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vi Contents

GEO-INSIGHT: Fossilization 172

 
6 Determining the Environment of Deposition 174
Geo-impact: Sedimentary Rocks and Earth History 174
Geo-Focus: State Fossils 175
Weathering, Erosion, and Soil 137 Sedimentary Rocks and Economic Geology 176
​Introduction 138 Coal 176
Petroleum and Natural Gas 176
Alteration of Minerals and Rocks 139
Uranium 177
​Mechanical Weathering—Disaggregation of Earth Banded Iron Formation 177
Materials 139
Frost Action 139
Pressure Release 140
Thermal Expansion and Contraction 140
Growth of Salt Crystals 140
Activities of Organisms 140
8
 
Chemical Weathering—Decomposition of
Earth Materials 141 Metamorphism and
Solution 141
Geo-Focus: Industrialization and Acid Rain 142
Metamorphic Rocks 181

Oxidation 144 Introduction 182

Hydrolysis 145 Geo-impact: Asbestos and Public Policy 183
Soil and Its Origin 146 The Agents of Metamorphism 183
The Soil Profile 147 Heat 183
Factors That Control Soil Formation 148 Pressure 183
Expansive Soils and Soil Degradation 150 Geo-Focus: Asbestos: Good or Bad? 184
Expansive Soils 150 Fluid Activity 185
Soil Degradation 152
The Three Types of Metamorphism 186
Geo-impact: Expansive Soils 153 Contact Metamorphism 186
​Weathering and Resources 154 Dynamic Metamorphism 188
Regional Metamorphism 188
Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade 188
How Are Metamorphic Rocks Classified? 189

 
7 Foliated Metamorphic Rocks 189
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks 192
Geo-impact: Marble as a Building Stone 194
Sediment and Sedimentary Metamorphic Zones and Facies 194
Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism 195
Rocks 159 Metamorphism and Natural Resources 196
Introduction 160
Sediment Sources, Transport, and

9
Deposition 160
How Does Sediment Become Sedimentary
Rock? 161
Types of Sedimentary Rocks 162
 
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 162
Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Earthquakes and
Rocks 164 Earth’s Interior 201
Sedimentary Facies 167
Introduction 202
Sedimentary Rocks—The Archives
of Earth History 167 Elastic Rebound Theory 203
Sedimentary Structures 169 Seismology 204
Fossils—Remains and Traces of The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake 204
Ancient Life 171 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often? 205

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 Contents vii

Seismic Waves 207 Deformation and the Origin of Mountains 244

Body Waves 208 Mountain Building 245
Surface Waves 208 Geo-Focus: Engineering and Geology 246
Locating an Earthquake 208 Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building 247
Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake 209 Terranes and the Origin of Mountains 251
Intensity 210 Earth’s Crust 252
Magnitude 213 Principle of Isostasy 252
What Are the Destructive Effects of Isostatic Rebound 253
Earthquakes? 214
Ground Shaking 214
Fire 215

11
Tsunami: Killer Waves 215
GEO-INSIGHT: Designing and Building
Earthquake-Resistant Structures 216  
Ground Failure 218
Earthquake Prediction 220
Earthquake Precursors 220
Mass Wasting 257

Geo-Focus: Paleoseismology 222 Introduction 258

Earthquake Prediction Programs 222 Factors That Influence Mass Wasting 258
Earthquake Control 224 Slope Angle 259
Weathering and Climate 259
Geo-impact: Reducing the Threat of Earthquakes 225 Water Content 261
What Is Earth’s Interior Like? 226 Vegetation 261
The Core 228 Overloading 261
Density and Composition of the Core 228 Geology and Slope Stability 262
Earth’s Mantle 229 Triggering Mechanisms 262
The Mantle’s Structure, Density, and Types of Mass Wasting 263
Composition 229 Falls 263
Seismic Tomography 230 Slides 264
Earth’s Internal Heat 230 Geo-Focus: Southern California Landslides 266
Earth’s Crust 230 Geo-impact: Building Along a Hilly Coastline 269
Flows 270
Complex Movements 274

10
 
Recognizing and Minimizing the Effects of Mass
Wasting 276

Deformation, Mountain Building,

and Earth’s Crust 235 12
 
Introduction 236
Rock Deformation—How Does It Occur? 236
Stress and Strain 236
Running Water—Streams
Types of Strain 237 and Rivers 283
Strike and Dip—The Orientation of Deformed Introduction 284
Rock Layers 238 Water on Earth 284
Geo-impact: Stress, Strain, and Deformation 238 The Hydrologic Cycle 285
Deformation and Geologic Structures 238 Fluid Flow 285
Folded Rock Layers 239 Running Water 286
Joints 241 Sheet Flow and Channel Flow 286
Faults 243 Gradient, Velocity, and Discharge 286
Geo-impact: Geologic Maps and Land Use Running Water, Erosion, and Sediment
Planning 244 Transport 288

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viii Contents

Deposition by Running Water 288 Hydrothermal Activity 329

Deposits of Braided and Meandering Rivers and Hot Springs 329
Streams 289 Geysers 331
Geo-impact: Zoning Regulations and River Erosion 290 Geothermal Energy 332
Floodplain Deposits 291
Deltas 292

 
Alluvial Fans 292
Can Floods Be Predicted and Controlled? 293
Geo-Focus: The Mississippi River Delta—Past 14
and Present 294
GEO-INSIGHT: The Mississippi River System Floods Glaciers and Glaciation 337
of 1993 and 2011 296
​Introduction 338
Geo-impact: Sand and Gravel as Natural The Kinds of Glaciers 338
Resources 299
Valley Glaciers 338
Drainage Systems 299 Continental Glaciers 339
The Significance of Base Level 300 Glaciers—Moving Bodies of Ice on Land 339
What Is a Graded Stream? 301 GEO-INSIGHT: The Little Ice Age 340
The Evolution of Valleys 302
Glaciers—Part of the Hydrologic Cycle 342
Incised Meanders 304 How Do Glaciers Originate and Move? 342
Superposed Streams 305
Geo-impact: Ice: A Solid That Flows 343
Water as a Natural Resource 305
Distribution of Glaciers 343
The Glacial Budget 344
How Fast Do Glaciers Move? 345

13
Geo-Focus: Glaciers and Global Warming 346

  Erosion and Sediment Transport by Glaciers 348

Geo-impact: Glaciers and Global Warming 349
Erosion by Valley Glaciers 350
Groundwater 309
Continental Glaciers and Erosional
Introduction 310 Landforms 353
Groundwater and the Hydrologic Cycle 310 Glacial Deposits 353
Porosity and Permeability 310 Landforms Composed of Till 355
The Water Table 311 Landforms Composed of Stratified Drift 355
Glacial Lake Deposits 356
Groundwater Movement 312
​What Causes Ice Ages? 358
Springs, Water Wells, and Artesian Systems 312
The Milankovitch Theory 358
Springs 313
Short-Term Climatic Events 359
Water Wells 313
Artesian Systems 314
Groundwater Erosion and Deposition 315
Sinkholes and Karst Topography 316
Caves and Cave Deposits 317
Modification of the Groundwater System and Its
 
15
Effects 318
Lowering the Water Table 318 The Work of Wind
Geo-Focus: Hydraulic Fracturing: Pros and Cons 320
Saltwater Incursion 322
and Deserts 363
Subsidence 323 Introduction 364
Groundwater Contamination 324 Sediment Transport by Wind 364
Groundwater Quality 325 Bed Load 364
GEO-INSIGHT: Arsenic and Old Lace 326 Geo-impact: What Can Be Done with Nuclear
Geo-impact: Building an Environmentally Friendly Waste? 365
Landfill 328 Suspended Load 365

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 Contents ix

Wind Erosion 366

Abrasion 366
Deflation 367  
17
Wind Deposits 367
The Formation and Migration of Dunes 368
Dune Types 369 Geologic Time: Concepts and
Loess 370 Principles 413
Air-Pressure Belts and Global Wind
Introduction 414
Patterns 371
How Geologic Time Is Measured 414
The Distribution of Deserts 372
Early Concepts of Geologic Time and Earth’s Age 414
Characteristics of Deserts 374
James Hutton and the Recognition of Geologic
Temperature, Precipitation, and
Time 415
Vegetation 374
Weathering and Soils 375 Geo-Focus: The Anthropocene: A New Geologic
Mass Wasting, Streams, and Epoch? 416
Groundwater 376 Relative Dating Methods 419
Wind 376 Fundamental Principles of Relative Dating 419
Desert Landforms 376 Unconformities 422
Geo-Focus: Windmills and Wind Power 378 Applying the Principles of Relative Dating 427
Correlating Rock Units 429
Subsurface Correlation 429
Absolute Dating Methods 432

 
16
Atoms, Elements, and Isotopes 432
Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives 432
Sources of Uncertainty 433
Long-Lived Radioactive Isotope Pairs 435
Oceans, Shorelines, and Shoreline Fission-Track Dating 436
Radiocarbon and Tree-Ring Dating Methods 436
Processes 385 Development of the Geologic Time Scale 437
Introduction 386 Stratigraphy and Stratigraphic Terminology 438
Exploring the Oceans 387 Geo-impact: Building a Dam over a Fault? 439
Seawater and Oceanic Circulation 388 Geologic Time and Climate Change 441
Seawater—Its Composition and Color 388
Oceanic Circulation 388
Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks on the
Seafloor 389
Shorelines and Shoreline Processes 389
Tides, Waves, and Nearshore Currents 389
 
18
Geo-Focus: Energy from the Oceans 392
Geo-impact: Nearshore Currents and Swimming
Organic Evolution—The Theory
Safety 397 and Its Supporting Evidence 447
Shoreline Erosion and Deposition 398 ​Introduction 448
Erosion 398 Organic Evolution: What Does It Mean? 449
Deposition 399 Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck and His Ideas on
The Nearshore Sediment Budget 403 Evolution 449
Geo-impact: Barrier Island Migration 403 The Contributions of Charles Robert Darwin and
Types of Coasts 404 Alfred Russel Wallace 449
Depositional and Erosional Coasts 404 Natural Selection—What Is Its Significance? 450
Submergent and Emergent Coasts 405 Mendel and the Birth of Genetics 451
The Perils of Living Near a Shoreline 406 Mendel’s Experiments 451
Storm Waves and Coastal Flooding 406 GEO-INSIGHT: Artificial Selection, Natural Selection,
Coastal Management as Sea Level Rises 407 Fossils, and Evolution 452
The Oceans and Economic Geology 409 Geo-impact: Legislation and Science 454

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x Contents
Genes and Chromosomes 454
The Modern View of Organic Evolution 454
What Brings About Variation? 455
Speciation and the Rate of Evolution 456
Divergent, Convergent, and Parallel Evolution 457
Microevolution and Macroevolution 457
Mosaic Evolution and Evolutionary Trends 458
Cladistics and Cladograms 459
Extinctions 460
​Evidence Supporting Evolutionary Theory 460
Biological Evidence Supporting Evolution 462
Biogeography 464
Geo-Focus: Building a Dinochicken 465
Fossils: What Do We Learn from Them? 465
Geo-impact: Evolution, Theories, and Fossils 466
The Evidence—A Summary 467
19
Precambrian Earth and Life
History 471
Introduction 472
What Happened During the Hadean? 473
The Foundations of Continents—Shields, Platforms,
and Cratons 474
Geo-Focus: The Faint Young Sun Paradox—An
Unresolved Controversy
Archean Earth History 476
Archean Rocks 476
Archean Plate Tectonics and the Origin of
Cratons 479
Proterozoic Earth History 481
Paleoproterozoic History of Laurentia 482
Geo-impact: Planetary Geology 484
Paleo- and Mesoproterozoic Igneous Activity 484
Mesoproterozoic Orogeny and Rifting 484
Meso- and Neoproterozoic Sedimentation 484
Proterozoic Supercontinents 485
Proterozoic Rocks 486
Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere and
Hydrosphere 487
The Atmosphere 487
The Great Oxygenation Event 488
Geo-impact: Ancient Glaciation 489
The Hydrosphere 489
Life—Its Origin and Early History 489
The Origin of Life 490
Archean Organisms 491
Life of the Proterozoic 492
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Resources in Precambrian Rocks 496
Archean Resources 496
Proterozoic Resources 496
 
20
Paleozoic Earth History 501
Introduction 502
Continental Architecture: Cratons and Mobile
Belts 502
Paleozoic Paleogeography 503
Early-Middle Paleozoic Global History 504
Late Paleozoic Global History 508
Paleozoic Evolution of North America 508
The Sauk Sequence 510
The Tippecanoe Sequence 511
Tippecanoe Reefs and Evaporites 512
The End of the Tippecanoe Sequence 514
The Kaskaskia Sequence 515
Reef Development in Western Canada 516
Black Shales 517
The Late Kaskaskia—A Return to Extensive
Carbonate Deposition 518
The Absaroka Sequence 519
What Are Cyclothems, and Why Are They
Important? 519
476
Cratonic Uplift—The Ancestral Rockies 521
The Late Absaroka—More Evaporite Deposits
and Reefs 524
History of the Paleozoic Mobile Belts 525
Appalachian Mobile Belt 525
GEO-INSIGHT: The Devonian Old Red Sandstone 528
Cordilleran Mobile Belt 529
Ouachita Mobile Belt 529
What Role Did Microplates and Terranes Play in the
Formation of Pangaea? 531
Geo-impact: Offshore Paleozoic Oil and Gas Fields in
Northern Brazil? 532
Paleozoic Mineral Resources 532
21
Paleozoic Life History 539
Introduction 540
What Was the Cambrian Explosion? 540

The Emergence of a Shelly Fauna 541
The Present Marine Ecosystem 542
Paleozoic Invertebrate Marine Life 543
Cambrian Marine Community 544
The Burgess Shale Biota 545
GEO-INSIGHT: Trilobites—Paleozoic Arthropods 546
Ordovician Marine Community 548
Silurian and Devonian Marine Communities 549
Carboniferous and Permian Marine
Communities 550
The Permian Mass Extinction Event 551
Geo-impact: Global Warming and Mass Extinctions—A
New Television Series
Vertebrate Evolution 553
Fish 554
Amphibians—Vertebrates Invade the Land 559
Evolution of the Reptiles—The Land Is
Conquered 561
Plant Evolution 565
Silurian and Devonian Floras 566
Late Carboniferous and Permian
Floras 567
22
Mesozoic Earth and
Life History 575
Introduction 576
The Breakup of Pangaea 576
The Effects of the Breakup of Pangaea
on Global Climates and Ocean Circulation
Patterns 578
Mesozoic History of North America 580
Continental Interior 581
Eastern Coastal Region 582
Gulf Coastal Region 583
Western Region 583
What Role Did Accretion of Terranes Play
in the Growth of Western
North America? 589
Mesozoic Mineral Resources 590
Life of the Mesozoic Era 590
Geo-impact: Oil Drilling in the National Parks? 591
Marine Invertebrates and
Phytoplankton 591
Aquatic and Semiaquatic Vertebrates 593
Plants—Primary Producers on Land 593
The Diversification of Reptiles 593
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Contents xi
GEO-INSIGHT: Dinosaurs 596
The Origin and Evolution of Birds 600
Evolution of Mammals 601
Mesozoic Climates and Paleogeography 604
Geo-Focus: Mary Anning’s Contributions
to Paleontology 605
Mass Extinctions—A Crisis in the History
of Life 606
553  
23
Cenozoic Earth and Life
History 613
​Introduction 614
​Cenozoic Plate Tectonics 614
Cenozoic Orogenic Belts 614
The Alpine–Himalayan Orogenic Belt 615
The Circum-Pacific Orogenic Belt 616
Paleogene and Neogene Evolution of North
America 616
The North American Cordillera 617
Cordilleran Igneous Activity 617
Basin and Range Province 619
GEO-INSIGHT: The Columbia River Basalts 620
Colorado Plateau and Rio Grande Rift 622
Pacific Coast 623
The Continental Interior 624
Cenozoic History of the Appalachian
Mountains 624
Geo-Focus: Geology Along the Oregon Trail
in Nebraska 625
North America’s Southern and Eastern Continental
Margins 626
The Gulf Coastal Plain 627
Geo-impact: Geological Education 627
The Atlantic Continental Margin 627
The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs 628
Pleistocene and Holocene Tectonism and
Volcanism 628
Pleistocene Glaciation 629
Cenozoic Mineral Resources 631
Paleogene and Neogene Life History 632
Marine Invertebrates and Phytoplankton 632
Cenozoic Vegetation and Climate 633
Paleogene and Neogene Birds 634
Diversification of Mammals 634
Cenozoic Mammals 636
Geo-impact: Fossils and Life History 636
xii Contents

Pleistocene Faunas 639

Mammals and Birds 639 Appendices
Primate Evolution 640
A: English-Metric Conversion Chart   662
Hominids 643
Pleistocene Extinctions 649 B: Topographic Maps   663
Contours 663
Map Scales   663
Map Locations   664

 
24
Where to Obtain Topographic Maps 665
C: Mineral Identification   667

Answers 669
Geology in Perspective 655
Glossary  675
Introduction 656
Geology and the Environment 656
Index  691
A Final Word 661

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 Preface

Earth is a dynamic planet that has changed continuously and biologic principles and processes that have shaped our
during its 4.6 billion years of existence. The size, shape, and planet and life upon it.
geographic distribution of the continents and ocean basins Instead of emphasizing individual, and seemingly unre-
have changed through time, as have the atmosphere and lated, events, we seek to understand the underlying causes of
biota. As scientists and concerned citizens, we have become why things happened the way they did and how all of Earth’s
increasingly aware of how fragile our planet is and, more systems and subsystems are interrelated. Using this approach,
importantly, how interdependent all of its various systems students will gain a better understanding of how everything
and subsystems are. fits together, and why geology is such an important course.
We also have learned that we cannot continually pollute With these goals in mind, we introduce the major
our environment and that our natural resources are limited themes of the book in the first chapter to provide students
and, in most cases, nonrenewable. Furthermore, we are com- with an overview of the subject and to enable them to see
ing to realize how central geology is to our everyday lives. how the various systems, subsystems, and cycles of Earth are
For example, on March 11, 2011, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake interrelated. We then cover the unifying theme of geology—
struck Japan, killing more than 20,000 people and gener- plate tectonics—in the second chapter. Plate tectonic theory
ating a tsunami that wreaked destruction along the coast is central to the study of geology because it links together
of northeastern Japan, as well as damaging three nuclear many aspects of geology. It is a theme that is woven through-
power plants and causing radioactive leakage in one of them. out this edition.
A major oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 resulted in The economic and environmental aspects of geology
much ecological damage along the shorelines of the Gulf are emphasized throughout the book rather than treating
Coast of the United States, as well as to the biota in the Gulf these topics in separate chapters. In this way, students can
of Mexico. And, finally, Hurricane Sandy caused tremendous see, through topical and interesting examples, how geology
damage and major flooding along the Eastern Seaboard of affects our lives. Climate change is an especially relevant
the United States in October 2012. and important topic that currently is in the news and being
All of these events point out how much geology affects discussed and debated by scientists, politicians, and citizens
our lives, as well as the global economy. For these and other alike. Because of its importance, we introduce the topic in
reasons, geology is one of the most important college or uni- the first chapter and integrate it throughout the book as it
versity courses that a student can take. relates to the various topics covered. Geology is unique in
The seventh edition of The Changing Earth: Exploring that it can provide the perspective of geologic time in this
Geology and Evolution is designed to be an introductory important debate as to what, and the possible degree to
course in geology that can serve both majors and nonma- which, humans have contributed to climate change.
jors in geology and the Earth sciences. One of the prob- Another topic that has been in the news of late is
lems with any introductory science course is that students hydraulic fracturing, popularly called “fracking.” This con-
are overwhelmed by the amount of material that must be troversial method of releasing oil and gas from nearly imper-
learned. Furthermore, most of the material does not seem to meable shales, is both an environmental and energy issue
be linked by any unifying theme and does not always appear that elicits strong feelings from both its proponents and
to be relevant to their lives. This book, however, is written to opponents. Because of the importance of this topic and its
address that problem in that it shows, in its easy-to-read style, cross-disciplinary nature, we cover it in several chapters.
that geology is an exciting and ever-changing science in which
new discoveries and insights are continually being made.
The goals of this book are to provide students with a
basic understanding of geology and its processes and, most Features in the
importantly, with an understanding of how geology relates
to the human experience—that is, how geology affects not
Seventh Edition
only individuals, but society in general. It is also our intent Just as Earth is dynamic and evolving, so too is The Changing
to present the geologic and biologic history of Earth, not as a Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution. The seventh edition
set of encyclopedic facts to memorize, but rather as a contin- has undergone significant rewriting and updating, resulting
uum of interrelated events reflecting the underlying geologic in a volume that is still easy to read and contains a high level
xiii

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xiv Preface

of current information. Drawing on the comments and sug- and questions were chosen to encourage students to
gestions of reviewers and users of the sixth edition, we have develop strong observational and critical thinking skills.
retained those features that were both relevant and popular ■■ A new feature, Global GeoScience Watch, directs students to
in the sixth edition as well as incorporated several new fea- the Cengage Learning website, which is a one-stop site for
tures into this edition. studying Earth and the environment. The website is inter-
■■ Many new, bold, and dramatic photos open each chapter, active and current, and allows users to navigate issue, coun-
a number of which are recent geologic events, which add try, organization, and Global GeoScience Watch–specific
relevancy to the text and emphasize the theme of how portals. A question relating to the chapter material is asked
geology relates to humans. that requires students to search the website for the answer.

■■ Chapter content has been extensively updated and rewrit- It is our strong belief that the rewriting and updat-
ten to (1) help clarify concepts, (2) emphasize underlying ing done in the text, as well as the new features introduced,
processes, and (3) make the material more exploratory. significantly improve the seventh edition of The Changing
■■ Have You Ever Wondered? questions follow the chapter Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution. We think that these
Outline at the beginning of each chapter. These intriguing changes and the new enhancements make this textbook
questions are designed to spark student interest about easier to read and comprehend, as well as making it a more
what is covered in the chapter and motivate them to find effective teaching tool that engages students in the learn-
the answers by reading the chapter. ing process, thereby fostering a better understanding of the
material and how it relates to Earth in the 21st century.
■■ The Connection Link boxed features have been retained.
These help students see the big picture of how Earth sys-
tems are interrelated and connected. In this edition, a
green icon in the text refers students to the Connection
Text Organization
Link box, which then refers the reader to other locations in Plate tectonic theory is the unifying theme of geology and
the book where more information can be found and con- also for this book. This theory has revolutionized geology
nections can be made with other related important topics. because it provides a global perspective of Earth and allows
■■ Many of the popular Geo-Focus and Geo-Insight features geologists to treat many seemingly unrelated geologic phe-
contain either new topics or have been updated, with an nomena as part of a total planetary system.
emphasis on environmental and economic topics. A second, and equally important, theme is that Earth is
a complex, dynamic planet that has changed continuously
■■ Geo-Impact boxed features now replace the former What
since its origins some 4.6 billion years ago. We can better
Would You Do? These boxed features continue to en-
understand this complexity by using a systems approach to
courage students to think critically about what they are
the study of Earth and emphasizing this concept throughout
learning by asking open-ended questions related to the
the book.
chapter material. These features also emphasize current
We therefore have organized The Changing Earth:
issues related to natural resources and the environment,
Exploring Geology and Evolution, seventh edition, into the
and many of them have an accompanying photo to better
following informal categories:
illustrate the topic at hand.
■■ Critical Thinking Questions are part of many of the fig- ■■ Chapter 1 is an introduction to geology and Earth sys-
ures. These questions are designed to encourage active tems, geology’s relevance to the human experience, and
student learning, guide observational skill development, the debate about climate change and humans’ possible
and deepen understanding of geologic processes. role and effect, as well as the origin of the solar system
■■ The Summary is now called Key Concepts Review to em- and Earth’s place in it.
phasize the important concepts covered in the chapter. ■■ Chapter 2 deals with plate tectonics in detail and sets the
■■ The previous format of 10 multiple-choice questions and stage for its integration throughout the rest of the book.
10 short-answer questions in the Review Questions sec- Particular emphasis is placed on the evidence substanti-
tion at the end of each chapter has been reduced to five ating plate tectonic theory, why this theory is one of the
multiple-choice and five short answer questions. A num- cornerstones of geology, and why plate tectonic theory
ber of the questions have been rewritten or are new, and serves as a unifying paradigm in explaining many appar-
answers to all of the multiple-choice questions, as well as ently unrelated geologic phenomena.
several of the short-answer questions, are provided at the ■■ Chapters 3–8 examine Earth’s materials (minerals, and
back of the book. igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks) and the
■■ The last short-answer question is now titled Creative geologic processes accounting for them, including the
Thinking Visual Question and challenges students to role of plate tectonics in their origin and distribution.
describe the geologic process being depicted, engage in ■■ Chapters 9–10 deal with the related topics of Earth’s
quantitative solutions, or address an issue using the infor- interior, earthquakes, and deformation and mountain
mation provided in the photo or graphic. These images building.

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Ancillary Materials xv

■■ Chapters 11–16 cover Earth’s surface processes, including ■■ Each chapter contains at least one Geo-Focus or Geo-
such features as mass wasting, running water, groundwater, Insight feature that presents a brief discussion or visual
glaciers and glaciation, the work of wind and deserts, and representation of an interesting aspect of geology or
shorelines and shoreline processes. geologic research. Several of these features are new to
■■ Chapter 17 discusses geologic time, and Chapter 18 explores this edition and emphasize economic and environmental
fossils and evolution. issues.
■■ Chapters 19–23 constitute our chronological treatment of ■■ At least one Geo-Impact feature per chapter encourages
the geologic and biologic history of Earth. students to engage in critical thinking by solving hypo-
■■ Chapter 24 summarizes and synthesizes the concepts, thetical problems or issues that are related to the chapter
themes, and major topics covered in this book. material.
■■ Topics related to environmental issues, such as climate
Of particular assistance to students are the end-of- change and hydraulic fracturing, are discussed through-
chapter summary tables found in Chapters 20–22. These out the text. Integrating economic geology and environ-
tables are designed to give an overall perspective of the geo- mental issues with the chapter material helps students
logic and biologic events that occurred during the particular relate the importance and relevance of geology to their
time interval covered in that chapter and to show how the lives.
events are interrelated.
■■ The end-of-chapter materials begin with Key Concepts
We have found that presenting the material in the
Review, which summarizes the important concepts cov-
order discussed above allows for an integration of the major
ered in the chapter.
themes of this book, as well as an emphasis on the underly-
ing principles of geology and how they relate to the human ■■ The Important Terms, which are printed in boldface type
experience and in deciphering Earth’s history. We also know, in the chapter text, are listed at the end of each chapter
however, that many professors prefer an entirely different for easy review, along with the page numbers on which
order of topics, depending on the emphasis in their course. they are first defined.
Therefore, we have written this book so that instructors can ■■ The Review Questions are another important feature of
present the chapters in whatever order that suits the needs of this book and include multiple-choice questions with
a particular course. answers as well as short-answer questions, some of which
have the answers provided at the end of the book. Many
new questions have been added to each chapter of the
Chapter Organization seventh edition.
■■ The Global GeoScience Watch directs students to the
All chapters have the same organizational format as follows: Cengage Learning website, which is interactive, current,
■■ Each chapter opens with a dramatic photograph, many and allows users to navigate topics related to issue, coun-
of which are new, followed by an Outline of the topics try, and professional organizations.
covered and a series of questions under the title Have You ■■ A full Glossary of important terms appears at the end of
Ever Wondered? that are designed to pique student inter- the text.
est in the topics covered in that chapter.
■■ An Introduction follows that is intended to stimulate
interest in the chapter and show how the chapter material
fits into the larger geologic perspective. A number of the
Ancillary Materials
Introductions have been rewritten and updated in this
edition.
For Instructors
We are pleased to offer a full suite of text and multimedia
■■ The text is written in a clear, informal style, making it
products to accompany the seventh edition of The Changing
easy for students to comprehend.
Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution.
■■ Within each chapter are several Connection Link boxes The Earth Science CourseMate features a rich array of
that refer the reader to other locations in the book where study tools and learning resources for your students. This
more information can be found, and connections are text-specific companion website includes quizzing, flash-
made to important concepts and topics. cards, and other web-based activities that will help students
■■ Numerous Critical Thinking Questions are found associated explore the concepts presented in the text.
with selected figures in each chapter. These are designed to The Instructor Companion Website contains everything
encourage active student learning and deepen understand- you need for your course in one place! This collection of
ing of geologic processes. book-specific features and class tools in available online via
■■ Numerous color diagrams and photographs complement www.cengage.com/login. Access and download PowerPoint
the text and provide a visual representation of the con- presentations, images, instructor’s manual, videos, and
cepts and information presented. more.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xvi Preface

The Online Instructor’s Manual contains resources and search capabilities as well as the following interactive
designed to streamline your course preparation. The Instruc- learning tools:
tor’s Manual includes Chapter Outlines, Learning Objectives,
■■ Quizzes
Chapter Summaries, Enrichment Topics, Common Miscon-
ceptions, Lecture Suggestions, “Consider This” questions, ■■ Flashcards
Important Terms, and Weblinks/Videos suggestions. This ■■ Video exercises
guide is available on the Instructor Companion Website. ■■ Animations
New to this edition is Cengage Learning Testing Powered ■■ And more!
by Cognero, a flexible, online system that allows you to
Go to login.cengagebrain.com to access these resources
■■ author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple (ISBN-13: 9781285776255).
Cengage Learning solutions; Virtual Field Trips in Geology are concept-based mod-
■■ create multiple test versions in an instant; and ules that teach you geology by using famous locations
■■ deliver tests from your Learning Management System (LMS), throughout the United States. Grand Canyon, Arches, and
your classroom, or wherever you want. Hawaii Volcanoes National Parks are included, as well as
many others. Designed to be used as homework assignments
Instructors can start right away. Cengage Learning Test- or lab work, the modules use a rich array of multimedia to
ing Powered by Cognero works on any operating system or demonstrate concepts. High-definition videos, images, ani-
browser; no special installations or downloads are needed. mations, quizzes, and Google Earth activities work together
You’ll be able to create tests from school, home, the coffee in Virtual Field Trips to bring the concepts to life.
shop—anywhere with Internet access. You’ll also find the fol- Global Geoscience Watch, updated several times a day,
lowing features: is a focused portal into GREENR—our Global Reference on
■■ Simplicity at every step: A desktop-inspired interface the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources—an ideal
features drop-down menus and familiar, intuitive tools one-stop site for current events and research projects for all
that take you through content creation and management things geoscience. Divided into the four key course areas
with ease. (geography, geology, meteorology, and oceanography), you
can easily find the most relevant information for the course
■■ Full-featured test generator: Create ideal assessments
you are taking.
with your choice of 15 question types, including true–
You will have access to the latest information from trusted
false, multiple choice, opinion or Likert scale, and essay.
academic journals, news outlets, and magazines. You also will
■■ Multilanguage support, an equation editor, and unlimited receive access to statistics, primary sources, case studies, pod-
metadata: Ensure your tests are complete and compliant. casts, and much more (ISBN-13: 9781111429065).
■■ Cross-compatible capability: Import and export content into
other systems.
Global Geoscience Watch is an online resource center
that provides access to a rich array of media resources to
Acknowledgments
help you keep up with current events and highlight the con- As the authors, we are, of course, responsible for the orga-
cepts taught in class, as well as show the human impact on nization, style, and accuracy of the text, and any mistakes,
our planet. The following features are included: omissions, or errors are our responsibility. The finished
product is the culmination of many years of work during
■■ Articles which we received numerous comments and advice from
■■ Case studies many geologists who reviewed all or parts of the text for
■■ Podcasts the first five editions. They are as follows: Kenneth Beem,
■■ Videos Montgomery College; David Berry, California State Polytech-
nic University, Pomona; Wesley A. Brown, Stephen F. Austin
■■ World map (searchable by topic and country)
State University; Patricia J. Bush, Dèlgado Community
■■ Citation tools College; Paul J. Bybee, Utah Valley State College; Brian
■■ Sharing options (e-mail, Twitter, Facebook, etc.) Campbell, Southwestern Oklahoma State University;
■■ Topic browsing and advanced searching Deborah Caskey, El Paso Community College; Renee M.
■■ And more! Clary, University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Michael Conway,
Arizona Western College; David Cordero, Lower Columbia
College; William C. Cornell, University of Texas at El Paso;
For Students Kathleen Devaney, El Paso Community College; Richard
The Changing Earth features Earth Science CourseMate, Diecchio, George Mason University; Robert Ewing, Portland
which helps you make the grade. Earth Science CourseMate Community College; David J. Fitzgerald, St. Mary’s Uni-
includes an interactive e-book, with highlighting, note taking, versity; Yongli Gao, East Tennessee State University; Susan

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Acknowledgments xvii

Grandy, St. Clair County Community College; Ken Griffin, Special thanks must go to Aileen Berg at Cengage Learn-
Tarrant County College; Dann M. Halverson, University of ing, who initiated this seventh edition, and to our content
Southwestern Louisiana; Kristi Higginbotham, San Jacinto developer, Jake Warde, who not only kept us on task but also
College; Ray Kenny, New Mexico Highlands University; superbly edited and managed the content for this edition, as
Gary L. Kinsland, University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Jorg well as provided a fresh perspective on this edition and gave
Maletz, University at Buffalo-SUNY; James MacDonald, excellent suggestions throughout the continuing gestation
Florida Gulf Coast University; Kevin McCartney, University of this new edition. We thank Andrea Clemente and Chris
of Maine-Presque Isle; Lynn Milwood, Mountain View Col- Schoedel, project managers at Cenveo Publisher Services,
lege; Bob Mims, Richland College; Michael O’Donnell, Lord for their excellent work in overseeing this edition, as well
Fairfax Community College; Clair Ossian, Tarrant County as Radhey Balabh, compositor, and also part of the Cenveo
College; Joseph Sarnecki, Macomb Community College; Publisher Services team. We are indebted to the copyeditor
Roger Steinberg, Del Mar College; Michelle Stoklosa, Boise Maureen O’Driscoll for her attention to detail and consis-
State University; Glenn B. Stracher, East Georgia College; tency throughout the book production process. We would
Azam M. Tabrizi, Tidewater Community College; Thomas also like to thank Pamela Galbreath and Lisa Buckley for the
J. Weiland, Georgia Southwestern State University; Monte fresh design. We thank Parvinder Sethi for his help in locat-
D. Wilson, Boise State University; and Guy Worthey, ing appropriate photographs. We would also like to recognize
St. Ambrose University. Carol Samet, Cengage Learning production project manager;
We especially wish to express our sincere appreciation Stefanie Beeck, media developer; Shannon Holt and Kellie
to the reviewers of the sixth edition who made numerous Petruzzelli, content coordinators; Alexandria Brady, product
helpful and useful comments that led to many improvements development manager, for developing the media program;
and new features seen in this seventh edition. They are as and Janet del Mundo, senior market development manager.
follows: Joel S. Aquino, Gainesville State College; Elaine K. As always, our families were very patient and encouraging
Alexander Fagner, McLennan Community College; Brian when much of our spare time and energy were devoted to this
Lock, University of Louisiana; and Krista Syrup, Moraine book. We again thank them for their continued support and
Valley Community College. understanding.
We are also grateful for the generosity of the various
agencies and individuals from many countries that provided James S. Monroe
photographs.
Reed Wicander

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 The Changing Earth

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
True color satel-
lite ­image of Asia
(partly in shadow),
the Arctic ice cap,
and the Sun. In this
book, we examine
Earth as a system
of interconnected
components that
interact with each
other. The atmo-
sphere, ­biosphere,
hydrosphere, and
lithosphere are four
of Earth’s major
subsystems that are
visible in this image.
The complex interac-
tions among these
subsystems, as well
as Earth’s interior,
­results in a dynami-
cally ­changing
planet.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Understanding
1
ch ap ter
Earth
A Dynamic and Evolving Planet

OUTLINE
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What Is Geology?
1.3 Geology and the Formulation of Theories
1.4 How Does Geology Relate to the Human Experience?
1.5 How Does Geology Affect Our Everyday Lives?
1.6 Global Geologic and Environmental Issues Facing Humankind
1.7 Origin of the Universe and Solar System, and Earth’s Place in Them
GEO-INSIGHT 1.1: Mars­—The “Red Planet”
1.8 Why Earth Is a Dynamic and Evolving Planet
1.9 The Rock Cycle
1.10 Organic Evolution and the History of Life
1.11 Geologic Time and Uniformitarianism
1.12 How Does the Study of Geology Benefit Us?
Key Concepts Review

HAVE YOU EVER WONDERED?

■■ How all of Earth’s different components are interconnected and how
the interactions among them are what make Earth a dynamic and
ever-changing planet?
■■ Why a theory is not an unsubstantiated wild guess at explaining
various natural phenomena?
■■ How geology relates to the human experience and affects our
everyday lives?
■■ How environmental issues such as overpopulation, climate change,
and rising sea level, to name a few, directly affect you?
■■ How the universe, solar system, and the planets came into being and
evolved to what we now see when we look beyond our own planet
Earth?
Planet Observer/Universal Images Group/Getty Images

■■ What Earth is composed of and how its history has changed through
time?
■■ Why you should study geology and the benefits that you will derive
from a better understanding of this most important science?

3
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
4 Chapter 1  Understanding Earth

1.1 Introduction short-term effects on Earth’s biota, climate change is part of

long-term cycles that have resulted in large-scale periods of
A major benefit of the space age has been the ability to look back soaring global temperature
from space and view our planet in its entirety. Every astronaut and numerous episodes of
has remarked in one way or another on how Earth stands out glaciation. ConnectionLink
as an inviting oasis in the otherwise black void of space (see the As you study the You can learn more about
chapter opening photo). We are able to see not only the beauty various topics covered in climate change in the
of our planet but also its fragility and how humans are affecting this book, keep in mind the section Geologic Time
the environment. And lastly, even though we did not witness it themes discussed in this chap- and Climate Change in
firsthand, we can still read the story of Earth’s long and turbulent ter and how, like the parts Chapter 17.
4.6-billion-year history by deciphering the clues found in the of a system, they are interre-
geologic record, that is, the evidence for prehistoric physical and lated. By relating each chap-
biological events that are preserved in rocks. ter’s topic to its place in the entire Earth system, you will gain a
A major theme of this book is that Earth is a complex, greater appreciation of why geology is so integral to our lives.
dynamic planet that has changed continuously since its origin
some 4.6 billion years ago. These changes and the present-day
features we observe result from the interactions among Earth’s
internal and external systems, subsystems, and cycles. By view-
1.2 What Is Geology?
ing Earth as a whole—that is, thinking of it as a system—we Geology, from the Greek geo and logos, is defined as the
not only see how its various components are interconnected, study of Earth but now must also include the study of the
but can also better appreciate its complex and dynamic nature. planets and moons in our solar system. The discipline of
The system concept makes it easier for us to study a geology is generally divided into two broad areas—­physical
multifaceted subject such as Earth, because it divides the geology and historical geology. Physical geology is the study
whole into smaller components that we can easily under- of Earth materials, such as minerals and rocks, as well as
stand, without losing sight of how the separate components the processes operating within Earth and on its surface.
fit together as a whole. In the same way, you can think of this ­Historical geology examines the origin and evolution of
book as a large, panoramic landscape painting. Each chap- Earth, its continents, oceans, atmosphere, and life.
ter fills in the details of the landscape, thereby enhancing the Although the discipline of geology is broad and subdivided
overall enjoyment and understanding of the entire painting. into numerous fields or specialties, nearly every aspect of geol-
A system is a combination of related parts that interact in ogy has some economic or environmental relevance. For exam-
an organized manner. An automobile is a good example of a sys- ple, many geologists are involved in exploration for mineral and
tem. Its various components or subsystems, such as the engine, energy resources, using their specialized knowledge to locate
transmission, steering, and brakes, are all interconnected in such the natural resources on which our industrial society is based.
a way that a change in any one of them affects the others. As the demand for these nonrenewable resources increases,
We can examine Earth in the same way we view an geologists are applying the basic principles of geology in
­automobile—that is, as a system of interconnected components increasingly sophisticated ways, thereby enabling them to focus
that interact and affect one another in many ways. The principal on areas that have the greatest chance for economic success.
subsystems of Earth are the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, Other geologists are using their expertise to address vari-
lithosphere, mantle, and core (❚ Figure 1.1). The complex inter- ous environmental and societal issues. Not only is finding ade-
actions among these subsystems result in a dynamically chang- quate sources of groundwater for the ever-burgeoning needs
ing planet in which matter and energy are continuously recycled of communities and industries important but so too is the
into different forms. For example, the movement of plates has monitoring and prevention of surface and groundwater pollu-
profoundly affected the formation and evolution of its surface tion, and when necessary, its cleanup. Geologic engineers help
features and the distribution of mineral resources, as well as find safe locations for dams, waste-disposal sites, and power
atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, which in turn, plants, as well as designing earthquake-resistant structures.
have affected global climate changes. ­Examined in this manner, Geologists are increasingly asked to make short- and
the continuous evolution of Earth and its life is not a series of long-range predictions about earthquakes and volcanic erup-
isolated and unrelated events, but rather it is a dynamic interplay tions and the potential destruction that may result. In fact, geol-
among its various subsystems. ogists are now more involved
We also must not forget that humans are part of the Earth than ever in working with
system, and our activities can produce changes with potentially various government agencies ConnectionLink
wide-ranging consequences. When people discuss and debate and civil defense planners Learn more about the
such environmental issues as pollution and global warming, it to ensure that contingency connection between plate
is important to remember that these are not isolated issues, but plans are in place and timely boundaries, earthquakes,
rather they are part of the larger Earth system. Furthermore, warnings are given for areas and tsunami in Chapter 2,
Earth goes through much longer time cycles than humans potentially affected by natural Geo-Insight 2.1.
are used to. Although global warming may have deleterious disasters, such as a tsunami.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Geology and the Formulation of Theories    5

Atmosphere

Copyright and Photograph

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
Atmospheric gases and
precipitation contribute to
weathering of rocks.
Evaporation, condensation, Plant, animal, and human
and precipitation transfer activity affect composition of
water between atmosphere atmospheric gases.
and hydrosphere, influencing Atmospheric temperature and
weather and climate and precipitation help to determine
distribution of water. distribution of Earth’s biota.

Plants absorb and transpire water. Biosphere

Water is used by people for domestic,
Copyright and Photograph

Copyright and Photograph

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

agricultural, and industrial uses.

Water helps determine abundance,

diversity, and distribution of
Hydrosphere
organisms.

Plate movement affects size, Organisms break down rock

shape, and distribution of into soil. People alter the
ocean basins. Running water landscape. Plate movement
and glaciers erode rock and affects evolution and
sculpt landscapes. distribution of Earth’s biota.

Heat reflected from land surface affects

temperature of atmosphere. Distribution
of mountains affects weather patterns.

Lithosphere Copyright and Photograph

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
(plates)

Convection cells within mantle

contribute to movement of plates
(lithosphere) and recycling of
lithospheric material.
Plate

All Rights Reserved.

Mantle
❚ Figure 1.1 Subsystems of Earth The atmosphere,
hydrosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, mantle, and core

Learning®.
are all subsystems of Earth. This simplified diagram
Supplies heat shows how these subsystems interact, with some
for convection

Copyright © Cengage
examples of how materials and energy are cycled
in mantle
throughout the Earth system. The interactions among
these subsystems make Earth a dynamic planet that
Core
has evolved and changed since its origin 4.6 billion
years ago.

1.3Geology and the s­ cientific usage, however, a theory is a coherent ­explanation

for one or more related natural phenomena supported
Formulation of Theories by a large body of objective evidence. From a theory, sci-
entists derive predictive statements that can be tested by
The term theory has various meanings and is frequently ­observations and/or experiments so that their validity can
misunderstood and consequently misused. In collo- be assessed. The law of universal gravitation is an example
quial usage, it means a speculative or conjectural view of of a theory that describes the attraction between masses
­something—hence, the widespread belief that scientific the- (an apple and Earth in the popularized account of Newton
ories are little more than unsubstantiated wild guesses. In and his discovery).

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Marsdenia Leichhardti, native pear, 152
Marsilea quadrifolia, nardoo, 150
mastoid process, 29
maternity, peculiar belief concerning, 62
medicine man, 179-182, 264, 265, 273, 294;
attends council meeting, 225, 226;
treating a patient, 181, 182
meeting an Australian tribe, 3
Melophorus inflatus, honey ant, 146
Melville Islanders, 77, 93, 144, 159, 161, 163, 192, 207, 238,
249, 309, 310, 323, 373, 380
“memba,” a feather wig, 50
mental foramen, 29
Menuaitja, marriage group, 220
“merliadda,” fire walking, 236
migrations of early man, 56
“mika,” a bark food carrier, 92
mika operation, 245-249
milk squirted at strangers, 228
milk and charcoal rubbed over newly-born child, 65
Milky Way, 332, 349, 350
Milk-bush, 387
mimicry, powers of, 371
“mingul,” pitjuri, 155
Minning Tribe, 4, 170, 218, 220, 260, 270, 334
“miri,” hand mill-stone, 361
modesty, sense of, 107
“moiranje,” a pubic tassel, 114
molars, 32
Mollinya ceremony, 250
Mongarrapungja, head of the Kukadja, 292, 293
Mongoloid migration, 56, 59
moon legends, 267-269
moon man, 267, 268
monkeys, appreciation of, by aborigines, 89, 90
mopoke, 386
“moru” (Tephrosia), a fish poison, 139
mothers charged with callousness, 65
mourning, customs of, 208-215;
second period of, 214
mourning ceremony, comic imitation of, 380
mouth, 31-33
mud-balling, 75
mud slides, 73, 74
mulga apple, 152
Mulluk Mulluk Tribe, 4, 25, 112, 197, 206, 365, 404
mummies, 208
munyeroo, 149, 150
Muramura, the Supreme Number, 271
Murchison district, type of spear-thrower of, 200
Musgrave Ranges, 48, 97, 102, 108, 109, 127, 143, 146, 151,
155, 329, 332, 360
music and dance, 371-385
music sticks, 374, 375, 379, 380
mussel (Unio), 121;
knife used for “cutting the shadow,” 175
mutilations, after return of circumcision candidate, 243;
after mika operation, 248;
amputation of finger joints, 253, 254;
at mourning ceremonies, 209, 210, 211, 213;
head biting, 245;
of female, 255, 256;
upon receipt of sad news, 210

N
Nangali, a mythical water-man, 264
“nangarri,” the medicine man, 179, 180, 181, 182, 264, 265,
273, 294;
treating a patient, 181, 182
nardoo, 150
Narrinyerri Tribe, 4, 95, 169, 200, 214, 296
naso-labial folds, 27
native pear (Marsdenia) design, 351, 353
native well, 96
Nature worship, 257
“naualla,” cicatrices, 238
navigation, 158-164
Neanderthal skeleton, 15, 23, 24, 25
Needlebush (Hakea lorea), 98, 111
negative chin, 29
negative words, 398
Negroid, 15, 28, 29, 34, 56, 59
newly-born infant, treatment of, 64, 65
“ngadanji,” tjuringa of phallic significance, xi
Ngadeja marriage group, 220
Ngameni Tribe, xiv, 4, 82, 155, 205, 237, 361, 362
Ngardaddi, a mythical fire thief, 261, 262
“ngongu nerbai,” a stone spear-head, 370
“nimmerima,” an emu-spear, 139
nomenclature, defining the individual, 216-218;
connected with marriage system, 218, 219
Northern Territory tribes, 76, 108, 112, 115, 116, 126, 128, 129,
130, 131, 132, 138, 142, 151, 174, 190, 195, 196, 197, 200,
201, 202, 208, 209, 211, 237, 253, 286, 313, 320, 323, 336,
349, 365, 367, 373, 374, 379, 405
Northern Kimberleys tribes, 77, 82, 86, 92, 95, 97, 109, 116,
125, 131, 139, 151, 173, 195, 200, 206, 208, 214, 232, 244,
249, 256, 284, 288, 311, 313, 330, 340, 343, 360, 367
nose, 26-28;
boring of septum, 230, 231
nuclei, stone, 364
Nullarbor Plains tribes, 169, 251
numerals, 396, 397
Nyege, Supreme Spirit, 295
Nymphaea stellata, blue water lily, 151
 O
Obesity, 6
occipital bone, 39
ochre drawings, at ceremonials, 325, 326;
on bark, 323;
on the body, 324, 325, 326;
on weapons, 323, 324
ochre, smeared over corpse, 208;
over emissaries at initiation, 254;
over infant, 65;
over initiate in tooth-rapping ceremony, 234;
over initiate in circumcision ceremony, 241;
over sacred stone, 291;
preparation of for barter, 113, 318;
preparation as a pigment, 318, 319
ointments, 115
“oladda,” bark food-carrier, 65
“omelette” of emu egg, 125, 126
Ooldea, 48
operating knife, 242, 364, 365
opossums, carried on the head, 88;
hunting of, 140, 141;
suckled by gin, 91
orbita, 25, 26
orders of the day, 91
“oridja,” truffle, 151
origin of aboriginal, 52
orthognathism, 29
os inca, 35
outriggers, 164
oven-stones, 360, 361

P
paddles, 163
Pandanus cider, 153, 154
Panunga marriage group, 220
“parapara,” nardoo, 150
parietal bone, 35
“parli,” the north-western form of wanningi, 356
Parnkalla Tribe, 4, 199
patting the chest, a form of salutation, 3
“päuya,” native pear, 152
pearl shell coverings, 115, 313, 355
peroneus muscle, 12
perspective, generally absent in drawings, 334, 338, 339
pets kept in camp, 88
“peturr,” pitjuri, 155
phallic worship, x, xi, 282-292
phallus, 249, 283-292;
water producing, 264
philosophical instincts, 116, 117
Pidunga Tribe, 4, 317
pigmentation of skin, 41-43, 59
pitch, changing of, while rendering a song, 376, 377
pitchi, bark food-carrier, 92
Pithecanthropus, 15, 55
pitjuri, 113, 139, 155, 156, 157
piturine, 157
placenta, 64
platform burial, 207, 208
platycnemia, 15
platypus design, 304, 306
playing “father and mother,” 79
playing stick, 82
Pleistocene gravels, 53
plover, the “rainmaker,” 70, 265;
imitating call of stone plover, 379;
origin of its name, 386
plurality, expression of, 400
“pointing” the bone, 174-178
Ponga Ponga Tribe, 4, 88, 112, 184, 197, 198, 365
Port George IV, 65, 94, 238, 283, 310
Port Hedland carvings, 299-303, 329
Port Jackson carvings, 299, 300
portulaca, 147
positive chin, 29
“pot-belly,” 21
pounders, stone, 360
pregnancy, artificial interference with, 64
“prelja,” manna, 147
premolars, 33
prepuse, resection of, 242
“primitive snout,” 27
prognathism, 28
pronouns, 401-403
prostitutes, 223
pubic coverings, 114, 115, 243, 249, 313
“puli,” stone used in tooth-rapping ceremony, 236
Pultara marriage group, 220
“purra,” phallus, 287
Purula marriage group, 220
“putta ildurra,” stone dagger, 172
Psylla, 147

Q
Queensland, 50, 53, 80, 84, 94, 102, 104, 124, 131, 137, 155,
163, 190, 208, 299, 308, 316, 362

R
radius selected for “bone,” 215
rafts, 158-160
rainmakers, 264, 265
“rattappa,” foetal elements, 287, 291
rattles, boab nuts, sea shells, and gum leaves, 374
red-hot coal placed on forearm, 87, 88
reed spear, 171, 194
religious ideas, 257-296
repetition of action, verbally expressed, 397, 398
retouche, 370
rhinal fissure, 39
rhythm, 372, 377, 383
River Murray Tribes, 66, 100, 102, 108, 114, 121, 160, 169, 192,
195, 200, 208, 213, 310, 313, 365, 367, 373
rivers, extinct in Australia, 59
rock carvings, 299-308
rock shelter, 322
Roebuck Bay, 170
Roper River Tribe, 153, 197, 249, 270, 287
Roth, Dr. Walter, 48, 80, 84
Rukkutta, a tribal ancestor, 291

S
sacral bone, 9
sacred ceremonies, 273 et seq.;
ceremonial object (“tjilbakuta”), 276, 278, 280;
emu tjuringa, 274 et seq.;
“kwatje” tjuringa, 274
sacred ground of tjuringa, 272, 273
sacred ground drawing, “Etominja,” 282
sacred pole, “Djundagalla,” 248, 249;
 stored in hut, 266
sagittal suture, 35
Salsola kali, 76
salutations, 105, 106, 404
Sarcostemma, 387
saw fish, 131
scars (tribal), 236-238
scaphocephaly, 34, 35
Schweinfurth, Prof. G., 306
Scleroderma, 152
scrapers, stone, 363-367;
slate, 366
sepulchral caves, 214
sex worship, 257, 282, 289-292
shell-fish, 122
shelters, 101-105
Sherait Tribe, 130, 365
shield, 173, 188
ship-of-war, corrobboree of, 382, 383
shoulder-blade, 16
sibilant sounds, 402
sign language, 388-394
singing, ensemble, 384;
the words of a conversation, 385
sitting, methods of, 106
skeins of fur-string used during dance, 373
skeleton of aboriginal, 5-16, 21-37
skeleton, imitation of, in body decoration, 325
skin, colour of, 40-45
skin drums, 373, 374
skin water bags, 94, 95
skins used by southern tribes, 100, 114
skipping, 83
skull, 34 et seq.;
capacity of, 37
sky-shying act, 238, 239
sleep, order during, 101;
position during, 105
Smith, Dr. Ramsay, 15, 16, 34
Smith, Dr. S. A., 53, 54
smoking ceremony, 253
snails, 121
snakes, 126;
mythical, 269
songs, 377-385;
imitating natural call-notes, 377 et seq.
Spartan principles, 87
spears, 190-198;
carefully stored, 112, 113;
heavy, 172, 173;
poisoned, 198;
reed, 171, 194, 195;
 stone-bladed, 367;
stone-headed, 196;
types figured, 191;
uses of, 190
spear-head, stone, 367-370;
method of making, 368-370
spear-throwers, 199-202
spine, curvature of, 7;
effect of upright attitude upon, 8;
effect of tree-climbing upon, 13;
proportional lengths of vertebræ and cartilaginous discs, 8;
smallness of vertebræ, 9
Spinifex, 76
spokeshave, stone, 365
squamous portion of temporal bone, 36
still-born children, 205
Stirling, Dr. E. C., 15
Stokes, Lort, 105
stone age in Australia, 58, 59, 359
stone-covered huts, 103
stone implements, 359-370
Strehlow, Rev. Carl, x
subincision, 245-249;
sensual excitement at, 248
sulcus lunatus, 38
Sunday Islanders, 65, 66, 78, 82, 84, 89, 93, 117, 176, 295, 331,
355, 368, 397, 398, 401, 403, 404
sun-men, 267
sun worship, 265-267
superlative expressions, 399
Supreme Spirit, xi, 400

T
“takul,” mulga apple, 152
Talgai skull, 33, 53
Talleri, the eternal home of all spirits, 296
“taralje,” a spear-thrower, 200
Tasmania, separated from the mainland, 119
Tasmanians, 14, 15, 16, 28, 31, 34, 35, 37, 49
“tchewa,” flat stone of hand-mill, 361
“tdela,” head-dress, 280
Tecoma Australis, 195, 196
teeth, 31
temperament, 229
Tennants Creek, calvarium, 53;
the home of Kukadja men, 285
Tephrosia, a poison plant, 139
terminal syllables, 398, 399
the day’s march, 91-99
Therapon, drawing of, 328
thigh bone, 14, 15
third trochanter, 15
thorns, removal of in camp, 117, 118
throwing competition, 78
thunder, 387
tibialis posticus muscle, 16
time, beating of, 372, 373;
fixing of, 395;
representation of, 351
“tip-cat,” 78
“tjilbakuta,” a sacred ceremonial object, 276, 278, 280
“tjilba-purra,” a phallus, embodied in head-gear, 287;
Altjerra-Knaninja drawing, 327
Tjingali Tribe, 4, 308
“tjulu,” a stone operating knife, 242
tjuringa, 217, 311;
Altjerra-Kutta, 291;
acting as a talisman, 273;
carried by initiation emissaries, 242;
carved stone, 309;
caterpillar, 350, 352, 353;
ceremonies, 274 et seq.;
in the sky, 334;
inspirited by a deity, 270;
kangaroo, 349, 352;
mythical origin of Kunapippi, 271;
native pear, 351, 353;
 of sun ceremony, 265, 266;
produced at female initiation ceremony, 255;
stored in sacred caves, 272, 343;
witchedy grub, 348;
yam pattern, 337
Tjurrega marriage group, 220
“tjutanga,” tooth-rapping rod, 236
“toki,” a waterlily, 151
tomahawks, stone, 362, 363
Tomkinson Ranges, 48, 67, 114, 143, 227
tooth-ache, 32
tooth pick, 32
tooth-pointed spear-thrower, 201
tooth-rapping ceremonies, 231-236;
“antjuarra,” 235, 236;
gum forced back with finger nail, 235;
knocking the tooth out, 235
tops, 83
“totem,” xi, 219, 226, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 279, 280, 282,
285, 339, 340, 341, 351, 353
“totem,” ancestors, 274;
ceremonies, 274;
food and hunting restrictions, 273
“totemic” designs, 339-343, 346, 351, 352, 353
Toxotes, drawing of, 328
toys, 79 et seq.
toy, boomerang, 82;
dart, 82;
raft, 82;
spears, 81, 194;
weapons, 80, 81
tracks, drawn in sand, 71-73;
representations of, 347-349
tree-climbing, 12-14, 123, 124;
competitions in, 75, 76
tree-felling by fire, 124, 141
Triassic period, 56
tribal organizations, 216-224
tribal husbands, 224
tribal law, 226
Trigonia in Australia, 58, 59
truffle (Scleroderma), 151, 152
trumpets, bamboo, 375, 376, 379
tubera frontalia, 35
Tukura, a great Spirit, 295, 296, 356
Tukurata, the Supreme Number, 271
Tukutita, the Supreme Number, 271
“turapitti,” artificial fire-flies, 376
Turbo undulata, 122
turtle, eggs, 126;
hunting, 132, 133, 160
turtle designs, 335, 346
Tutrarre, a mythical dog, 267
twins, 63, 64

U
Ullbönnalenna water hole, 97
“ullyinga,” witchedy hook, 125
Ulparidja group, 48
umbilical cord, treatment of, 64
Unio, 121
Unio pictorum, 319
upright attitude, see spine, 7 et seq.
urethrotomia, 245-249
“utnguringita” or witchedy grub drawings, 341-343
u-within-u designs, 351, 352, 353

V
Veddahs, 25, 58
vegetable diet, 148-152
vegetable down, 275, 276
venesection, 275
verbs, conjugations of, 400, 401
vermin-proof platform larders, 105
Victoria River tribes, 62, 75, 76, 77, 103, 105, 128, 146, 211,
243, 253, 266, 285, 292, 319, 321, 323, 325, 326, 332, 336,
367, 373, 375
Victorian basalts, human bones beneath, 54
vocal productions, 376 et seq.
 W
waddies, 168 et seq.
“wadua,” white vegetable-down, 276
“wagal-wagal,” a tjuringa, 270
walking, 12;
in single file, 118
wallaby, hunting of, 141
“waketo,” munyeroo, 150
“wanjerra,” red vegetable down, 276
“wanna,” yam sticks, 148
wanningi, 240, 244, 356, 357
Waraka, a spirit father, 287
war council, 184
warfare, 183-189
“warrakinna,” pitjuri, 155
Warramunga Tribe, 4, 92
Warrupu, a Minning ancestor, 260
Warrida-jinna (eagle hawk’s claw), Southern Cross, 349
Warrnambool footprints, 54
water, in Currajong, Bloodwood and Needlebush, 98;
supplies guarded against pollution, 97;
transported by women, 91, 92
water carriers, 92-95
water ceremonies, 274
water legend, 263, 264
water mallee, Eucalyptus dumosa, 98
water men, “atoa kwatje,” 264, 265
water lily tubers, 151
water supplies, 96, 97
weaning of children, 66
Wellington caves, 54
Wenoinn, a Minning ancestor, 260
white ants added to acacia flour, 150, 151
“white blackfellow,” 42
Wickham River, 248
“widida,” native truffle, 151
widow, 212-214;
claimed by deceased husband’s brother, 213;
cutting off of hair, 213;
re-opening scalp wound, 213;
skull caps of gypsum, 213
“wilpa,” a wallaby, 141
“winudtharra,” honey ant, 147
Winyeru, initiation ceremony, 242, 248
“wirrauwa,” a bark bucket, 94
Wirrewarra, the eternal home of all Spirits, 296
witchedy grub, 122, 123, 124, 125;
sacred drawings of, 341-343;
“totemic” designs, 351-352
witchedy hook, 124, 125
Wogait Tribe, 4, 62, 83, 109, 116, 130, 131, 139, 170, 196, 197,
198, 201, 208, 243, 244, 332, 365, 374, 379
woman, corrobboree of, 383
wombat hunt, 141
women, the recognized carriers, 112
Womma, the Milky Way, 350
wommera, spear-thrower, 180, 199-202
Wongapitcha Tribe, 3, 4, 47, 48, 67, 92, 95, 111, 114, 121, 122,
147, 151, 152, 153, 155, 184, 200, 205, 218, 235, 236, 242,
255, 259, 349, 361, 396, 398
Wongkanguru Tribe, 4, 83, 121, 155, 361, 362
Woods, Rev. Tenison, 43
Wordaman Tribe, 4, 201, 248
words derived from natural phenomena, 386, 387;
imitating natural sounds, 386
Worma Kadiabba, a mythical snake’s head, 269
Wormian bones, 35
Worora Tribe, 4, 94, 116, 176, 238, 310, 321, 343, 361, 369
“Wubbi, wubbi, wubbi, wau!”, the voice of the bull-roarer, 241,
242
Wulna Tribe, 196

X
Xanthorrhœa, grass tree, used in emu hunting, 140;
flower stalk used for spear shaft, 195

Y
yam ceremony, 280
yams, 151