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Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2020 — 9781488620744 — Arnett/Child Development 1e
CO N T E N T S vii
Section 3: Emotional and social development 164 n Education focus: How does a parent choose
Temperament 164 among the many kinds of preschools? 260
n Research focus: Measuring temperament 165 Parenting 263
Infants’ emotions 167 The child’s expanding social world 272
n Cultural focus: Stranger anxiety across n Research focus: Shyness in China and
cultures 169 Canada: cultural interpretations 277

The social world of the infant 171 Summary: Emotional and social development 282
Chapter quiz 283
Summary: Emotional and social development 175
Chapter quiz 176
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 5 Middle childhood 286
Toddlerhood 178 Section 1: Physical development 287
Section 1: Physical development 179 Growth in middle childhood 287
Growth and change in years 2 and 3 179 Health issues 290
n Cultural focus: Gross motor development across Summary: Physical development 294
cultures 184
Section 2: Cognitive development 296
Socialising physical functions: toilet training
and weaning 185 Theories of cognitive development 296
Summary: Physical development 187
Language development 307
School in middle childhood 310
Section 2: Cognitive development 188 n Education focus: Achievement motivation
Cognitive development theories 188 in school 311
Language development 191 n Cultural focus: School and education in
n Cultural focus: Language development across middle childhood across cultures 312
cultures 199 Summary: Cognitive development 318
Summary: Cognitive development 199
Section 3: Emotional and social development 319
Section 3: Emotional and social development 201 Emotional and self-development 319
Emotional development in toddlerhood 201 The social and cultural contexts of
Attachment research 208 middle childhood 325
The social world of the toddler 214 n Cultural focus: Friendships and peer
n Education focus: How do parents choose relationships in middle childhood across

among the child-care options available? 219 cultures 332
n Research focus: Findings on child care from n Research focus: TV or not TV? 339
the Growing Up in Australia study 220 Summary: Emotional and social development 340
Summary: Emotional and social development 224 Chapter quiz 341
Chapter quiz 225
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 6
Adolescence 344
Early childhood 228
Section 1: Physical development 346
Section 1: Physical development 229 Biological changes of puberty 346
Growth from age 3 to 6 229 Health issues in adolescence 355
Health and safety in early childhood 231 Summary: Physical development 359
Motor development 235
Summary: Physical development 237
Adolescent cognition 360
Section 2: Cognitive development 238 Education and work 366
Theories of cognitive development 238 Summary: Cognitive development 373
Language development 247
Summary: Cognitive development 249
Emotional and self-development 374
Section 3: Emotional and social development 251 Cultural beliefs: morality and religion 379
Emotional regulation and gender socialisation 251 The social and cultural contexts of
Early childhood education 258 adolescence 382
viii CO N T E N T S
n Research focus: The daily rhythms of n Cultural focus: Post-secondary education across
adolescents’ family lives 383 cultures 425
n Cultural focus: Adolescent conflict with n Education focus: Study abroad and global
parents across cultures 385 citizenship 426
n Education focus: Sex education: a public Summary: Cognitive development 429
health endeavour 393
Problems and resilience 397
Emotional and self-development 430
Summary: Emotional and social development 402
Chapter quiz 403
Cultural beliefs 438
The social and cultural contexts of
CHAPTER 9 emerging adulthood 441
n Cultural focus: Media use in emerging
Emerging adulthood 406 adulthood across cultures 452
Section 1: Physical development 407 Summary: Emotional and social development 453
The emergence of emerging adulthood 407 Chapter quiz 454
n Cultural focus: The features of emerging
adulthood 413
Physical changes of emerging adulthood 413 Answers 457
Risk behaviour and health issues 416 Glossary 458
n Research focus: Graduated driver licensing 418 References 466
Summary: Physical development 420 Name index 526
Subject index 545
Post-formal thought 421
Education and work 423
Preface
Welcome to the first edition of Child Development: A Cultural Approach, Australian and
New Zealand edition. For us, the most important motivation in writing this book was to
provide students with a portrayal of development that would cover the whole amazing
range of human cultural diversity around the world, with particular attention to Australia
and New Zealand. As academics who have taught human development courses for
years, and being familiar with the available textbooks, we were struck by how narrow
all of them seemed to be. Many textbooks focus on human development in the United
States as if it were the typical pattern for people everywhere, with only the occasional
mention of people in other parts of the world. If you knew nothing about human
development except what you read in a standard textbook, you would conclude that
95% of the human population must reside in the United States. Yet, the United States
actually comprises less than 5% of the world’s population, and there is an immense
range of patterns of human development in cultures around the globe, and most of
those patterns are strikingly different from the mainstream American model. With this
adapted textbook, we have carefully scrutinised the applicability of the mainstream
American model for students in Australia and New Zealand. In some cases, the research
is similar; sometimes, the content is very different; and sometimes, American research
serves as an interesting contrast for development patterns in New Zealand and Australia.
So, in writing and adapting this textbook for an Australian and New Zealand
audience, we decided to take a cultural approach, and one that pays close attention to
development in our own part of the world as well as beyond. We set out to portray child
development as it takes place across all the different varieties of cultural patterns that
people have devised in response to their local conditions and the creative inspiration of
their imaginations. Our goal is to teach students to think culturally, so that when they
apply child development to the work they do or to their own lives, they understand
that there is—always and everywhere—a cultural basis to development. The cultural
approach also includes learning how to critique research for the extent to which it does
or does not take into account the cultural basis of development. We provide this kind of
critique at numerous points throughout the book, with the intention that students will
learn how to do it themselves by the time they reach the end. By exploring a balance
of examples of research from Australia, New Zealand, the United States and throughout
the world, students studying with this textbook will learn how culture shapes child
development at all stages of the life span.
We know from our experience as university lecturers that students find it fascinating
to learn about the different forms that child development takes in various cultures,
but there are also practical benefits to the cultural approach. It is more important than
ever for students to have knowledge of the wider world because of the increasingly
globalised economy and because so many problems, such as disease and climate
change, cross borders. Whether they travel the globe or remain in their home towns,
in a culturally diverse and globalised world, students will benefit from being able to
apply the cultural approach and to think culturally about development, whether in
social interactions with friends and neighbours, or in their careers where they may have
patients, students or co-workers who come from different cultures.
x P R E FAC E
Did you notice that the front cover shows a child crocheting? We have taken as
inspiration for our cultural focus the concept of weaving yarns and the drawing
together of different elements of understandings to produce a whole—a little like the
child creating a crocheted blanket. The concept of weaving yarns is something found
in many cultures, exemplified by the whāriki from Indigenous Māori culture. Whāriki
are usually the result of many people working together who are valued for their artistry.
There is also a symbolic meaning. The individual strands of the whāriki represent
the aspects of life that describe and support human development, and the completed
whāriki represents ‘a woven mat for all to stand on’ (Ministry of Education, 2017, p. 10).
The weaving metaphor is also present in other cultures. There is a Tongan saying that
‘society is like a mat being woven’, and the Malagasy from Madagascar have a proverb
that says, ‘All who live under the sky are woven together like one big mat’. The cover
image captures the interwoven nature of culture, experiences and historical context
for individuals in their development, as well as biological, cognitive and psychosocial
aspects of development. As individuals, we need to look beyond our own experiences
and not assume that what is true for ourselves is true for others. We have grown up in a
certain cultural context. We have learned to think about life in a certain way. Most of us
do not realise how broad and diverse our world really is. Our hope is that this book will
help more students identify the strands of the weaving that represent an individual’s
development, and appreciate the wonderful diversity of human development.
The cultural approach makes this textbook different from other child development
textbooks, but there are other features that make this textbook distinct. Not all textbooks
include a separate chapter on toddlerhood, the second and third years of life. We
have always been puzzled by the way other textbooks gloss over toddlerhood, usually
including the second year of life as part of ‘infancy’ and the third year of life as part of
‘early childhood’. Yet, any parent knows that years 2 and 3 are very different from what
comes before or after, and we know this well from our own experiences as parents.
Infants cannot walk or talk, and once toddlers learn to do both in years 2 and 3, their
experience of life—and their parents’ experiences—change completely. Toddlers are
also different from older children in that their ability for emotional self-regulation and
their awareness of what is and is not acceptable behaviour in their culture are much
more limited.
This textbook is also alone among major textbooks in that it includes an entire chapter
on the stage of emerging adulthood. Emerging adulthood, roughly ages 18–25, is a new
life stage that has arisen in developed countries over the past 50 years, as people have
entered later into the commitments that structure adult life in most cultures: marriage,
parenthood and stable work. Arnett originally proposed the theory of emerging
adulthood in 2000, and it has now become widely used in the social sciences.
This textbook is somewhat shorter than most other texts on child development.
There is one chapter devoted to each phase of child development, for a total of nine
chapters. The content of each chapter is divided into three major sections to provide a
signpost for the reader. In particular, in Chapters 4–9, these sections correspond to the
physical, the cognitive and the emotional and social domains of development. This is
an introductory textbook, and the goal is not to teach students everything there is to
know about every aspect of child development, but to provide them with a foundation
of knowledge on child development that hopefully will inspire them to learn more, in
other courses and throughout life.
C H A P T E R
FeaturesGenetics and prenatal

development 2
For mothers-to-be worldwide, pregnancy is often experienced with a combination SECTION 1
of joy, hope and fear. GENETIC INFLUENCES ON
Yet, here, as in other aspects of development, the experience differs substantially depending on the economic
DEVELOPMENT
and cultural context. For most women in rural areas of developing countries, there is little in the way of Genetic basics
technology or medical care to promote the healthy development of the fetus. Instead, pregnant women often Genotype and phenotype
rely on folk beliefs, a midwife’s years of experience and social support from the extended family. For most The sex chromosomes
A women
P T E R in developed countries, medical care and technological aids are available throughout pregnancy.
C H
Genes and the environment
Genetics and prenatal
development 2Yet prospective mothers and fathers face formidable challenges in altering their lives to make room for the
demands of raising a small child often while continuing to pursue their careers.
Principles of behaviour genetics
Gene–environment interactions:
For mothers-to-be worldwide, pregnancy is often experienced with a combination
of joy, hope and fear.
SECTION 1
Pregnancy is experienced in many different ways around the world, but everywhere it is a momentous event.
GENETIC INFLUENCES ON epigenesis and reaction ranges
DEVELOPMENT
The theory of genotype →
Yet, here, as in other aspects of development, the experience differs substantially depending on the economic
and cultural context. For most women in rural areas of developing countries, there is little in the way of Genetic basics
technology or medical care to promote the healthy development of the fetus. Instead, pregnant women often
In this chapter we examine the process of prenatal development, from its genetic beginnings until the final
Genotype and phenotype
rely on folk beliefs, a midwife’s years of experience and social support from the extended family. For most
women in developed countries, medical care and technological aids are available throughout pregnancy.
The sex chromosomes
Genes and the environment environment effects
Yet prospective mothers and fathers face formidable challenges in altering their lives to make room for the
demands of raising a small child often while continuing to pursue their careers.
months of pregnancy. The first section of the chapter covers the basics of genetics and how a new human
Principles of behaviour genetics
Gene–environment interactions:
Pregnancy is experienced in many different ways around the world, but everywhere it is a momentous event.
In this chapter we examine the process of prenatal development, from its genetic beginnings until the final
months of pregnancy. The first section of the chapter covers the basics of genetics and how a new human
epigenesis and reaction ranges
life begins. In the second section, we examine prenatal development and prenatal care for both mother and
The theory of genotype →
environment effects
Genes and individual development
Sperm and egg formation
life begins. In the second section, we examine prenatal development and prenatal care for both mother and Genes and individual development
baby to enhance the likelihood that all will go well. Sometimes problems arise in the course of pregnancy, so
the final section of the chapter addresses prenatal complications as well as testing and counselling options. Conception baby to enhance the likelihood that all will go well. Sometimes problems arise in the course of pregnancy, so
Sperm and egg formation
Conception
Infertility
SECTION 2 the final section of the chapter addresses prenatal complications as well as testing and counselling options.
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
AND PRENATAL CARE
Prenatal development
Infertility
The germinal period (first 2 weeks)
The embryonic period (weeks 3–8)
The fetal period (week 9–birth)
Prenatal care
Variations in prenatal care
SECTION 2
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Teratogens
SECTION 3
PREGNANCY PROBLEMS
Chromosomal and genetic
disorders AND PRENATAL CARE
Hill Street Studios/Tetra Images, LLC/Alamy Stock Photo
Chromosomal disorders
Opening vignettes begin each chapter and

Prenatal development
Genetic disorders
Testing and counselling options
Prenatal diagnosis
Genetic counselling
The germinal period (first 2 weeks)

provide
The embryonican overview
period (weeks 3–8) of the developmental stage
The fetal period (week 9–birth)
being
Prenatal care
covered. The vignettes feature people from
M02_ARNE0744_01_SE_C02.indd 49 08/07/19 9:02 AM
diverse backgrounds
Variations in prenatal care and discuss their lives and
Teratogens
experiences, and the role that culture has played
SECTION 3
in their development.
PREGNANCY PROBLEMS
Chromosomal and genetic
disorders
Hill Street Studios/Tetra Images, LLC/Alamy Stock Photo

Chromosomal disorders
Genetic disorders
Testing and counselling options
Prenatal diagnosis
Genetic counselling
290 cH A P t e R 7 m i d d l e ch i l d h o o d
M02_ARNE0744_01_SE_C02.indd 49 08/07/19 9:02 AM
Research and artwork have been incorporated to FIGURE 7.1 Change in drawing abilities from early to middle childhood
help students appreciate the diversity that exists

Drawings become more realistic as fine motor development advances
during middle childhood. Here are drawings made at ages 3 (left), 5 (right)
and 7 (bottom).
Source: Case & Okamato (1996).
290 cH A P t e R 7 m i d d l e ch i l d h o o d
within countries, and to understand the role With regard to writing, in early childhood most children learn to
write a few letters and numbers in rough form. In middle childhood,
their skills greatly advance (Berninger et al., 2006). Even by age 6,
most children are able to write the letters of the alphabet, their own
of culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and

name and numbers from 1 to 10. In the course of the next several
years, as their fine motor abilities develop, they are able to make
their letters smaller and neater, with more consistent height and
spacing. By age 8 or 9, most children can learn to write in cursive script. By the end of
other factors in child development.

middle childhood, their fine motor abilities have nearly reached adult maturity, although
gross motor development will continue to advance for many years to come.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: HEALTH ISSUES

Middle childhood is an exceptionally healthy time of life. In this life stage, children become
less vulnerable to the effects of malnutrition, and it is the time of life when they are least
likely to be obese. However, obesity has become more prevalent in recent decades in
developed countries, even in middle childhood. Asthma is also a health concern that
impacts many children.
LO 7.3 Malnutrition and obesity

Describe the negative By middle childhood, children have grown large enough that they are less vulnerable to
effects of both malnutrition the effects of malnutrition than they were previously. Even if they are deprived of food for a
and obesity on development period of time, their bodies have enough resources to weather the deprivation without the
and identify the causes of
effects being as severe as in prior life stages. Nevertheless, malnutrition can have enduring
obesity.
negative effects in middle childhood. Obesity also becomes a problem for many children
in middle childhood, especially those in developed countries.
Malnutrition
As we have seen in previous chapters, malnutrition in early development often results
in illness, disease or death. In middle childhood, bodies are stronger and more resilient,
FIGURE 7.1 Change in drawing abilities from early to middle childhood M07_ARNE0744_01_SE_C07.indd 290 08/07/19 9:35 AM
Drawings become more realistic as fine motor development advances

during middle childhood. Here are drawings made at ages 3 (left), 5 (right)
and 7 (bottom).
Source: Case & Okamato (1996).
With regard to writing, in early childhood most children learn to

write a few letters and numbers in rough form. In middle childhood,
their skills greatly advance (Berninger et al., 2006). Even by age 6,
most children are able to write the letters of the alphabet, their own
name and numbers from 1 to 10. In the course of the next several
years, as their fine motor abilities develop, they are able to make
their letters smaller and neater, with more consistent height and
spacing. By age 8 or 9, most children can learn to write in cursive script. By the end of
middle childhood, their fine motor abilities have nearly reached adult maturity, although
gross motor development will continue to advance for many years to come.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: HEALTH ISSUES

Middle childhood is an exceptionally healthy time of life. In this life stage, children become
less vulnerable to the effects of malnutrition, and it is the time of life when they are least
likely to be obese. However, obesity has become more prevalent in recent decades in
developed countries, even in middle childhood. Asthma is also a health concern that
impacts many children.
LO 7.3 Malnutrition and obesity

Describe the negative By middle childhood, children have grown large enough that they are less vulnerable to
effects of both malnutrition the effects of malnutrition than they were previously. Even if they are deprived of food for a
and obesity on development period of time, their bodies have enough resources to weather the deprivation without the
and identify the causes of
effects being as severe as in prior life stages. Nevertheless, malnutrition can have enduring
obesity.
negative effects in middle childhood. Obesity also becomes a problem for many children
in middle childhood, especially those in developed countries.
Malnutrition
xii F E AT U R E S
S E C T i o n 3 e m ot i o n A l A n d s o c i A l d e v e lo P m e n t 383
RESEARCH FOCUS The daily rhythms of adolescents’ family lives
Research focus features offer a detailed A

dolescent researchers have found the
experience sampling method (esm) to be a
helpful source of information on adolescents’
social lives. the esm involves having people wear
description of a research study, including its

beeper watches or alternatively use their mobile
devices, and they are randomly alerted during the
day to record their thoughts, feelings and behaviour
as events take place. Reed larson and maryse
Richards are the two scholars who have done the
premises, methods, results and limitations.

most to apply the esm to adolescents and their
families.
in their classic book Divergent Realities: The
Emotional Lives of Mothers, Fathers, and Adolescents
S E C T i o n 3 e m ot i o n A l A n d s o c i A l d e v e lo P m
(larson & Richards, 1994), larson and Richards
Multiple-choice review questions appear at the

described the results of their research on a sample of Hero Images Inc/Alamy Stock Photo
483 American adolescents in grades 5–12 (similar to

years 5–12 in Australia and years 6–13 in new As for fathers, they tended to be only tenuously involved
Zealand), and another sample of 55 adolescents in grades in their adolescents’ lives. For most of the time they spent
5–8 and their parents. All were two-parent, White families. in with their adolescents, the mother was there as well, and the
end of the feature to ensure that students have

each family, three family members (adolescent, mother and mother tended to be more directly involved. Fathers averaged
The daily rhythms of adolescents’ family lives

father) were beeped at the same times, about 30 times per only 12 minutes per day alone with their adolescents, and
RESEARCH FOCUS
day between 7:30 in the morning and 9:30 at night, during the 40% of this time was spent watching television together.
week of the study. the study showed that parents are often important
When beeped, adolescents and their parents paused influences on adolescents’ emotional states. Adolescents
a solid understanding of the research study

whatever they were doing and recorded a variety of brought home to the family their emotions from the rest of the
information about where they were, whom they were with, day. if their parents were responsive and caring, adolescents’
what they were doing and how they were feeling. moods improved and their negative emotions were relieved.
A
one striking finding of the study was that adolescents in contrast, if adolescents felt their parents were unavailable or
and their parents averaged only about an hour a day spent in unresponsive, their negative feelings became even worse.
and methodology. dolescent researchers have found the

shared activities, and their most common shared activity was even though adolescents spend less time with the parents
watching television. the amount of time adolescents spent than when they were younger, parents remain powerful
with their families dropped sharply between grade 5 and influences in their lives.
grade 12. in turn, there was an increase from grade 5 to
experience sampling method (esm) to be a
grade 9 in the amount of time adolescents spent alone in
their bedrooms.
Review question
1 in the ESM studies of adolescents and their parents,
71
the study also revealed some interesting differences in
S E C T i o n 2 p r e n ata l d e v e lo p m e n t aof
n dinformation
p r e n ata lon
c aadolescents’
re
adolescents have been found to have the most
helpful
mothers’ and fathers’ relationships with adolescents. the
majority of mother–adolescent interactions were rated
source positive feelings when with ______________ and the
most negative feelings towards ______________.
positively by both of them, especially experiences such as
social lives. the esm involves having people wear

talking together, going out together and sharing a meal.
however, adolescents’ negative feelings towards their
a mothers; fathers
b mothers; mothers
c fathers; mothers
mothers increased sharply from grade 5 to grade 9, and
beeper
their feelings of closeness to mothers decreased.
such care (WHO, 2009a). Currently 99% of maternal and infant deaths occur in developing watches or alternatively use
d fathers; fathers
their mobile
Conflict with parents devices, and they are randomly alerted during the
countries—only 1% occur in developed countries—and the WHO program is focused on
Numerous studies have shown that adolescents and their parents agree on many of
day to record their thoughts, feelings and behaviour

their beliefs and values, and typically they have a great deal of love and respect for one
another (Kağitçibaşi & Yalin, 2015; Moore, Chalk, Scarpa & Vandivere, 2002; Smetana,
the 70 countries with the highest death rates, mostly in Africa and South Asia.
2005). Nevertheless, studies in Western countries also indicate that conflict with parents
as events take place. Reed larson and maryse

increases sharply in early adolescence, compared with middle childhood, and remains high
Guidelines for prenatal care focus mostly on three key areas: diet, exercise andRichards avoidanceare the two scholars who have done the
mostPrenatal
to apply the esm to adolescents and their
M08_ARNE0744_01_SE_C08.indd 383 08/07/19 9:40 AM
of potentially harmful influences called teratogens (see Table 2.2; WHO, 2016d).
behaviours was one of the areas that was included in the first data from the longitudinal families.
in their classic book Divergent Realities: The
Growing Up in New Zealand study that began in 2009 with around 7000 families, and
Emotional Lives of Mothers, Fathers, and Adolescents
which has been following these families for several years to date. Prior to pregnancy, 61%
(larson & Richards, 1994), larson and Richards
of the women reported they exercised regularly; once pregnant, 60% of these pregnant
described the results of their research on a sample of Hero Images Inc/Alamy Stock Phot
mothers continued exercising (Morton et al., 2010). 483 American adolescents in grades 5–12 (similar to
The Cultural focus: Pregnancy and prenatal care across cultures discusses theyears custom5–12ofin Australia and years 6–13 in new As for fathers, they tended to be only tenuously involved
Zealand), and another sample of 55 adolescents in grades in their adolescents’ lives. For most of the time they spen
prenatal massage in some cultures.
5–8 and their parents. All were two-parent, White families. in with their adolescents, the mother was there as well, and the
each family, three family members (adolescent, mother and mother tended to be more directly involved. Fathers averaged
father) were beeped at the same times, about 30 times per only 12 minutes per day alone with their adolescents, and
C R i T i C A L-T H i n K i n G Q U E S T i o n
day between 7:30 in the morning and 9:30 at night, during the 40% of this time was spent watching television together.
S E C T i o n 2 p r e n ata l d e v e lo p m e n t a n d p r e n ata l c a r e 71
such care (WHO, 2009a). Currently 99% of maternal and infant deaths occur in developing
Are there any beliefs in your culture about what a woman should eat or should avoid week of the study. the study showed that parents are often importan
influences on adolescents’ emotional states. Adolescent
countries—only 1% occur in developed countries—and the WHO program is focused on
the 70 countries with the highest death rates, mostly in Africa and South Asia.
Guidelines for prenatal care focus mostly on three key areas: diet, exercise and avoidance
eating before or during pregnancy? When beeped, adolescents and their parents paused
of potentially harmful influences called teratogens (see Table 2.2; WHO, 2016d). Prenatal
behaviours was one of the areas that was included in the first data from the longitudinal whatever they were doing and recorded a variety of brought home to the family their emotions from the rest of the
Growing Up in New Zealand study that began in 2009 with around 7000 families, and
which has been following these families for several years to date. Prior to pregnancy, 61%
of the women reported they exercised regularly; once pregnant, 60% of these pregnant
information about where they were, whom they were with, day. if their parents were responsive and caring, adolescents
what they were doing and how they were feeling. moods improved and their negative emotions were relieved
mothers continued exercising (Morton et al., 2010).
The Cultural focus: Pregnancy and prenatal care across cultures discusses the custom of
prenatal massage in some cultures.
C R i T i C A L-T H i n K i n G Q U E S T i o n
Are there any beliefs in your culture about what a woman should eat or should avoid CULTURAL FOCUS
Cultural focus features highlight how culture
Pregnancy and prenatal care across cultures
one striking finding of the study was that adolescents
and their parents averaged only about an hour a day spent in
in contrast, if adolescents felt their parents were unavailable o
unresponsive, their negative feelings became even worse
impacts various aspects of development,
eating before or during pregnancy?
shared activities, and their most common shared activity was even though adolescents spend less time with the parent
a
Pregnancy and prenatal care across cultures watching television. the amount of time adolescents spent than when they were younger, parents remain powerfu
such as breastfeeding practices, gross
CULTURAL FOCUS
lthough many cultures have folk beliefs

a with their families dropped sharply between grade 5 and influences in their lives.
lthough many cultures have folk beliefs
about pregnancy that have no scientific or

about pregnancy that have no scientific or
practical basis, most also have customs
motor development, educational practices

grade 12. in turn, there was an increase from grade 5 to
that provide genuine relief to pregnant women.
practical basis, most also have customs

one helpful method of prenatal care common
in many traditional cultures is massage (field,
2010; Jordan, 1994). the prenatal massage is
usually performed by a midwife in the course grade 9 in the amount of time adolescents spent alone in Review question
that provide genuine relief to pregnant women.
and relationships with friends and family.
of her visits to the pregnant woman. While
the massage is taking place, the midwife asks
the woman various questions about how the their bedrooms. 1 in the ESM studies of adolescents and their parents,
pregnancy is going. as part of the massage,
one helpful method of prenatal care common
the midwife probes to determine the fetus’s
the study also revealed some interesting differences in adolescents have been found to have the most
Students read an overview of the topic and
position in the uterus. if the fetus is turned in
an unfavourable position, so that it would be
in many traditional cultures is massage (field,
mothers’ and fathers’ relationships with adolescents. the
likely to come out feet first rather than head
first, the midwife will attempt an inversion
to turn the fetus’s head towards the vaginal
Anders Ryman/Corbis NX/Getty Images
2010; Jordan, 1994). the prenatal massage is positive feelings when with ______________ and the
then answer a review question.
By now, a substantial amount of research has accumulated to
majority of mother–adolescent interactions were rated

opening. this is sometimes painful, but a head-first birth
support the benefits of massage for mother and fetus. Benefits
is much safer than a feet-first birth, for both baby and
mother.
to the mother include lower likelihood of back pain, less
swelling of the joints and better sleep (field, 2004, 2010). usually performed by a midwife in the course most negative feelings towards ______________.
positively by both of them, especially experiences such as
prenatal massage has a long history in many cultures
Babies whose mothers received prenatal massage score
(Jordan, 1994). in new Zealand, pacific caregivers in one study
of her visits to the pregnant woman. While

higher on scales of their physical and social functioning in the
a mothers; fathers
frequently mentioned having a traditional pregnancy massage
early weeks of life (field, diego & Hernandez-reif, 2006).
talking together, going out together and sharing a meal.

called milimili (gentle rubbing), which they used when they
were not feeling well and also more generally to promote
Review question
wellbeing and to prepare for birth (abel, park, tipene-leach,
For pregnant women in developed and developing the massage is taking place, the midwife asks b mothers; mothers
however, adolescents’ negative feelings towards their
finau & lennan, 2001). in recent years, it has also begun to be
used by midwives, nurses and doctors in developed countries. countries, are there different benefits to massage?
the woman various questions about how the

mothers increased sharply from grade 5 to grade 9, and c fathers; mothers
pregnancy is going. as part of the massage,
their feelings of closeness to mothers decreased. d fathers; fathers
the midwife probes to determine the fetus’s
M02_ARNE0744_01_SE_C02.indd 71 08/07/19 9:02 AM
position in the uterus. if the fetus is turned in

an unfavourable position, so that it would be
likely to come out feet first rather than head
Conflict Anders
withRyman/Corbis
parents NX/Getty Images
first, the midwife will attempt an inversion
to turn the fetus’s head towards the vaginal Numerous studies have shown that adolescents and their parents agree on many of
By now, a substantial amount of research
their beliefs and values, has and
accumulated
typicallytothey have a great deal of love and respect for one
opening. this is sometimes painful, but a head-first birth
support the benefits of massage for mother and fetus. Benefits
is much safer than a feet-first birth, for both baby and another (Kağitçibaşi & Yalin, 2015; Moore, Chalk, Scarpa & Vandivere, 2002; Smetana,
to the mother include lower likelihood of back pain, less
mother. 2005). Nevertheless, studies in Western countries also indicate that conflict with parents
swelling of the joints and better sleep (field, 2004, 2010).
prenatal massage has a long history in many cultures increasesreceived
sharplyprenatal
in early massage
adolescence,
Babies whose mothers scorecompared with middle childhood, and remains high
(Jordan, 1994). in new Zealand, pacific caregivers in one study
higher on scales of their physical and social functioning in the
frequently mentioned having a traditional pregnancy massage
early weeks of life (field, diego & Hernandez-reif, 2006).
called milimili (gentle rubbing), which they used when they
were not feeling well and also more generally to promote
Review question
wellbeing and to prepare for birth (abel, park, tipene-leach,
finau & lennan, 2001). in recent years, it has also begun to be M08_ARNE0744_01_SE_C08.indd
For pregnant women in 383 developed and developing
used by midwives, nurses and doctors in developed countries. countries, are there different benefits to massage?
260 cH A P t e R 6 e a r ly ch i l d h o o d
How does a parent choose among the many kinds of

EDUCATION FOCUS
preschools?
W
hen choosing a preschool, cost is a factor
for many parents in many communities,
but the philosophy of the program is also
an important consideration. montessori, reggio
emilia and Waldorf are popular preschool programs,
and each has a different philosophy.
the Montessori approach was developed by
maria montessori in rome in the early 1900s.
montessori programs are child-centred, with 260 cH A P t e R 6 e a r ly ch i l d h o o d
teachers serving as guides. the basic philosophy is
that play is a child’s work, meaning that play is central
Education focus features provide an in-depth M02_ARNE0744_01_SE_C02.indd 71 08/07/19 9:02 AM

and important for development and that children
ought to play the way adults generally spend time at
work. the distinguishing feature of montessori
How does a parent choose among the many kinds of

programs is that children learn at their own pace,
In Montessori settings, children learn independently in different
choosing their own way through classroom centres
view of educational issues from preschool

learning centres.
and working at their own level.
Myrleen Pearson/Alamy Stock Photo
the Reggio Emilia approach is named for the
preschools?
northern italian town where it was developed in the
EDUCATION FOCUS
it does not use traditional grading systems, and it excludes all
1940s. a schoolteacher named lori malaguzzi developed the media in the curriculum. Waldorf is characterised by
approach with members of the community, with the goal of individualism. children are encouraged to develop their own
through to higher education. Topics include child

helping children to become better citizens. the philosophy curiosity and love of learning.
behind reggio emilia is that children should learn together by of course, early childhood is generally a time of
exploring. the teacher guides and supports the process of exploration, and there are many preschools that may blend
the children conducting cooperative projects together. aspects of these programs without officially ascribing to a
reggio emilia programs document what children do through
W
specific philosophy. many parents will want to visit preschools
care options, preschool programs, achievement

photographs, videos and teacher observations. teachers and with their children to get a sense of which might be a good fit
children review what they have done throughout the year. for an individual child.
children learn to work together and solve problems as they
complete projects together. Parents who want their children
to develop good citizenship skills may choose a reggio emilia
Survey question hen choosing a preschool, cost is a factor
What kind of preschool would you prefer your child
for many parents in many communities,

motivation, abstinence-only sex education
preschool.
attend?
Waldorf is another popular form of education that also
has a preschool model. Waldorf is a play-based approach a montessori
that has a predictable structure, providing children with a
dependable routine. the Waldorf setting looks like a home. it
b reggio emilia
c Waldorf but the philosophy of the program is also
programs and study abroad programs. Current
is an inviting atmosphere, with natural materials and wooden d any kind of high-quality preschool would be fine.
an important consideration. montessori, reggio

toys. two things really set Waldorf apart from other schools:
Cultural variations in preschool

emilia and Waldorf are popular preschool programs,
research on education has been incorporated
Although attending preschool has become a typical experience among children in developed
countries, there is great variation in how countries structure preschool and what they wish
young children to learn. In most countries, parents hope for social benefits from their
children’s attendance at preschool, but there is variation among countries in terms of parents’
and each has a different philosophy.
throughout, including sections on peer learning,

expectations of cognitive and academic benefits. In some countries, such as China and the
United States, learning basic academic skills is one of the primary goals of having children
attend preschool (Johnson et al., 2003; Tobin, Hsueh & Karasawa, 2009). In other countries,
the Montessori approach was developed by
maria montessori in rome in the early 1900s.
such as Japan, Australia, New Zealand and most European countries, learning academic skills
is a low priority in preschool (Hayashi, Karasawa & Tobin, 2009). Rather, preschool is mainly
educating children with special needs and the

a time for learning social skills, such as how to function as a member of a group.
montessori programs are child-centred, with

teachers serving as guides. the basic philosophy is
transitions to middle school and high school.
M06_ARNE0744_01_SE_C06.indd 260 08/07/19 9:34 AM
that play is a child’s work, meaning that play is central

and important for development and that children
ought to play the way adults generally spend time at
work. the distinguishing feature of montessori
programs is that children learn at their own pace,
In Montessori settings, children learn independently in different
choosing their own way through classroom centres
learning centres.
and working at their own level.
Myrleen Pearson/Alamy Stock Photo
the Reggio Emilia approach is named for the
northern italian town where it was developed in the it does not use traditional grading systems, and it exclude
1940s. a schoolteacher named lori malaguzzi developed the media in the curriculum. Waldorf is characterised
approach with members of the community, with the goal of individualism. children are encouraged to develop their o
helping children to become better citizens. the philosophy curiosity and love of learning.
behind reggio emilia is that children should learn together by of course, early childhood is generally a time
exploring. the teacher guides and supports the process of exploration, and there are many preschools that may bl
the children conducting cooperative projects together. aspects of these programs without officially ascribing
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2020 — 9781488620744
reggio emilia programs —document
Arnett/Child
what childrenDevelopment
do through 1e philosophy. many parents will want to visit prescho
specific
38 cH A P t e R 1 a C u lt u r a l a p p r oaCh to Ch i l d d e v e lo p m e n t F E AT U R E S xiii
respond to losing a game. HRECs require researchers to show that the deception in the
38 cH A P t e R 1 a C u lt u r a l a p p r oaCh to Ch i l d d e v e lo p m e n t
proposed study will cause no harm. Also, ethical guidelines require that participants in
respond to losing a game. HRECs require researchers to show that the deception in the
proposed study will cause no harm. Also, ethical guidelines require that participants in
a study that involves deception must be debriefed, which means that, following their
participation, they must be told the true purpose of the study and the reason for the
a study that involves deception must be debriefed, which means that, following their
deception.
participation, they must be told the true purpose of the study and the reason for the
c R i t i c A L-t H i n K i n G Q U e S t i o n
of the three hypothetical studies described in this section (i.e. toddlers’ language
development, parental conflict and a drug to enhance learning and memory), which do
you think would be likely to receive HRec approval and which would not?
deception.
Critical-thinking questions encourage

HOW WE STUDY CHILD DEVELOPMENT:
RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS
Although all investigators of human development follow the scientific method in some
form, there are many different ways of investigating research questions. Studies vary in the
c R i t i c A L-t H i n K i n G Q U e S t i o n
students to think more deeply and critically
methods used and in their research designs.
LO 1.14 Research methods

Summarise the main Researchers study child development in a variety of academic disciplines, including
of the three hypothetical studies described in this section (i.e. toddlers’ language
about a developmental topic. These questions
methods used in research psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, social work, family studies and
on child development. medicine. They use various methods in their investigations, each of which has both
strengths and limitations. In this section, we examine each of the major research
development, parental conflict and a drug to enhance learning and memory), which do
methods, then consider an issue that is important across methods—the question of
reliability and validity.
appear in every major section and often focus Questionnaires

The most commonly used method in social science research is the questionnaire (Salkind,
2011). Usually, questionnaires have a closed-question format, which means that participants
are provided with specific responses to choose from (Shaughnessy, Zechmeister &
you think would be likely to receive HRec approval and which would not?
on the role of culture in human development.
Zechmeister, 2011). Sometimes the questions have an open-ended question format, which
means that participants are allowed to state their response following the question. One
advantage of closed questions is that they make it possible to collect and analyse responses
from a large number of people in a relatively short time. Everyone responds to the same
questions with the same response options. For this reason, closed questions have often
been used in large-scale surveys.
Although questionnaires are widely used in the study of child development, the use of
HOW WE STUDY CHILD DEVELOPMENT:

questionnaires has certain limitations (Arnett, 2005a). When a closed-question format is
used, the range of possible responses is already specified, and the participant must choose
from the responses provided. The researcher tries to cover the responses that seem most
S e c t i o n 1 P h y s i c a l d e v e lo P m e n t 237
plausible and most likely, but it is impossible in a few brief response options to do justice
RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS

to the depth and diversity of human experience. For example, if a questionnaire contains
an item such as ‘How close are you to your child? A. very close; B. somewhat close;
C. not very close; D. not at all close’, it is probably true that people who choose ‘very close’
really are closer to their children than people who choose ‘not at all close’. However, this
response alone does not begin to capture the complexity of the parent–child relationship.
Another limitation of the use of questionnaires is that they may be difficult to use in
Although all investigators of human development follow the scientific method in some
other verbal learning disabilities (Natsopoulos, Kiosseoglou, Xeroxmeritou & Alevriadou,
research with young children.
M01_ARNE0744_01_SE_C01.indd 38
form, there are many different ways of investigating research questions. Studies vary in the
1998). This may have something to do with the fact that about one-quarter of left-handers 08/07/19 8:09 AM
process language in both hemispheres rather than primarily in the left hemisphere (Knechtused and in their research designs.
methods
et al., 2000).
However, this explanation is not entirely convincing 1.14 left-handedness is Research
LObecause associated methods
not only with greater likelihood of some types of Summarise
problems but also with excellence,
the main and
Researchers study child development in a variety of academic disciplines, including
even genius, in certain fields. Left-handed children are more
methods usedlikely to show exceptional
in research psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, social work, family studies and
verbal and maths abilities (Bower, 1985; Flanneryon&child Leiderman, 1995). Left-handers
development. are They use various methods in their investigations, each of which has both
medicine.
especially likely to have strong visual–spatial abilities, and consequently they are more
strengths and limitations. In this section, we examine each of the major research
likely than right-handers to become architects or artists (Grimshaw & Wilson, 2013). Some
methods, then consider an issue that is important across methods—the question of
of the greatest artists in the Western tradition have been left-handed, including Leonardo da
reliability and validity.
Vinci, Michelangelo and Pablo Picasso (Schacter & Ransil, 1996). It is worth keeping in mind
Questionnaires
that the majority of left-handers are in the normal range in their cognitive development
and show neither unusual problems nor unusual gifts. Hence, the widespread cultural
S e c t i o n 1 P h y s i c a l d e v e lo P m e n t 229 The most commonly used method in social science research is the questionnaire (Salkind,
prejudice against left-handers remains mysterious. In addition, many of these findings
SECTION 1 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 2011). Usually, questionnaires have a closed-question format, which means that participants
could be attributed to correlational evidence, not causation, and so the context must be
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
LO 6.1 Describe the physical growth and changes that take place during early childhood.
are provided with specific responses to choose from (Shaughnessy, Zechmeister &
LO 6.2 Describe the changes in brain development that take place during early childhood
and the aspects of brain development that explain infantile amnesia. considered because there could be another factor influencing the relationship between
LO 6.3 Identify the main nutritional deficiencies of early childhood.
LO 6.4 Identify the primary sources of injury, illness and mortality during early childhood
being left-handed and outcomes. Zechmeister, 2011). Sometimes the questions have an open-ended question format, which
in developed countries and in developing countries.
LO 6.5 Describe changes in gross and fine motor abilities during early childhood.
LO 6.6 Describe the development of handedness and identify the consequences and
means that participants are allowed to state their response following the question. One
cultural views of left-handedness.
advantage of closed questions is that they make it possible to collect and analyse responses
LO 6.1
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: GROWTH Describe the physical growth
and changes that take place SUMMARY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT from a large number of people in a relatively short time. Everyone responds to the same
FROM AGE 3 TO 6 during early childhood.
The pace of bodily growth continues to decline in the period from toddlerhood to early
questions with the same response options. For this reason, closed questions have often
beenLearning objectives for each chapter are
childhood, as it did from infancy to toddlerhood. A variety of parts of the brain make
Young children in developing
crucial strides forwards, although brain development still has a long way to go. Optimal countries are often relatively
growth in the body and the brain require adequate health and nutrition, which are lacking
in much of the world during early childhood.
small in stature, such as
this child in Uganda.
FLPA/Alamy Stock Photo
used in large-scale surveys.
LO 6.1 Describe the physical growth and changes that take
listed at the start of each section as well as
LO 6.4 Identify the primary sources of injury, illness and
Bodily growth
From age 3 to 6, the typical child grows about 5–7 centimetres per year in height and
adds 2–3 kilograms per year in weight. Height and weight are usually measured in
percentiles. A score that falls at a particular percentile means that that percentage place during early childhood. Although
mortality during questionnaires
early childhood in developed are widely used in the study of child development, the use of
alongside every section heading. Based on
of scores fall below it; therefore, a child whose weight is at the 20th percentile
weighs more than 20%—and less than 80%—of children of the same age. Three-
countries andquestionnaires has certain limitations (Arnett, 2005a). When a closed-question format
in developing countries. is
year-old boys at the 50th percentile are 96 centimetres tall and weigh 14.5 kilograms;
at age 5, they are 110 centimetres tall and weigh 18.5 kilograms. Three-year-old The pace of physical development slows in early childhood.
Mortality rates in early used, thearerange of possible responses is already specified, and the participant must choose
girls at the 50th percentile are 96 centimetres and 14 kilograms, and at age 5 are
From age 3 to 6, the typical child grows 5–7 centimetres per
Bloom’s
childhood
taxonomy,
much higher in developing
these numbered objectives
108 centimetres and 18 kilograms (Ministry of Health, 2015a). Both boys and girls
gain more in weight than they do in height during early childhood, but most add
more muscle than fat. From toddlerhood to early childhood, most children lose
their remaining ‘baby fat’ and their bodily proportions become similar to those year in height and adds 2–3 kilograms per year in weight. countries than in developed countries, due mainly to the
from the responses provided. The researcher tries to cover the responses that seem most
helpand students better
but it organise
is impossibleand
in a understand
of adults.
Average heights and weights in early childhood are considerably greater prevalence of infectious diseases, but have declined
plausible most likely, few brief response options to do justice
In developing countries, average heights and weights in early childhood are
considerably lower due to poorer nutrition and the higher likelihood of childhood
diseases (UNICEF, 2016). For example, the average 6-year-old in Bangladesh is only
lower in developing countries due to inadequate nutrition and substantially in recent years. In developed countries, the most
the material. The end-of-section summary is if a questionnaire contains
as tall as the average 4-year-old in Sweden (Leathers & Foster, 2004).
Within developing countries, too, differences in socioeconomic status influence
gains in height and weight in early childhood. As noted in other chapters, economic higher likelihood of childhood diseases. common cause of injury toand
the depth
death and
by far diversity
in early of
childhood human
is experience. For example,
differences tend to be large in developing countries; most have a relatively small
motor vehicle accidents. an item such as ‘How close are you to your child? A. very close; B. somewhat close;
organised around these same objectives, as
middle- and upper-class population and a large population of low-income people.
Wealthier people have more access to nutritional foods, so their children are taller
LO 6.2 Describe the changes in brain development that

take place during early childhood and the aspects LO 6.5 Describe changes C. not very close; D. not at all close’, it is probably true that people who choose ‘very close’
in gross and fine motor abilities
reallyareare all of tothetheir
closer supplements and assessment
children than people who choose ‘not at all close’. However, this
M06_ARNE0744_01_SE_C06.indd 229 08/07/19 9:34 AM
of brain development that explain infantile during early childhood.

amnesia.
From age 3 to 6, young childrenmaterial.
response learnalone
to makedoes
more not
hops begin
in a row to capture the complexity of the parent–child relationship.
The most notable changes in brain development during early and hop on one foot; jump Another
farther limitation of position
from a standing the useand of questionnaires is that they may be difficult to use in
childhood take place in the connections between neurons make a running jump; climb stairs without support, alternating
and in myelination. Most people experience infantile amnesia
research with young children.
their feet; throw a ball farther and more accurately; become better Summary boxes at the end of each section
(the inability to remember anything that happened prior to
age 2) and have limited memory for personal events that
at catching a ball; and increase their running speed and their
ability to stop suddenly or change direction. In their fine motor
cover the key points associated with each
happened before age 5, due mainly to the immaturity of the development, children learn to pick up small objects more quickly learning objective within the section.
hippocampus. and precisely, draw something that is recognisable to others,
write their first letters and some short words, put on and remove
LO 6.3 Identify the main nutritional M01_ARNE0744_01_SE_C01.indd
deficiencies of early 38 clothes, use scissors and use a knife to cut soft food.
their 08/07/
childhood.
LO 6.6 Describe the development of handedness and identify
About 80% of children in developing countries experience
the consequences and cultural views of left-handedness.
nutritional deficiencies, but a surprisingly high percentage
of children in developed countries experience them as well. About 10% of children are left-handed, which is related to genetic
454 cH A P t e R 9 e m e rg i n g a d u lt h o o d
Calcium is the most common nutritional deficiency in many factors and the prenatal environment. Being left-handed has been
chapter quiz
developed countries, whereas the two most common types of
1
stigmatised in many cultures and might be discouraged by parents,
In emerging adulthood, ______________. c Sleep debt has negative consequences for both
cognitive and emotional functioning.
malnutrition in developing countries are lack of protein and lack perhaps due to its association with higher risk of developmental
a rates of residential change in Australian society are
much higher at ages 18–29 than at any other period
of life
d Students who stayed up all night before exams
thought they did worse than their peers who got a
of iron. problems, but it is also associated with exceptional abilities.

b there is a sense of optimism about being able to full night’s sleep.
‘get where i want to be in life’ among those from 5 Researchers who study young drivers have found
individualistic cultures, but not for those from that ______________.
collectivistic cultures
a increased parental monitoring does not reduce car
c the focus on self-exploration means that individuals
accidents because adolescents spend so much time
are more egocentric than their adolescent
454 cH A P t e R 9 e m e rg i n g a d u lt h o o d
with their friends
counterparts
b graduated driver licensing (GDL) is an excellent
Chapter quizzes at the end of each chapter

d the feeling ‘in-between’ is unique to those in
approach to reducing car accidents
Australia and new Zealand because emerging
c inexperience is the only factor found to be
adults in other cultures tend to remain at home,
significantly correlated with accidents and
rather than moving out
fatalities
2 Emerging adults who live in ______________ would d the best way to reduce car accidents and fatalities
consist of multiple-choice questions covering

chapter quiz
emphasise becoming capable of supporting parents is for parents to encourage their children to gain
financially as being among the most important more experience driving with their friends who
criteria for becoming an adult. have taken driver education and who will serve as
role models for safe driving
a canada
6 Binge drinking ______________.
topics raised in all sections of the chapter to

b Japan
c Australia a peaks in emerging adulthood in Australia, but not
d europe in europe where adolescents are often allowed to
M06_ARNE0744_01_SE_C06.indd 237 08/07/19 9:34 AM

drink alcohol with their meals
3 Which of the following is true of emerging adults’
health? b has not been studied longitudinally because of the
ensure good knowledge of content.

difficulty getting approval to ask about alcohol use
1 In emerging adulthood, ______________. c Sleep debt has negative con

a Most emerging adults experience an increased among high school students
susceptibility to physical illness due to the increased
c is highest among single mothers in their early 20s
stressors associated with this developmental
who do not go to university
period.
cognitive and emotional fun

d is more likely among emerging adults than those in
b For most sports, the peak age of performance
a rates of residential change in Australian society are

other age groups because emerging adults spend
comes during adolescence, and athletic abilities
more time in unstructured socialising
begin to decline in the early 20s.
7 Dialectical thought ______________.
d Students who stayed up all

c During emerging adulthood the immune system is
much higher at ages 18–29 than at any other period

weak. a relies strictly on emotion in solving real-life
d the heart is strong during emerging adulthood problems
and reaction time is faster than at any other time b has been found to characterise emerging adults
4
of life.
Which of the following statements best summarises
in individualistic cultures more than those in
of life thought they did worse than
c refers to the need for explaining human actions in
full night’s sleep.

the current research on sleep patterns of emerging
terms of logical principles
adults?
a the research showing delayed sleep phase
syndrome and sleep debt is based almost
d involves the growing awareness that problems
often have no clear-cut solutions b there is a sense of optimism about being able to
exclusively on low-income emerging adults who 8 Reflective judgment ______________.
work full-time rather than on those who are
attending university.
a is a synonym for dualism
b increases over time for all emerging adults
‘get where i want to be in life’ among those from 5 Researchers who study youn
b the preference of being a morning person versus as a result of maturation, regardless of their
a night person changes with age due to increased
levels of cortisol.
educational background or the skills required
in their job individualistic cultures, but not for those from that ______________.
a increased parental monitori
M09_ARNE0744_01_SE_C09.indd 454 08/07/19 9:50 AM
c the focus on self-exploration means that individuals
accidents because adolesce
are more egocentric than their adolescent
with their friends
counterparts
b graduated driver licensing (G
d the feeling ‘in-between’ is unique to those in
approach to reducing car ac
Australia and new Zealand because emerging
c inexperience is the only fac
adults in other cultures tend to remain at home,
significantly correlated with
rather than moving out
fatalities
2 Emerging adults who live in ______________ would d the best way to reduce car a
emphasise becoming capable of supporting parents is for parents to encourage
financially as being among the most important more experience driving wit
criteria for becoming an adult. have taken driver education
role models for safe driving
a canada
b Japan 6 Binge drinking _____________
c Australia a peaks in emerging adulthoo
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2020 — 9781488620744 —
d europe Arnett/Child Development 1e in europe where adolescen
Acknowledgements
This first Australian and New Zealand edition has involved many talented and dedicated
people. Anna Carter, Development Editor at Pearson Australia, deserves a massive thank
you for her support and encouragement throughout the writing process. Another big
thank you to Stephen Heasley, Senior Portfolio Manager, who initiated this project and
supported the team throughout.
We would like also to thank the reviewers who reviewed chapters, sections and other
material in the course of the development of the book. We benefited greatly from their
suggestions and corrections, and now instructors and students reading the book will
benefit too.
Reviewers include:
Dr Helen Davis, Murdoch University
Dr Jeanne Marie Iorio, Victoria University, Australia
Douglas Paton, Charles Darwin University
Dr Elissa Pearson, University of South Australia
Dr Pauline Roberts, Edith Cowan University
Dr Cindy Ann Smith, Curtin University
Dr Pearl Subban, Monash University
Dr Nikos Thomacos, Monash University
About the authors
Jeffrey Arnett
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett is a Research Professor in the Department of Psychology at
Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. He received his PhD in developmental
psychology in 1986 from the University of Virginia, and did 3 years of postdoctoral
work at the University of Chicago. From 1992 to 1998, he was Associate Professor in the
Department of Human Development and Family Studies at the University of Missouri,
where he taught a 300-student life span development course every semester. In the
autumn of 2005, he was a Fulbright Scholar at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark.
His primary scholarly interest for the past 20 years has been in emerging adulthood. He
coined the term, and he has conducted research on emerging adults concerning a wide
variety of topics, involving several different ethnic groups in American society. He is
the Founding President and Executive Director of the Society for the Study of Emerging
Adulthood (SSEA; www.ssea.org). From 2005 to 2014, he was the editor of the Journal
of Adolescent Research ( JAR), and currently he is on the Editorial Board of JAR and five
other journals. He has published many theoretical and research papers on emerging
adulthood in peer-reviewed journals, as well as the books Human Development: A
Cultural Approach (2016), Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach
(2015) and Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from the Late Teens Through the
Twenties (2015).
He lives in Worcester, Massachusetts, with his wife Lene Jensen and their twins, Miles and
Paris. For more information on Dr Arnett and his research, see www.jeffreyarnett.com.
Ashley E. Maynard
Ashley E. Maynard is Professor and Chair of the Department of Psychology at the
University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, where she has been on the faculty since 2001. She
received her PhD in psychology in 1999 from the University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA), and did 2 years of postdoctoral study in anthropology and cultural psychology
in the Department of Neuropsychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences at UCLA. Ashley has
taught approximately 4000 students in courses ranging from introductory psychology
to life span development at the graduate level.
Her primary research interest since 1995 has been the impact of cultural change at
the macro level, such as economic and sociodemographic shifts, on socialisation and
cognition in childhood. She also studies the development of teaching in childhood, and
sibling interactions. She has worked with her students on research in Mexico, Costa
Rica and Hawai’i. She has won national awards for her research, including the James
McKeen Cattell Award from the New York Academy of Sciences and the APA Division
7 (Developmental Psychology) Dissertation Award. She has published many articles on
culture and human development in peer-reviewed journals, and in a volume she edited
with Mary Martini, Learning in Cultural Context: Family, Peers, and School (2005).
She lives, teaches and writes in Honolulu, Hawai’i. For more information on Dr Maynard
and her research, see www.ashleymaynard.com.
xvi A B O U T T H E AU T H O R S
Charlotte Brownlow
Charlotte Brownlow is an Associate Professor and Associate Dean of the Graduate
Research School at the University of Southern Queensland, Australia. Originally from
the United Kingdom, she received her PhD in 2007 from The University of Brighton,
focusing on the identity construction of people with autism/autistic people. She has
written many research papers within the field of autism and has a particular interest in
the concept of ‘difference’. She has recently, with international colleagues, co-edited the
books Different Childhoods: Non/normative Development and Transgressive Trajectories
(2017) and Work and Identity: Contemporary Perspectives on Workplace Diversity (2018).
Charlotte’s main teaching interests are developmental psychology and qualitative
research methods; she supervises several PhD students who are completing their
research within these areas.
She lives in Toowoomba, Queensland, with her husband Neil, their three children and
two dogs.
Laurie Chapin
Laurie Chapin is a psychology lecturer at Victoria University in Melbourne, Australia.
Originally from the United States, in 2010 she received her PhD in applied social
psychology, with an emphasis on life span development, at Colorado State University
(CSU). She started teaching adolescent and life span development when she was a
Master’s student within these areas at CSU, and this began her passion for teaching in
higher education. She has published many articles on culture and human development,
and currently teaches a variety of psychology units at Victoria University.
Laurie’s research interests and publications focus on young people from vulnerable
backgrounds and resilience associated with positive outcomes. She supervises student
research projects at all levels of study related to resilience, wellbeing and community
programs in Melbourne and regional Victoria to support youth development.
She lives in a suburb of Melbourne with her husband Sasanka and their two young
children, Quinn and Avery.
Tanya Machin
Tanya Machin is a psychology and counselling lecturer in the School of Psychology
and Counselling at the University of Southern Queensland, Australia. She received
her PhD in 2016, which focused on the social cues of rejection and acceptance on
Facebook. Tanya has worked across many sectors, including primary schools, financial
services and mental health. Her research interests primarily focus on social media and
technology, and she supervises student projects in both psychology and counselling
that explore the impact that social media and technology can have across different life
stages and in different professions.
She lives in Toowoomba, Queensland, with her husband Tony and their dog. Their
young adult daughters (and husbands) live close by, and their young adult son and his
husband live in Sydney.
Educator resources
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teaching and learning.
Instructor Resource Manual

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lessons.
Test Bank
The Test Bank provides a wealth of accuracy-verified testing material. Each chapter
offers a wide variety of question types, arranged by learning objective and tagged by
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C H A P T E R
A cultural approach to child
development 1
The Chinese have an expression for the limited way all of us learn to see the world: SECTION 1
jing di zhi wa, meaning ‘frog in the bottom of a well’. CHILD DEVELOPMENT TODAY
The expression comes from a fable about a frog that has lived its entire life in a small well. The frog assumes
AND ITS ORIGINS
that its tiny world is all there is, and it has no idea of the true size of the world. It is only when a passing A demographic profile of humanity
turtle tells the frog of the great ocean to the east that the frog realises there is much more to the world than today
it had known. Population growth and the
demographic divide
All of us are like that frog. We grow up as members of a culture and learn, through direct and indirect Variations within countries
teaching, to see the world from the perspective that becomes most familiar to us. Because the people
around us usually share that perspective, we seldom have cause to question it. Like the frog, we rarely The origins of human diversity
consider how diverse and widespread our human species really is. Evolution and the birth of culture
Human evolution and child
The goal of this book is to lift you out of the well, by taking a cultural approach to understanding child development today
development—the ways people grow and change from conception through emerging adulthood. This means
that the emphasis of the book is on how people develop as members of a culture. Culture is the total pattern SECTION 2
of a group’s customs, beliefs, art and technology. In other words, a culture is a group’s common way of life, THEORIES OF CHILD
passed on from one generation to the next, through language or other human forms of expression. From DEVELOPMENT
the day we are born, all of us experience our lives as members of a culture (sometimes of more than one Classic theories
culture), and this profoundly influences how we develop, how we behave, how we see the world and how we Psychoanalytic theories
experience life. Behaviourism and learning theories
Biology is important, too, of course, and at various points in the book we discuss the interaction between Constructivist theories
biological and cultural or social influences. However, human beings everywhere have essentially the same Recent theories
The information-processing
approach
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
framework
Weisner’s ecocultural theory
A cultural-developmental model for
this book
SECTION 3
HOW WE STUDY CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
The scientific method
The five steps of the scientific
method
Ethics in child development
research
Research methods and designs
Research methods
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock
Research designs
child development biological constitution, and yet their paths through the life span are remarkably varied depending on the culture
way people grow and change in which their development takes place.
from conception through
emerging adulthood; includes Throughout this book, we explore child development from the perspectives of many different cultures around the
people’s biological, cognitive, world. We also analyse and critique research based on whether it does or does not take culture into account. By
psychological and social the time you finish this book, you should be able to think culturally.
functioning
The book will introduce you to many variations in child development and cultural practices you may not have
culture
known about before, which may lead you to see your own development and your own cultural practices in a new
total pattern of a group’s
customs, beliefs, art and light. You are about to encounter cultures with assumptions quite different from your own. This will enrich your
technology, transmitted through awareness of the variety of human experiences and may allow you to draw from a wider range of options of how
language you wish to live.
In this chapter we set the stage for the rest of the book. The first section provides a broad summary of human life
today around the world as well as an examination of how culture developed out of our evolutionary history. In the
second section, we look at the history of conceptions of child development along with a cultural-developmental
theory that provides the framework for this book. Finally, the third section provides an overview of child development
as a scientific field.
S e ct i on 1 Ch i l d d e v e lop m ent to day an d i ts or i g i ns 3
SECTION 1 CHILD DEVELOPMENT TODAY AND ITS ORIGINS
LEARNING LO 1.1 Describe how the human population has changed over the past 10 000 years and
OBJECTIVES distinguish between the demographic profiles of developed countries and
developing countries.
LO 1.2 Define the term socioeconomic status (SES) and explain why SES, gender and
ethnicity are important aspects of child development within countries.
LO 1.3 Trace the evolutionary origins of the human species and summarise the features
of the first human cultures.
LO 1.4 Apply information about human evolution to how child development takes place
today.
CHILD DEVELOPMENT TODAY AND ITS ORIGINS:

A DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF HUMANITY TODAY
Since the goal of this book is to provide you with an understanding of how child
development takes place in cultures all around the world, let’s begin with a demographic
profile of the world’s human population in the early 21st century.
Population growth and the demographic divide LO 1.1

Perhaps the most striking demographic feature of the human population today is the sheer Describe how the human
size of it. For most of history, the total human population was fewer than 10 million people population has changed
over the past 10 000 years
(McFalls, 2007). Women typically had from four to eight children, but most of the children
and distinguish between
died in infancy or childhood and never reached reproductive age. The human population
the demographic profiles
began to increase notably around 10 000 years ago, with the development of agriculture of developed countries and
and domestication of animals (Diamond, 1992). developing countries.
Population growth in the millennia that followed was slow, and it was not until about
400 years ago that the world population reached 500 million people. Since that time, and
especially in the past century, population growth has accelerated at an astonishing rate (see
Figure 1.1). It took just 150 years for the human population to double from 500 million to
1 billion, passing that milestone around the year 1800. Then came the medical advances of
the 20th century, and the eradication or sharp reduction in the prevalence of deadly diseases
such as smallpox, typhus, diphtheria and cholera. Subsequently, the human population
reached 2 billion by 1930, and then tripled to 6 billion by 1999. The 7-billion threshold
was surpassed just 12 years later, in early 2011. One estimate gives the world population at
nearly 7.7 billion people as of 2019 (www.worldometers.info/world-population).
How high will the human population go? This is difficult to say, but most projections
indicate it will rise to 10 billion by about 2090, and thereafter stabilise and perhaps
decline slightly. This forecast is based on the worldwide decrease in birth rates that has
taken place in recent years. The total fertility rate (TFR) (number of births per woman) total fertility rate (TFR)
worldwide is currently 2.5. Although this is substantially higher than 2.1 (the replacement in a population, the number of
births per woman
rate of a stable population), the global TFR has been declining sharply for more than
a decade and will reach 2.1 by 2050 if current trends continue (Population Reference
Bureau, 2014).
The population increase from now to 2090 will not take place equally around the world.
On the contrary, there is a stark ‘global demographic divide’ between the wealthy,
4 CH A P T E R 1 A cu ltura l approach to ch i l d d e v e lop m ent
FIGURE 1.1 World 10

population growth (projected)
9 billion in 2040
What happened in recent 9 (projected)
(projected) 10 billion in 2090
human history to cause
8 billion in 2022
population to rise so 8
dramatically? 7 billion,
2011
Source: Based on Population 7
Reference Bureau (2014). 6 billion,
1999
Population (billions)
6
5 billion,
1987
5
4 billion,
???
1974
4
2 1 billion, 3 billion,
1804 1960
1 2 billion,
1927
0
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100
Year
economically developed countries that make up less than 20% of the world’s population,
and the economically developing countries that contain the majority of the world’s
population (Kent & Haub, 2005). Nearly all the population growth in the decades to
come is expected to take place in the economically developing countries. In contrast, the
populations in almost all wealthy countries are expected to decline during this period and
beyond because their fertility rates are well below replacement rate.
developed countries For the purposes of this book, we use the term developed countries to refer to the most
world’s most economically affluent countries in the world. Classifications of developed countries vary, but usually
developed and affluent
countries, with the highest this designation includes the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Australia,
median levels of income and New Zealand, Chile and nearly all the countries of Europe (Organisation for Economic
education Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2014b). (The term Western countries is sometimes
used to refer to most developed countries because they are in the Western hemisphere;
the exceptions are Japan and South Korea, which, although developed countries, are
considered to be Eastern countries.) For our discussion, developed countries will be
developing countries contrasted with developing countries, which have less wealth than the developed countries
countries that have lower levels but are experiencing rapid economic growth as they join the globalised economy.
of income and education than
developed countries but are Many developing countries are changing rapidly today. For example, India is a developing
experiencing rapid economic
country, and most of its people live on an income of less than US$2 a day (United Nations
growth
Development Program [UNDP], 2014). About half of Indian children are underweight
and malnourished (World Bank, 2011). Fewer than half of Indian adolescents complete
secondary school. Only about half of adult women, and about three-quarters of adult
men, are literate. Approximately two-thirds of India’s population lives in rural villages,
although there is a massive migration occurring from rural to urban areas, led mostly by
young people. However, India’s economy has been booming for the past two decades,
lifting hundreds of millions of Indians out of poverty (UNDP, 2014). India is now a world
leader in manufacturing, telecommunications and services. If the economy continues
to grow at its present pace, India will lead the world in economic production by 2050
(PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2011). Life is changing rapidly for Indians, and children
S e ct i on 1 Ch i l d d e v e lop m ent to day an d i ts or i g i ns 5
born today are likely to experience much different

economic and cultural contexts than their parents or
grandparents have known.
The current population of developed countries is
1.3 billion, which is about 18% of the total world
population, and the population of developing
countries is about 6 billion, about 82% of the world’s
population (Population Reference Bureau, 2014). The
world’s population is steadily increasing, largely due
to population growth in the developing countries.
However, populations in nearly all the developed
countries are expected to decline between now and
2050. The decline will be steepest in Japan, where the
population is projected to drop from 120 million to just
97 million by 2050 as a result of a low fertility rate and
virtually no immigration (Population Reference Bureau,
2014). Australia and the United States are two notable
Nearly all the world
exceptions as their populations are expected to increase over the next few decades. The population growth from now
2016 Australian Census counted 23.4 million people currently living in Australia, an increase to 2050 will take place in
of 8.8% compared with the 2011 Census and a doubling since the 11.6 million count in 1966. developing countries.
In the United States, there are currently about 316 million people, but by 2050 there will be Pictured here is a busy
street in Jodhpur, India.
400 million, an increase of about 2.7% (Population Reference Bureau, 2014).
Pavel Gospodinov/Getty Images
There are two reasons why the United States is following a different demographic path
than most other developed countries. First, the United States has a TFR of 1.9, which is 439
slightly below the replacement rate of 2.1 but still higher than the million
4%
TFR in most other developed countries (Population Reference Bureau, 8%
2014). Second, and more importantly, the United States allows more
12%
legal immigration than most other developed countries do, and there 310
2% million
are millions of undocumented immigrants as well (Suarez-Orozco,
2015). The increase in population in the United States between now 5% 12% 30%
and 2050 will result entirely from immigration (Martin & Midgley, 2010). 16%
Both legal and undocumented immigrants to the United States come
Other
mainly from Mexico and Latin America, although many also come from
Asian American
Asia and other parts of the world. Consequently, as Figure 1.2 shows, African American 65%
by 2050 the proportion of the US population that is Latino is projected Latino 46%
to rise from 16% to 30%. White
Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia also have relatively open
immigration policies, so they, too, may avoid the population decline 2010 Actual 2050 Projected
that is projected for most developed countries (DeParle, 2010). The
FIGURE 1.2 Projected ethnic changes in the
2016 Australian Census indicated an increase since 2011 of almost US population to 2050
1 million in the number of people born overseas. Of these, migration Which ethnic group is projected to change the
from China contributed the greatest increase (Australian Bureau of most in the coming decades, and why?
Statistics [ABS], 2016a). Source: Based on Kaiser Family Foundation (2013).
C R I T I C A L-T H I N K I N G Q U E S T I O N
What kinds of public policy changes might be necessary in Australia in the future to
enable the country to respond to a changing cultural environment?
6 CH A P T E R 1 A cu ltura l approach to ch i l d d e v e lop m ent
The demographic contrast of developed countries compared to the rest of the world is
stark not only with respect to population, but also in other key areas, such as income and
education (see Map 1.1). With respect to income, about 40% of the world’s population lives
on less than US$2 per day, and 80% of the world’s population lives on a family income
of less than US$6000 per year (Population Reference Bureau, 2014). At one extreme are
the developed countries, where 9 in 10 people are in the top 20% of the global income
distribution; at the other extreme is southern Africa, where half of the population is in
the bottom 20% of global income. Africa’s economic growth has been strong for the past
decade; even so, it remains the poorest region in the world (McKinsey Global Institute,
2010; UNDP, 2015).
MAP 1.1 Worldwide variations in population and income levels

Developed countries represent only 18% of the world population yet they are much wealthier than developing countries. At what point in
its economic development should a developing country be reclassified as a developed country?
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which the spermatozoa are packed; they are often very large and assume
characteristic shapes, especially in the Decapoda.
The spermatozoa show a great variety of structure, but they conform to
two chief types—the filiform, which are provided with a long whip-like
flagellum; and the amoeboid, which are furnished with radiating
pseudopodia, and are much slower in their movements. The amoeboid
spermatozoa of some of the Decapoda contain in the cell-body a peculiar
chitinous capsule, and Koltzoff[12] has observed that when the
spermatozoon has settled upon the surface of the egg the chitinous
capsule becomes suddenly exceedingly hygroscopic, swells up, and
explodes, driving the head of the spermatozoon into the egg. We cannot
enter here into a description of the embryological changes by which the
egg is converted into the adult form. Crustacean eggs as a whole contain a
large quantity of yolk, but in some forms total segmentation occurs in the
early stages, which is converted later into the pyramidal type, i.e. the
blastomeres are arranged round the edge, and the yolk in the centre is
only partly segmented to correspond with them. The eggs during the early
stages of development are in almost all cases (except Branchiura, p. 77,
and Anaspides, p. 116) carried about by the female either in a brood-
pouch (Branchiopoda, Ostracoda, Cirripedia, Phyllocarida, Peracarida),
or agglutinated to the hind legs or some other part of the body (Copepoda,
Eucarida), or in a chamber formed from the maxillipedes (Stomatopoda).
Development may be direct, without a complicated metamorphosis, or
indirect, the larva hatching out in a form totally different to the adult
state, and attaining the latter by a series of transformations and moults.
The various larval forms will be described under the headings of the
several orders.
The respiratory organs are typically branchiae, i.e. branched
filamentous or foliaceous processes of the body-surface through which
the blood circulates, and is brought into close relation with the oxygen
dissolved in the water. In most of the smaller Entomostraca no special
branchiae are present, the interchange of gases taking place over the
whole body-surface; but in the Malacostraca the gills may reach a high
degree of specialisation. They are usually attached to the bases of the
thoracic limbs (“podobranchiae”), to the body-wall at the bases of these
limbs, often in two series (“arthrobranchiae”), and to the body-wall some
way above the limb-articulations (“pleurobranchiae”). In an ideal scheme
each thoracic appendage beginning with the first maxillipede would
possess a podobranch, two arthrobranchs, and a pleurobranch, but the
full complement of gills is never present, various members of the series
being suppressed in the various orders, and thus giving rise to “branchial
formulae” typical of the different groups.
After this brief survey of Crustacean organisation we may be able to
form an opinion upon the position of the Crustacea relative to other
Arthropoda, and upon the question debated some time ago in the pages of
Natural Science[13] whether the Arthropoda constitute a natural group.
The Crustacea plainly agree with all the other Arthropoda in the
possession of a rigid exoskeleton segmented into a number of somites, in
the possession of jointed appendages metamerically repeated, some of
which are modified to act as jaws; they further agree in the general
correspondence of the number of segments of which the body is
primitively composed; the condition of the body-cavity or haemocoel is
also similar in the adult state. An apparently fundamental difference is
found in the entire absence during development of a segmented coelom,
but since this organ breaks down and is much reduced in all adult
Arthropods, it is not difficult to believe that its actual formation in the
embryo as a distinct structure might have been secondarily suppressed in
Crustacea.
The method of breathing by gills is paralleled by the respiratory
structures found in Limulus and Scorpions; the transition, if it occurred,
from branchiae to tracheae cannot, it is true, be traced, but the separation
of Arthropods into phyletically distinct groups of Tracheata and
Branchiata on this single characteristic is inadmissible. On the whole the
Crustacea may be considered as Arthropods whose progenitors are to be
sought for among the Trilobita, from whose near relations also probably
sprang Limulus and the Arachnids.
CHAPTER II
CRUSTACEA (CONTINUED): ENTOMOSTRACA
—BRANCHIOPODA—PHYLLOPODA—
CLADOCERA—WATER-FLEAS
SUB-CLASS I.—ENTOMOSTRACA.
The Entomostraca are mostly small Crustacea in which the

segmentation of the body behind the head is very variable, both in regard
to the number of segments and the kind of differentiation exhibited by
those segments and their appendages. An unpaired simple eye, known as
the Nauplius eye from its universal presence in that larval form, often
persists in the adult, and though lateral compound eyes may be present
they are rarely borne on movable stalks. In the adult the excretory gland
(“shell-gland”) opens on the second maxillary segment, but in the larval
state or early stages of development a second antennary gland may also
be present, which disappears in the adult. The liver usually points
forwards, and is simple and saccular in structure, and the stomach is not
complicated by the formation of a gastric mill. With the exception of most
Cladocera and Ostracoda the young hatch out in the Nauplius state.
Order I. Branchiopoda.[14]
The Branchiopods are of small or moderate size, with flattened and

lobate post-cephalic limbs, and with functional gnathobases. Median and
lateral eyes are nearly always present. The labrum is large, and the second
maxillae are small or absent in the adult.
Branchiopods are found in every part of the world; a few are marine,
but the great majority are confined to inland lakes and ponds, or to
slowly-moving streams. The fresh waters, from the smallest pools to the
largest lakes, often swarm with them, as do those streams which flow so
slowly that the creatures can obtain occasional shelter among vegetation
along the sides and bottom without being swept away, while even rivers of
considerable swiftness contain some Cladocera. Several Branchiopods are
found in the brackish waters of estuaries, and some occur in lakes and
pools so salt that no other Crustacea, and few other animals of any kind,
can live in them. The great majority swim about with the back
downwards, collecting food in the ventral groove between their post-oral
limbs, and driving it forwards, towards the mouth, by movements of the
gnathobases (p. 10). The food collected in this way consists largely of
suspended organic mud, together with Diatoms and other Algae, and
Infusoria; the larger kinds, however, are capable of gnawing objects of
considerable size, Apus being said to nibble the softer insect larvae, and
even tadpoles. Many Cladocera (e.g. Daphnia, Simocephalus) may be
seen to sink to the bottom of an aquarium, with the ventral surface
downwards, and to collect mud, or even to devour the dead bodies of their
fellows, while Leptodora is said to feed upon living Copepods, which it
catches by means of its antennae.
The Branchiopoda fall naturally into two Sub-orders, the Phyllopoda
including a series of long-bodied forms, with at least ten pairs of post-
cephalic limbs, and the Cladocera with shorter bodies and not more
than six pairs of post-cephalic limbs.
Sub-Order 1. Phyllopoda.
The Phyllopoda include a series of genera which differ greatly in

appearance, owing to differences in the development of the carapace,
which are curiously correlated with differences in the position of the eyes.
Except in these points, the three families which the sub-order contains
are so much alike that they may conveniently be described together.
In the Branchipodidae the carapace is practically absent, being
represented only by the slight backward projection on each side of the
head which contains the kidney (Fig. 2); the paired eyes are supported on
mobile stalks, and project freely, one on either side of the head.
In the Apodidae[15] the head is broad and depressed, the ventral side
being nearly flat, the dorsal surface convex; the hinder margin of the head
is indicated dorsally by a transverse cervical ridge, bounded by two
grooves, behind which the carapace projects backwards as a great shield,
covering at least half the body, but attached only to the back of the head.
In Lepidurus productus the head and carapace together form an oval
expansion, deeply emarginate at the hinder, narrower end, the sides of
the emargination being toothed. The carapace has a strong median keel.
The kidneys project into the space between the folds of skin which form
the carapace, and their coils can be seen on each side, the terminal part of
each kidney-tube entering the head to open at the base of the second
maxilla. In all Branchiopoda with a well-developed carapace the kidney is
enclosed in it in this way, whence the older anatomists speak of it as the
“shell-gland.”
Fig. 2.—Chirocephalus diaphanus, female, × 5, Sussex. D.O, Dorsal
organ; H, heart; Ov, ovary; U, uterus; V, external generative opening.
Associated with the development of the carapace, in this and in the next
family, is a remarkable condition of the lateral eyes, which are sessile on
the dorsal surface of the head, and near the middle line, the median eye
being slightly in front of them. During embryonic life a fold of skin grows
over all three eyes, so that a chamber is formed over them, which
communicates with the exterior by a small pore in front.
In the Limnadiidae the body is laterally compressed, and the carapace
is so large that at least the post-cephalic part of the body, and generally
the head also, can be enclosed within it.
In Limnetis (Fig. 3) the dorsal
surface of the head is bent
downwards and is much
compressed, the carapace being
attached to it only for a short
distance near the dorsal middle line.
The sides of the carapace are bent
downwards, and their margins can
be pulled together by a transverse
adductor muscle, so that the whole
structure forms an ovoid or
spheroidal case, from which the
head projects in front, while the rest
Fig. 3.—Limnetis brachyura, × 15. (After
of the body is entirely contained G. O. Sars.)
within it. When the adductor muscle
is relaxed the edges of the carapace
gape slightly, like the valves of a Lamellibranch shell, and food-particles
are drawn through the opening thus formed into the ventral groove by the
movements of the thoracic feet, locomotion being chiefly effected by the
rowing action of the second antennae, as in the Cladocera, to which all the
Limnadiidae present strong resemblances in their method of locomotion,
in the condition of the carapace, and in the form of the telson.
In Limnadia and Estheria the carapace projects not only backwards
from the point of attachment to the head, but also forwards, so that the
head can be enclosed by it, together with the rest of the body.
In all these genera the carapace is flexible along the middle dorsal line;
in Estheria especially the softening of the dorsal cuticle goes so far that a
definite hinge-line is formed, and this, together with the deposition of the
lateral cuticle in lines concentrically arranged round a projecting umbo,
gives the carapace a strong superficial likeness to a Lamellibranch shell,
for which it is said to be frequently mistaken by collectors.
The eyes of the Limnadiidae are enclosed in a chamber formed by a
growth of skin over them, as in Apodidae, but the pore by which this
chamber communicates with the exterior is even more minute than in
Apus. The paired eyes are so close together that they may touch
(Limnadia, Estheria) or fuse (Limnetis); they are farther back than in the
Apodidae, while the ventral curvature of the head causes the median eye
to lie below them. In all these points the eyes of the Limnadiidae are
intermediate between those of Apus and those of the Cladocera.
Dorsal Organ.—A structure very characteristic of adult Phyllopods is
the “dorsal organ” (Figs. 2, 5, D.O), whose function is in many cases
obscure. It is always a patch of modified cephalic ectoderm, supplied by a
nerve from the anterior ventral lobe of the brain on each side; but its
characters, and apparent function, differ in different forms. In the
Branchipodidae the dorsal organ is a circular patch, far forward on the
surface of the head (Figs. 2, 5, D.O). Its cells are arranged in groups,
which remind one of the retinulae in a compound eye; each cell contains a
solid concretion, and the concretions of a group may be so placed as to
look like a badly-formed rhabdom. Claus,[16] who first called attention to
this structure in the Branchipodidae, regarded it as a sense-organ. In
Apodidae the dorsal organ is an oval patch of columnar ectoderm,
immediately behind the eyes; it is slightly raised above the surrounding
skin, and is covered by a very delicate cuticle (with an opening to the
exterior?), and below it is a mass of connective tissue permeated by blood;
Bernard has suggested that it is an excretory organ.
Most Limnadiidae resemble the Cladocera in the possession of a
“dorsal organ” quite distinct from the above; in Limnetis and Estheria it
has the form of a small pit, lined by an apparently glandular ectoderm,
and this is its condition in many Cladocera; in Limnadia lenticularis it is
a patch of glandular epithelium on a raised papilla. Limnadia has been
observed to anchor itself to foreign objects by pressing its dorsal organ
against them, and many Cladocera do the same thing; Sida crystallina,
for example, will remain for hours attached by its dorsal organ to a
waterweed or to the side of an aquarium. Structures resembling a dorsal
organ occur in the larvae of many other Crustacea, but the presence of
this organ in the adult is confined to Branchiopods, and indeed in many
Cladocera it disappears before maturity. It is certain that the sensory and
adhesive types of dorsal organ are not homologous, especially as
rudimentary sense-organs may exist on the head of Cladocera together
with the adhesive organ.
The telson differs considerably in the different genera. In the
Branchipodidae[17] the anus opens directly backwards; and the telson
carries two flattened backwardly directed plates, one on each side of the
anus, the margins of each plate being fringed with plumose setae. In
Artemia the anal plates are rarely as large as in Branchipus, and never
have their margins completely fringed with setae; in A. salina from
Western Europe, and in A. fertilis (Fig. 4, A) from the Great Salt Lake of
Utah, there is a variable number of setae round the apical half of each
lobe, but in specimens of A. salina from Western Siberia the number of
setae may be very small, or they may be absent; in the closely allied A.
urmiana from Persia the anal lobes are well developed in the male, each
lobe bearing a single terminal hair, but they are altogether absent in the
female. Schmankewitch and Bateson have shown that there is a certain
relation between the salinity of the water in which Artemia salina occurs
and the condition of the anal lobes, specimens from denser waters having
on the whole fewer setae; the relation is, however, evidently very complex,
and further evidence is wanted before any more definite statements can
be made.
Fig. 4.—A, Ventral view of the anal region in Artemia fertilis, from the
Great Salt Lake; B, ventral view of the telson and neighbouring parts of
Lepidurus productus; C, side view of the telson and left anal lobe of
Estheria (sp.?).
In the Apodidae the anal lobes have the form of two-jointed cirri, often
of considerable length; in Apus the anus is terminal, but in Lepidurus
(Fig. 4, B) the dorsal part of the telson is prolonged backwards, so as to
form a plate, on the ventral face of which the anus opens, much as in the
Malacostraca.
In the Limnadiidae (Fig. 4, C) the telson is laterally compressed and
produced, on each side of the anus, into a flattened, upwardly curved
process, sharply pointed posteriorly, and often serrate; the anal lobes are
represented by two stout curved spines, while in place of the dorsal
prolongation of Lepidurus we find two long plumose setae above the
anus. In the characters of the telson and anal lobes, as in those of the
head, the Limnadiidae approximate to the Cladocera. In Limnetis
brachyura the ventral face of the telson is produced into a plate
projecting backwards below the anus, in a manner which has no exact
parallel among other Crustacea.
The appendages of the Phyllopoda are fairly uniform in character,
except those affected by the sexual dimorphism, which is usually great.
Fig. 5.—Chirocephalus diaphanus, male. Side view of head, showing
the large second antenna, A2, with its appendage Ap, above which is
seen the filiform first antenna; D.O, dorsal organ; E1, median eye.
Of the cephalic appendages, the first antennae are generally small, and
are never biramous; in Branchipus and its allies they are simple unjointed
rods, in some species of Artemia they are three-jointed, in Apus they are
feebly divided into two joints, while in Estheria they are many-jointed.
The second antennae are the principal organs of locomotion in the
Limnadiidae, where they are large and biramous; in all other Phyllopoda
they are uniramous in the female, being either unjointed triangular plates
as in Chirocephalus (Fig. 2), or minute vestigial filaments as in Apus, in
which genus Zaddach, Huxley, and Claus have all failed to find any trace
of a second antenna in some females. In the male Branchipodidae the
second antennae are modified to form claspers, by which the female is
seized, the various degrees of complication which these claspers exhibit
affording convenient generic characters. In Branchinecta each second
antenna is a thick, three-jointed rod, the last joint forming a claw, while
the second joint is serrate on its inner margin; in Branchipus the base is
much thickened, and bears on its inner side a large filament (perhaps
represented by the proximal tubercle of Branchinecta and Artemia),
which looks like an extra antenna. In Streptocephalus the terminal joint
of the antenna is bifid, and there is a basal filament like that of
Branchipus; in Chirocephalus
diaphanus (Figs. 5, 6) the main
branch of the antenna consists of
two large joints, the terminal joint
being a strong claw with a serrated
process at its base, while the
proximal joint bears two
appendages on its inner side; one of
these is a small, subconical tubercle,
the second is more complicated,
consisting of a main stem and five
outgrowths. The main stem is
many-jointed and flexible, its basal
joint being longer than the others,
and bearing on its outer side a large,
triangular, membranous appendage,
and four soft cylindrical
appendages, the main stem and its
appendages being beset with
curious tubercles, ending in short
spines, whose structure is not
understood. Except during the act of
copulation this remarkable Fig. 6.—Chirocephalus diaphanus.
Second antenna of male, uncoiled.
apparatus is coiled on the inner side
of the antennary claw, the jointed
stem being so coiled that it is often compared to the coiled proboscis of a
butterfly, and the triangular membrane folded like a fan beside it, so that
much of the organ is concealed, and the general appearance of the head is
that shown in Fig. 5. During copulation, the whole structure is widely
extended.
The males of Artemia (Fig. 7) have the second antenna two-jointed, the
basal joint bearing an inner tubercle, the terminal joint being flattened
and bluntly pointed, its outer margin provided with a membranous
outgrowth. In A. fertilis the breadth of the second joint varies greatly, the
narrower forms presenting a certain remote resemblance to
Branchinecta. In the males of Polyartemia the second antennae have a
remarkable branched form not easily comparable with that found in other
Branchipodidae.
The cephalic jaws are fairly uniform throughout the order. The
mandibles have an undivided molar surface, and no palp; the first maxilla
is very generally a triangular plate, with a setose biting edge; mandibles
and maxillae are covered by the
labrum. The second maxilla
generally lies outside the chamber
formed by the labrum, and is a
simple oval plate, with or without a
special process for the duct of the
kidney.
The thoracic limbs, in front of the
genital segments, are not as a rule
differentiated into anterior
Fig. 7.—Artemia fertilis. Front view of the maxillipedes and posterior
head of a male, showing the large second locomotive appendages, as in higher
antennae, A.2; A.1, first antennae. forms; we have seen, however, that
all these limbs take part in the
prehension of food, and except in
the Limnadiidae they all assist in locomotion. One of the middle thoracic
legs of Artemia (Fig. 8, A) has a flattened stem, with seven processes on
its inner, and two on its outer margin. The gnathobase (gn) is large, and
fringed with long plumose setae, each of which is jointed; this is followed
by four smaller “endites” (or processes on the median side), and then by
two larger ones, the terminal endite (the sixth, excluding the gnathobase)
being very mobile and attached to the main stem by a definite joint. On
the outer side are two processes; a proximal “bract,” a flat plate with
crenate edges, partly divided by a constriction into two, and a distal
process, cylindrical and vascular, called by Sars and others the
“epipodite.” In other Branchipodidae we have essentially the same
condition, except that the fifth endite often becomes much larger than in
Artemia, throwing the terminal endite well over to the outer edge of the
limb; such a shift as this, continued farther, might well lead to the
condition found in the Limnadiidae, or Apodidae, where the lobe which
seems to represent the terminal endite of Artemia is entirely on the outer
border of the limb, forming what most writers have called the exopodite
(Lankester’s “flabellum”).[18] In the two last-named families the basal
exite or bract of the Branchipodidae does not appear to be represented.
Fig. 8.—A, Thoracic limb of Chirocephalus diaphanus; B, prehensile
thoracic limb of male Estheria. gn, Gnathobase; 1–6, the more distal
endites.
The limbs of the Apodidae are remarkable in two ways; those in front of
the genital opening (very constantly ten pairs) are not so nearly alike as in
most genera of the sub-order, the first two pairs especially having the axis
definitely jointed, while the endites are elongated and antenniform;
further, while the first eleven segments bear each a single pair of limbs, as
is usual among Crustacea, many of the post-genital segments bear several
pairs; thus in Apus cancriformis there are thirty-two post-cephalic
segments in front of the telson, the first eleven having each one pair of
limbs, while the next seventeen have fifty-two pairs between them, the
last four segments having none.
In all the Phyllopoda some of the post-cephalic limbs are modified for
reproductive purposes; in the Branchipodidae the last two pairs (the 12th
and 13th generally, the 20th and 21st in Polyartemia) are so modified in
both sexes. In the female these appendages fuse at an early period of
larval life, and surround the median opening of the generative duct (Fig.
2); in the male the two pairs also fuse, but traces of the limbs are left as
eversible processes round the paired openings of the vasa deferentia.
In the other families, one or more limbs of the female are adapted for
carrying or supporting the eggs. In the Apodidae the appendages of the
eleventh segment have the exopodite in the form of a rounded,
watchglass-shaped plate, fitting over a similarly shaped process of the
axis of the limb, so that a lens-shaped box is formed, into which the eggs
pass from the oviduct. In Limnadiidae the eggs are carried in masses
between the body and the carapace, and are kept in position by special
elongations of the exopodites of two or three legs, either those near the
middle of the thorax (Estheria, Limnadia), or at its posterior end
(Limnetis). In female Limnetis the last thoracic segments bear two
remarkable lateral plates, which apparently also help to support the eggs.
In the male Limnadiidae, the first (Limnetis) or the first two thoracic feet
(Limnadia, Estheria) are prehensile (Fig. 8, B).
Alimentary Canal.—The mouth of the Phyllopoda is overhung by the
large labrum, so that a kind of atrium is formed, outside the mouth itself,
in which mastication is performed; numerous unicellular glands, opening
on the oral face of the labrum, pour their secretion into the atrial
chamber, and may be called salivary, though the nature of their secretion
is not known. The mouth has commonly two swollen and setose lips,
running longitudinally forwards from the bases of the first maxillae, and
often wrapping round the blades of the mandibles. It leads into a vertical
oesophagus, which opens into a small globular stomach, lying entirely
within the head; the terminal part of the oesophagus is slightly
invaginated into the stomach, so that a valvular ring is formed at the
junction of the two. The stomach opens widely behind into a straight
intestine, which runs backwards to about the level of the telson, where it
joins a short rectum, leading to the terminal or ventral anus. The stomach
and intestine are lined by a columnar epithelium, and covered by a thin
network of circularly arranged muscle-fibres; the rectum has a flatter
epithelium, and radial muscles pass from it to the body-wall, so that it can
be dilated. The only special digestive glands are two branched glandular
tubes, situated entirely within the head, which open into the stomach by
large ducts, one on each side. In Chirocephalus the gastric glands are
fairly small and simple; in the Apodidae their branches are more complex
and form a considerable mass, filling all that portion of the head which is
not occupied by the nervous system and the muscles. Backwardly directed
gastric glands, like those of the higher Crustacea, are not found in
Branchiopods; both forms occur together in the genus Nebalia, but with
this exception the forwardly-directed glands are peculiar to
Branchiopods.
Heart.—In Branchipus and its allies, and in Artemia, the heart
extends from the first thoracic segment to the penultimate segment of the
body, and is provided with eighteen pairs of lateral openings, one pair in
every segment through which it passes except the last; it is widely open at
its hinder end, and is prolonged in front for a short distance as a cephalic
aorta, the rest of the blood-spaces being lacunar.
In most, at least, of the other Branchiopods, the heart is closed behind
and is shortened; in Apus and Lepidurus it only extends through the first
eleven post-cephalic segments, while in the Limnadiidae it is shorter still,
the heart of Limnetis passing through four segments only. In all cases
there is a pair of lateral openings in every segment traversed by the heart.
The blood of the Branchipodidae and Apodidae contains dissolved
haemoglobin, the quantity present being so small as to give but a faint
colour to the blood in Branchipus, while Artemia has rather more, and
the blood of Apus is very red. The only other Crustacea in which the blood
contains haemoglobin are the Copepods of the genus Lernanthropus,[19]
so that the appearance of this substance is as irregular and inexplicable in
Crustacea as in Chaetopods and Molluscs.
The nervous system of Branchipus may be described as an
illustration of the condition prevailing in the group. The brain consists of
two closely united ganglia, in each of which three main regions may be
distinguished; a ventral anterior lobe, a dorsal anterior lobe, and a
posterior lobe. The ventral anterior lobes give off nerves to the median
eye, to the dorsal organ, and to a pair of curious sense-organs,
comparable with the larval sense-knobs of many higher forms, situated
one on each side of the median eye; in late larvae Claus describes the
terminal apparatus of each frontal sense-organ as a single large
hypodermic cell; W. K. Spencer[20] has lately described several terminal
cells, containing peculiar chitinous bodies, in the adult. The homologous
sense-organs of Limnetis are apparently olfactory. The dorsal anterior
lobes give off the large nerves to the lateral eyes, while the posterior lobes
supply the first antennae. The oesophageal connectives have a coating of
ganglion-cells, and some of these form the ganglion of the second
antenna, the nerve to this appendage leaving the connective just behind
the brain. The post-oral nerve-cords are widely separate, each of them
dilating into a ganglion opposite every appendage, the two ganglia being
connected by two transverse commissures. The ganglia of the three
cephalic jaws, so often fused in the higher Crustacea, are here perfectly
distinct. Closely connected with each thoracic ganglion is a remarkable
unicellular gland, opening to the exterior near the middle ventral line; it
is conceivable that these cells may be properly compared with the larval
nephridia of a Chaetopod,[21] but no evidence in support of such a
comparison has yet been adduced.
Behind the genital segments, where there are no limbs, the nerve-cords
run backwards without dilating into segmental ganglia, except in the
anterior two abdominal segments where small ganglionic enlargements
occur. In Apodidae, on the other hand, those segments which carry more
than one pair of appendages have as many pairs of ganglia, united by
transverse commissures, as they have limbs.
A stomatogastric nervous system exists in Apus, where a nerve arises
on each side from the first post-oral commissure, and runs forward to join
its fellow of the opposite side on the anterior wall of the oesophagus.
From the loop so formed a larger median and a series of smaller lateral
nerves pass to the wall of the alimentary canal. A second nerve to the
oesophagus is given off from the mandibular ganglion of each side.
Reproductive Organs.—In Chirocephalus the ovaries (Fig. 2, Ov)
are hollow epithelial tubes, lying one on each side of the alimentary canal,
and extending from the sixth abdominal segment forwards to the level of
the genital opening; at this point the two ovaries are continuous with
ducts, which bend sharply downwards and open into the single uterus
contained within the projecting egg-pouch and opening to the exterior at
the apex of that organ. Short diverticula of the walls of the uterus receive
the ducts of groups of unicellular glands, the bodies of which contain a
peculiar opaque secretion, said to form the eggshells. In Apodidae the
ovaries are similar in structure, but they are much larger and branch in a
complex manner, while each ovary opens to the exterior independently of
the other in the eleventh post-cephalic segment; nothing like the median
uterus of the Branchipodidae being formed. The epithelium of the ovarian
tubes proliferates, and groups of cells are formed; one becoming an ovum,
the others being nutrient cells like those which will be more fully
described in the Cladocera.
In Chirocephalus the testes are tubes similar in shape and position to
the ovaries, each communicating in front with a short vas deferens, which
dilates into a vesicula seminalis on its way to the eversible penis; an
essentially similar arrangement is found in all Branchipodidae, but in
Apodidae and Limnadiidae there is no penis.
All the Branchiopoda are dioecious,[22] and many are parthenogenetic.
Among Branchipodidae Artemia is the only genus known to be
parthenogenetic, but parthenogenesis is common in all Apodidae, while
the males of several species of Limnadia are still unknown, although the
females are sometimes exceedingly common. In Artemia, generations in
which the males are about as numerous as the females seem to alternate
fairly quickly with others which contain only parthenogenetic females; in
Apus males are rarely abundant, and often absent for long periods; during
five consecutive years von Siebold failed to discover a male in a locality in
Bavaria, though he examined many thousands of individuals; near
Breslau he found on one occasion about 11 per cent of males (114 in 1026),
but in a subsequent year he found less than 1 per cent; the greatest
recorded percentage of males is that observed by Lubbock in 1863, when
he found 33 males among 72 individuals taken near Rouen.
The eggs of most genera can resist prolonged periods of desiccation,
and indeed it seems necessary for the development of many species that
the eggs should be first dried and afterwards placed in water. Many eggs
(e.g. of Chirocephalus diaphanus and Branchipus stagnalis) float when
placed in water after desiccation, the development taking place at the
surface of the water.
Habitat.—All the Phyllopoda, except Artemia, are confined to
stagnant shallow waters, especially to such ponds as are formed during
spring rains, and dry up during the summer. In waters of this kind the
species of Branchipus, Apus, etc., develop rapidly, and produce great
numbers of eggs, which are left in the dried mud at the bottom after
evaporation of the water, where they remain quiescent until a fresh rainy
season. The mud from the beds of such temporary pools often contains
large numbers of eggs, which may be carried by wind, on the legs of birds,
and by other means, to considerable distances. Many exotic species have
been made known to European naturalists by their power of hatching out
when mud brought home by travellers is placed in water. The water of
stagnant pools quickly dissolves a certain quantity of solid matter from
the soil, and often receives dissolved solids through surface drainage from
the neighbouring land; such salts may remain as the water evaporates, so
that the water which remains after evaporation has proceeded for some
time may be very sensibly denser than that in which the Branchiopods
were hatched; these creatures must therefore be able to endure a
considerable increase in the salinity of the surrounding waters during the
course of their lives. My friend Mr. W. W. Fisher points out that the
plants present in such a pond would often precipitate the carbonate of
lime, so that this might be removed as evaporation went on, but that
chlorides would probably remain in solution; from analyses which Mr.
Fisher has been kind enough to make for me, it is seen that this happened
in a small aquarium in my laboratory, in which Chirocephalus diaphanus
lived for four months. In April, mud from the dry bed of a pond, known to
contain eggs of Chirocephalus, was placed in this aquarium in Oxford,
and water was added from the tap. Oxford tap-water contains about 0·3
grm. salts per litre, the chlorine being equivalent to 0·023 grm. NaCl.
Water was added from time to time during May and June, but in July
evaporation was allowed to proceed unchecked. At the end of July there
was about half the original volume of water, the Chirocephalus being still
active; the residue contained 0·96 grm. dissolved solids per litre, with
chlorine equal to 0·19 grm. NaCl, so that the percentage of chlorides was
about eight times the initial percentage, but there were only three and a
fifth times the original amount of total solid matter in solution, the
carbonate of lime having precipitated as a visible film.
Some species of Branchipus (e.g. B. spinosus, M. Edw.) and of Estheria
(E. macgillivrayi, Baird, E. gubernator, Klutzinger) occur in salt pools,
but Artemia flourishes in waters beside whose salinity that endured by
any other Branchiopod is insignificant. In the South of Europe, Artemia
salina may be found in swarms, as it used to be found in Dorsetshire, in
the shallow brine-pans from which salt is commercially prepared; Rathke
quotes an analysis showing that a pool in the Crimea contained living
Artemia when the salts in solution were 271 grms. per litre, and the water
was said to have the colour and consistency of beer.
The behaviour of the animals in the water differs a little; in normal
feeding all the species swim with the back downwards, as has already
been said; the Branchipodidae rarely settle on the ground, or on foreign
objects, but the Apodidae occasionally wriggle along the bottom on their
ventral surface, and Estheria burrows in mud.
The greater number of species are found in pools in flat, low-lying
regions, and many appear to be especially abundant near the sea; Apus
cancriformis has, however, been found in Armenia at 10,000 feet above
sea level.
Wells and underground waters do not generally contain Phyllopods;
but a species of Branchipus and one of Limnetis, both blind, have been
described from the caves of Carniola.
One of the many puzzles presented by these creatures is the erratic way
in which they are scattered through the regions they inhabit; a single
small pond, a few yards or less in diameter, may be the only place within
many miles in which a given species can be found; in this pond it may,
however, appear regularly season after season for some time, and then
suddenly vanish.
Geographically, the Phyllopoda are cosmopolitan, representatives of
every family and of some genera (e.g. Streptocephalus, Lepidurus,
Estheria) being found in every one of the great zoological regions, though
a few aberrant genera are of limited range, thus Polyartemia is known
only from the northern Palaearctic and Nearctic regions,
Thamnocephalus only from the Central United States. The genus Artemia
is not at present known in Australia.[23] The only recorded British species
are Chirocephalus diaphanus, Artemia salina, and Apus cancriformis,[24]
but other continental islands, for example the West Indian group, are
better supplied. The distribution of the species is very imperfectly known,
but on the whole every main zoological region seems to have its own
peculiar species, which do not pass beyond its boundaries. Branchinecta
paludosa and Lepidurus glacialis are circumpolar, both occurring in
Norway, in Lapland, in Greenland, and in Arctic North America; but with
these exceptions the Palaearctic and Nearctic species seem to be distinct.
The European species Apus cancriformis occurs in Algiers, but the
relations between the species of Northern Africa as a whole and those of
Southern Europe on the one hand, or of Central and Southern Africa on
the other, have yet to be worked out.
The soft-bodied Branchipodidae are not known in the fossil condition;
[25]
an Apus, closely related to the modern A. cancriformis, has been
found in the Trias, but the most numerous remains have been left, as
might be expected, by the hard-shelled Limnadiidae; carapaces, closely
resembling those of the modern Estheria, are known in beds of all ages
from the Devonian period to recent times; these carapaces are in several
cases associated with fossils of an apparently marine type. None of the
fossil species differ in any important characters from those now living, so
that the Phyllopoda have existed in practically their present form for an
enormously long period; this fact, and the evidence that species of
existing genera were at one time marine, explain the wide distribution of
animals at present restricted to a remarkably limited range of
environmental conditions.
Summary of the Characters of the Genera.
Sub-Order Phyllopoda.—Branchiopoda with an elongated body,

provided with at least ten pairs of post-cephalic limbs, the heart
extending through four or more thoracic segments, and having at
least four pairs of ostia.
Fam. 1. Branchipodidae.[26]—Carapace rudimentary, eyes stalked;
the second antennae flat and unjointed in the female, jointed and
prehensile in the male; female generative opening single; telson not
laterally compressed, bearing two flattened lobes, or none. The heart
extending through the thorax and the greater part of the abdomen.
A. Eleven pairs of praegenital ambulatory limbs.
a. Abdomen of six well-formed segments and a telson; anal
lobes well formed, their margins setose.
Branchinecta, Verrill—Second antennae of ♂ without
lateral appendages; ovisac of ♀ elongated. B. paludosa,
O. F. Müll.—Circumpolar.
Branchiopodopsis, G. O. Sars[27]—Second antennae of ♂ as
in Branchinecta; ovisac of ♀ short. B. hodgsoni, G. O.
Sars—Cape of Good Hope.
Branchipus, Schaeffer—Second antennae of ♂ with simple
internal filamentous appendage. B. stagnalis, Linn.—
Central Europe.
Streptocephalus, Baird—Second antennae of ♂ 3–jointed,
the last joint bifid; an external filamentous appendage. S.
torvicornis, Wagn., Poland.
Chirocephalus, Prévost—Second antennae of ♂ 3–jointed,
with a jointed internal appendage, which bears secondary
processes, four cylindrical and one lamellar. C.
diaphanus, Prévost (Fig. 2, p. 20).—Britain, Central
Europe.
b. Abdominal segments five or fewer, and a telson. Anal lobes
small or 0, sparsely or not at all setose.
Artemia, Leach—Second antennae of ♂ without
filamentous appendage, 2–jointed, the second joint
lamellar. A. salina, Linn.—Brine pools of the Palaearctic
region.
c. Hinder abdominal segments united with telson to form a fin;
anal lobes absent.
Thamnocephalus, Packard—Head with a branched median
process of unknown nature. Only species T. platyurus,
Packard—Kansas, U.S.A.
B. Nineteen pairs of praegenital ambulatory limbs.
Polyartemia, Fischer—Second antennae of ♂ forcipate;
ovisac of ♀ very short. Only species P. forcipata, Fisch.
Fam. 2. Apodidae.[28]—Carapace well developed as a depressed
shield, covering at least half the body. Eyes sessile, covered; no male
clasping organs; anal lobes long, jointed cirri.
Apus, Scopoli—Telson not produced backwards over the
anus; endites of first thoracic limb very long. A.
cancriformis, Schaeffer—Britain, Europe, Algiers, Tunis.
A. australiensis, Central Australia.
Lepidurus, Leach—Telson produced backwards to form a
plate above the anus; endites of first thoracic limb short.
L. productus, Bosc.—Central Europe. L. viridis, Southern
Australia, New Zealand, L. patagonicus, Bergh,
Argentines.
Fam. 3. Limnadiidae.—Body compressed; carapace in the form
of a bivalve shell, the two halves capable of adduction by means of a
strong transverse muscle; second antennae biramous, alike in both
sexes; in the male, the first or the first and second thoracic limbs
prehensile; telson laterally compressed.
A. Only the first thoracic limbs prehensile in the male; the carapace
spheroidal, without lines of growth; head not included within the
carapace-chamber.
Limnetis, Lovén—Compound eyes fused; anal spines
absent; ambulatory limbs 10–12. L. brachyura, O. F.
Müll (Fig. 3, p. 21).—Norway, Central Europe.
B. The first and second thoracic limbs prehensile in the male;
carapace distinctly bivalve, enclosing the head, with concentric
lines of growth round a more or less prominent umbo.
Eulimnadia, Packard—Carapace narrowly ovate, with few
(4–5) lines of growth. E. mauritani, Guérin—Mauritius.
E. texana, Packard—Texas, Kansas.
Limnadia, Brongniart—Carapace broadly ovate, with
numerous lines of growth, without distinct umbones; L.
lenticularis, Linn.—Northern and Central Europe.
Estheria, Rüppell—Carapace with well-marked umbones
and numerous lines of growth, oval; E. tetraceros,
Kryneki—Central Europe.

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(eBook PDF) Child Development: A

Cultural Approach Australia By Jeffrey

cultures 169 Canada: cultural interpretations 277

n Education focus: How do parents choose relationships in middle childhood across

FeaturesGenetics and prenatal

Opening vignettes begin each chapter and

The germinal period (first 2 weeks)

Hill Street Studios/Tetra Images, LLC/Alamy Stock Photo

M02_ARNE0744_01_SE_C02.indd 49 08/07/19 9:02 AM

help students appreciate the diversity that exists

of culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and

other factors in child development.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: HEALTH ISSUES

LO 7.3 Malnutrition and obesity

Drawings become more realistic as fine motor development advances

With regard to writing, in early childhood most children learn to

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: HEALTH ISSUES

LO 7.3 Malnutrition and obesity

RESEARCH FOCUS The daily rhythms of adolescents’ family lives

Research focus features offer a detailed A

description of a research study, including its

premises, methods, results and limitations.

Multiple-choice review questions appear at the

483 American adolescents in grades 5–12 (similar to

end of the feature to ensure that students have

The daily rhythms of adolescents’ family lives

a solid understanding of the research study

and methodology. dolescent researchers have found the

social lives. the esm involves having people wear

day to record their thoughts, feelings and behaviour

as events take place. Reed larson and maryse

lthough many cultures have folk beliefs

about pregnancy that have no scientific or

motor development, educational practices

practical basis, most also have customs

majority of mother–adolescent interactions were rated

of her visits to the pregnant woman. While

talking together, going out together and sharing a meal.

the woman various questions about how the

position in the uterus. if the fetus is turned in

How does a parent choose among the many kinds of

Education focus features provide an in-depth M02_ARNE0744_01_SE_C02.indd 71 08/07/19 9:02 AM

How does a parent choose among the many kinds of

view of educational issues from preschool

through to higher education. Topics include child

care options, preschool programs, achievement

for many parents in many communities,

an important consideration. montessori, reggio

Cultural variations in preschool

throughout, including sections on peer learning,

educating children with special needs and the

montessori programs are child-centred, with

that play is a child’s work, meaning that play is central

Critical-thinking questions encourage

LO 1.14 Research methods

appear in every major section and often focus Questionnaires

HOW WE STUDY CHILD DEVELOPMENT:

RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS

LO 6.2 Describe the changes in brain development that

of brain development that explain infantile during early childhood.

of iron. problems, but it is also associated with exceptional abilities.

Chapter quizzes at the end of each chapter