurricane Destruction 306
Air-Mass Thunderstorms 270 Saffir–Simpson Scale 307
Stages of Development 270 Eye on the Atmosphere 11.1 307
Occurrence 272
Storm Surge 308
Severe Thunderstorms 272
What’s Your Forecast? 309
Supercell Thunderstorms 273
Squall Lines 275 Wind Damage 310
Mesoscale Convective Complexes 276 Heavy Rains and Inland Flooding 310
Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 10.1: Flash Floods 276 Estimating Hurricane Intensity 311
Dropsondes 311
Lightning and Thunder 278 Using Satellite Data 312
What Causes Lightning? 278
Eye on the Atmosphere 11.2 312
Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 10.2: Downbursts 279
Detecting, Tracking, and Monitoring Hurricanes 313
Lightning Strokes 280
The Role of Satellites 314
Thunder 281
Aircraft Reconnaissance 315
Eye on the Atmosphere 10.1 281 Radar and Data Buoys 315
Tornadoes 282 Hurricane Watches and Warnings 316
Development and Occurrence of Tornadoes 284 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 11.3: Super Typhoon
Tornado Development 284 Haiyan 317
Tornado Climatology 285 Hurricane Forecasting 318
Profile of a Tornado 287 Concepts in Review 318
Tornado Destruction and Tornado Forecasting 288 Give it Some Thought 320
Tornado Intensity 288
Problems 321
Loss of Life 289

xii
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