Soil Fertility Conservation and Management Module

Central Philippines State University
College of Agriculture and Forestry

Kabankalan City, Negros Occidental
Soil Science 2
Soil Fertility, Conservation and
Management
Instructional Module
Mica G. Binongo, MsC
Marlyn C. Entuna, MsC
Maryvic P. Pedrosa. MsC
2020
i
By
Mica G. Binongo
Marlyn C. Entuna
Maryvic P. Pedrosa
Instructional module for students enrolling Soil Science 2 under the curriculum of
Bachelor of Science in Agriculture and allied courses
College of Agriculture and Forestry

Central Philippines State University
Kabankalan City, Negros Occidental
ii
N OTE TO THE READERS
This module is designated to provide technical knowledge and applicable

information about the complex system of plant and soil relationships, especially related to
the way the soil provides essential nutrition to plants, how important is fertility
evaluation, and how nutrient management can affect the environment. This follows up by
the issues of soil erosion and soil conservation management practices presented in
module 2.
This module is designed and developed for students of Central Philippines State
University (CPSU) who are enrolled with Soil Sci 2, Soil Fertility, Conservation, and
Management taking up courses under the curriculum of College of Agriculture and
Forestry.
Understanding the principles of soil fertility is vital to efficient nutrient

management, profitable production, and environmental protection. Also, the ever-
increasing deterioration of soil through soil erosion is very alarming. The effects of it will
cost billions of losses in the agriculture sector as well as in the natural resources sector.
Thus, principles of conservation and management are introducing in this module to
developed students a conceptual framework in designing control measures against soil
erosion.
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A CKNOWLEDGMENT
The instructors would like to thank you with deep appreciation and gratitude to
the College of Agriculture and Forestry faculty and staff for the companionship and
support during the making of this module.
We also wish to thank our dear family and friends as an inspiration and for being
understanding.
Finally, we thank you, Lord, for the source of the knowledge, understanding, and
wisdom. From him, we owe all that we have all that we are.
Again, thank you for those who have encouraged and helped us in preparing this
module and who have extended us much understanding, patience, and support.
-Instructors
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
Note to the Readers ii
Acknowledgment iii
Table of Contents iv
MODULE 1. SOIL FERTILITY AND MANAGEMENT 1
Pre-test 2
LESSON I. Introduction 4
Definition of soil fertility and soil productivity 4
Importance of soil fertility/soil quality 4
Factors affecting soil productivity 5
Historical development of plant nutrition and soil fertility 6
Important people in the development of soil fertility 7
Soil fertility research during the twentieth century 10
Enhancement Activities 12
LESSON II. Soil-Plant Relationships 15
Definition of Terms 16
Essential elements in soils and their forms 16
Profile distribution of elements 19
Role of essential elements in plant nutrients 20
Biochemical classification of nutrients 24
Availability of nutrients 25
Mechanism of nutrient uptake 26
Relationship between soil nutrient supply and plant growth 30
Linear response plateau model (LRP) 31
Law of the minimum (Leibig) 33
Mitscherlich‘s Equation 35
Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur economy of soils 37
Micronutrients 51
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Causes of the decline in soil fertility 59

LESSON III. Evaluation of Soil Fertility 65
Definition of terms 66
Diagnostic Procedures 66
Procedures for determining amounts of nutrients needed 71
Microbiological Methods 74
Pot Cultures 75
Fertilizer and Fertilizer Materials 78
LESSON IV. Problem Soils 87
Characteristics of Different Problems Soils 88
Formation of saline and sodic soils 92
Growth of plants on halomorphic soils 93
Management of saline, sodic, zinc deficient and acid soils 95
Mastery Test 102
REFERENCES 105
MODULE 2. SOIL CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT 107
Pre – Test 108
LESSON 1: Erosion Process and Mechanics 110
Definition 111
Effects of Soil Erosion 112
Water Erosion 112
Mechanics of Water Erosion 113
Types of Water Erosion 113
Factors Affecting the Rate of Water Erosion 116
Wind Erosion 119
Mechanics of Wind Erosion 119
Modes of Wind – Induced Transportation 119
Factors that Influences Wind Erosion 120
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LESSON II. Soil Erosion Assessment and Modelling 125
Methods of General Assessment for Soil Erosion 126
Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEEP) 126
Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) 126
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) 128
Revised USLE 131
Ephemeral Gully Erosion Model (EGEM) 133
Wind Erosion Prediction Equation (WEQ) 133
Wind Erosion Prediction System (WEPS) 133
Limitations of Water and Wind Models 134
Land Capability Classification 134
LESSON III. Measuring Soil Erosion 139
Importance of Estimating Soil Loss 140
Micro Plots 140
Medium or USLE Plots 140
Large or Watershed Plots 141
Wind – Tunnel Method 141
Point Measurements 141
Radionuclide Fallouts 142
LESSON IV. Soil and Water Conservation Management and
145
Practices
Why conserve soil? 146
Principles of Erosion Control Strategies 146
Agronomic Measures (Cultural Practices) 142
Mechanical/ Engineering Practices 152
Mastery Test 157
REFERENCES 159
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS 161

Page 1 of 169
MODULE 1 SOIL FERTILITY AND

MANAGEMENT
“Fertility of the soil is the future of civilization”

-Albert Howard-
Learning Outcomes:
This module aims to:
 Provide basic information about the historical background of the soil.

 Understand the importance of soil fertility.
 Appreciate the role of soil fertility in sustainable crop production.
 Relate soil behavior and properties with crop performance.
 Apply the theories of nutrient availability, mobility, and exchange in soil and
between soil and plant.
Introduction
In this module, the students are expected to learn about soil nutrient elements,
their availability, measurement and evaluation; and maintenance and improvement of
soil fertility and productivity. These topics will be helpful as basic knowledge.
Hence, this module will introduce you to an in-depth discussion of the following
lessons:
 Historical development of plant nutrition and soil fertility
 Soil-plant relationships
 Role of essential elements in plant nutrients
 Biochemical classification of nutrients
 Availability of nutrients
 Mechanism of nutrient uptake
 Causes of the decline in soil fertility
 Evaluation of soil fertility
 Problem Soils
 Management of problem soils
Page 2 of 169
PRE-TEST
Name: ____________________________________ Score ______________

Course/Year/Section: _______________________ Date _______________
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your
answer on the space provided before each number.
______1. All are climatic factors except;
a. Precipitation c. solar radiation
b. parent materials d. wind velocity
______2. Functions of soils that serves as maintenance of ecosystem functions such as
soil acts as filter, buffer and storage.
a. Production function c. Self-regulation function
b. Transformation functions d. Habitat functions
______3. The most significant discoveries of the early twentieth century that led to a
Nobel prize to Haber for his invention.
a. Ammonia synthesis c. Vermicomposting
b. Beer making d. Distillation
______4. Organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin that is added to the
soil to supply certain elements essential to the growth of plants.
a. HCl c. carbon dioxide
b. Fertilizer d. CaCO3
______5. Liebig‘s law of minimum in effect says that plant growth and yield
a. Is limited by the absence of a nutrient
b. Is limited by that nutrient present below the minimum requirement
c. Is limited by an excess of a particular nutrient
d. All of the above
______6. These elements are present in most amino acids and proteins
a. Phosphorous and Potassium
b. Iron and copper
c. Nitrogen and Sulfur
d. None of the Above
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______7. Most micronutrients become less available at

a. Low pH c. Neutral pH
b. High pH d. All of these
______8. A fertilizer recommendation calls for an application of 60 kg K2O/ha. This is
equivalent to,
a. 100 kg muriate of potash c. 200 kg muriate of potash
b. 300 kg muriate of potash d. none of the above
______9. The most important step in soil chemical tests.
a. sample drying c. sieving
b. reagent preparation d. soil sampling
______10. A method of fertilizer application is mostly adapted for orchard/ornamentals.
a. foliar c. seed pelleting
b. mudball d. trench or perforation
______11. The element which contributes to phosphorous fixation at high soil pH.
a. Al c. Fe
b. Ca d. Mn
______12. The element which fixes phosphorous at low soil pH.
a. Al c. Mg
b. Ca d. K
______13. An element which is an important component of plant cell wall.
a. calcium c. nitrogen
b. magnesium d. phosphorous
______14. The conversion of ammonium form of nitrogen to nitrate.
a. ammonification c. nitrification
b. denitrification d. volatilization
_____15. The process by which nutritional problems are diagnosed and fertilizer
recommendations are made.
a. soil fertility evaluation c. soil sampling
b. soil productivity evaluation d. soil testing
LESSON I. INTRODUCTION TO SOIL FERTILITY

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SOIL FERTILITY AND SOIL PRODUCTIVITY
Soil fertility is defined as the quality that enables the soil to provide the proper
compounds in the proper amount and the proper proportions, for the proper growth of
specified kind of plants when all factors are favorable for growth. This differs from soil
productivity.
Soil productivity is the capability of the soil to produce a specified plant under a
specified system of management. For a soil to be productive, it must of necessity be
fertile. It does not follow, however, that fertile soil is productive. For instance, fertile
soils exist in arid regions, but under systems of management that do not include
irrigation, they cannot be productive for corn or rice.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL FERTILITY/SOIL QUALITY

At present, the world population is increasing and many of our prime agricultural
lands were converted into residential and commercial areas thus, decreasing the area of
arable lands. Therefore, it is important to note that the soil must be balanced to permit the
producers of food and fiber to meet the demands.
Soil fertility is a key factor for successful crop production and it is a measure of
the capacity of soil to supply plant nutrients. The importance of soil fertility management
is being increasingly recognized in all countries recently to meet the demand for food and
other agricultural raw materials. Intensive use of fertilizer, intensive cropping with high
yielding varieties have no doubt increased food production and reduced the food shortage
but it has also brought in numerous problems in the soil and environmental pollution.
Also, it has led to over-exploitation of nutrients and nutrient mining.
Recently, instead of using soil fertility others referred to it as 'soil quality‘. Soil
quality is the sum of all socially valued functions of the soil. Thus, one must know that
soil quality is predominantly determined by soil functions.
1. Production function- soil serves as a medium for plant growth. It assures the
supply of food, feeds, fiber, and fuel.
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2. Transformation function – the nutrients in the soil will be taken up by plants and
will be transformed in its available forms, distributed into the plant system, and
efficiently turns into yield.
3. Habitat function- Soil serves as a living space for various flora and fauna. The
diverse quantity of organisms is inhabiting the soil.
4. Degradation function- when plants and animals die degradation/transformation
of its residues was done by microorganisms in the soil turning into nutrients,
thereby closing the nutrient cycle.
5. Self-regulation function- maintenance of ecosystem functions such as soil acts as
filter, buffer, and storage. It also plays an important role in the ecosystem such as
nutrient cycling, retaining and breaking down harmful substances, keeping
nutrients in the soil, and storing carbon dioxide.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL PRODUCTIVITY

The factors affecting soil productivity include all those which affect the physical,
chemical, and biological conditions of the soil environment in which plants grow. They
include all the practices that affect fertility, the water and air relationships, and the
activity of the biological agents such as insects, pests, diseases, and microorganisms.
I. Internal factors: maybe called genetic or hereditary factors that cannot be

manipulated like soil type, texture, etc.
II. External factors: may be regulated to a certain extent, it includes:
a. Climatic factors: precipitation (rainfall), solar radiation, atmospheric gases

(CO2, NO2, N2O, O2), wind velocity, etc.
b. Edaphic or Soil factors: Soil moisture, soil air, soil temperature, soil mineral
matter, inorganic and organic components, microorganisms, soil reaction.
c. Biotic factors: (i) Plants: have competitive and complementary nature,
competition between weeds and crop plants, plants growing as parasites (ii).
Bacteria of symbionts, free living.
d. Animals: earthworms, small and large animals
e. Physiographic factors: geological strata (parent materials), topography
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(altitude, steepness of the slope)

f. Anthropogenic factors: human factors including skill and efficiency of cultivation
by man.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT NUTRITION AND SOIL

FERTILITY
 The development of the human race began the cultivation of plants marks the
dawn of agriculture.
 Until then man hunted almost exclusively for his food and was nomadic in his
habits. As the years went by man became less of a wanderer and more of a settler.
Families, clans, and villages developed, and with them came the development of
the skill one calls agriculture.
 Mesopotamia (now Iraq), situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what
is shows evidence of very early civilization.
 Canals were built in ancient Athens to move sewage from cities to farmland.
 Ancient Egyptians murals show a lot of agricultural practices like tillage,
planting, irrigation, and harvesting but no fertilization.
 During the golden age of Greeks (800-200 BC) it was recognized that manures
increased productivity and prolonged land use, green manure crops especially
legumes, enriched the soil, marl increased productivity (liming), wood ashes were
beneficial, saltpeter (KNO3) was beneficial to plants and saline soils could be
detected by a taste test.
 Roman art also revealed a lot about their agriculture. In addition to Saturn and
Ceres (Roman god and goddess of Agriculture), there is also a roman god of
manure Stercutius who was worshipped by old women and children.
 It is believed that the human race invented agricultural practices 8,000-10,000
years ago in the area between the Nile Valley in Egypt and Indus in India
(Krishna, 2002).
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IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOIL FERTILITY
1. Theophrastus (327-287 B.C.) - he suggested that plants

with high nutrient requirements also had high water
requirements. He also emphasized the value of green-
manure crops, particularly legumes.
2. Pietro de Crescenzi (1233–1320) -published a book on

agricultural practices
3. Francis Bacon (1561 – 1624) suggested that the principal

nourishment of plants was water. He believed that the main
purpose of the soil was to keep the plants erect and to
protect them from heat and cold and that of each plant
drew from the soil a substance unique for its particular
nourishment.
4. Jan Baptiste van Helmont (1577 – 1644), a Flemish

physician and chemist, his willow tree experiment
"proved" that water was the sole nutrient of plants.
5. Robert Boyle (1627-1691)- reported the work of van

Helmont several years and confirmed the findings of van
Helmont. As a result of the chemical analyses he
performed on plant samples, he stated that plants contained
salts, spirits, earth, and oil, all of which were formed from
water.
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6. J.R. Glauber (1604 – 1668)- a German chemist, suggested

that saltpeter (KNO3) and not water was the ―principle of
vegetation‖.
7. Jethro Tull (1674–1741)- thought that small particles were

ingested by plants and that cultivating the soil made it
easier for plants to take up soil particles. He also wrote the
book ―Horse Hoeing Husbandry‖ and developed the
horseshoe and the seed drill.
8. John Woodward (1700's)- believed that plant growth is

influenced by something other than water.
9. Albrecht Thaer (1752-1829) – he believed in the Humus

Theory that plants live on humus-derived extracts (C, H, O,
N) from which they can rebuild more complex plant tissue.
That it is an internal vital force of plants allows us to
generate other vital nutrients from four elements in humus.
Fertilizer salts and lime good b/c promote humus and OM
breakdown.
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10. Philip Carl Sprengel (1787-1859) - a student of Thaer,

concluded salts in humus extracts were real plant nutrients.
He came up with a list of compounds required for plant
growth and discussed the idea of fertilizers.
11. Theodore de Saussure (1800s) – believed that the soil

provides only small amounts of nutrients required by plants,
He also believed that plants obtain C from the air. The
increase in the mass of the plant as it grows could not be due
only to the uptake of CO2, but also to the uptake of H2O.
Thus, outlining the basic reaction by which plants convert
CO2 and water to glucose.
12. Justus von Liebig (1802 – 1873)- a German chemist, stated

the Law of the minimum in 1862 for predicting crop response
to fertilization. It was also his opinion that the growth of
plants was proportional to the number of mineral substances
available in the fertilizer. Development of the modern
phosphate fertilizer industry began with the demonstration
by Liebig in 1840 that the fertilizer value of bones could be
increased by the treatment with sulfuric acid.
13. J.B. Bousingault (1802-1882)- French chemist

experimented and maintain a balance sheet. He was the first
scientist to conduct a field experiment. He is considered the
father of field experiments.
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14. J.B. Lawes and J.H. Gilbert (1843)- established an

agricultural experiment station at Rothamsted, England and
after twelve years they made the points that crops require
both phosphorus and potash, non-legume crops require a
supply of nitrogen, soil fertility could be maintained for
some years through chemical fertilizers and the beneficial J.H. Gilbert
effect of fallow lies in the increase in the availability of
nitrogen compounds in the soil.
15. John B. Lawes -patented a process of phosphate rock

acidulation in 1842 which led to commercial production of
superphosphate in England in 1845.
J.B. Lawes
SOIL FERTILITY RESEARCH DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

 Ammonia synthesis by the Haber-Bosch process is one of the few most significant
discoveries of the early twentieth century which led to a Nobel Prize to Haber for
his invention.
 During the early to mid-20th century, soil science (Pedology) became a
recognized faculty of agricultural science.
 Soil fertility scientists utilized simple extraction media involving either water,
weak organic acids, or dilute mineral acids to assess nutrient levels in soil and
judge corresponding crop yield levels. These were termed crop response curves,
which could be mathematically modeled or depicted (Mitcherlich, 1923;
Naubauer, 1932).
 Extraction solutions like Trougs, Brays, Mehlichs, Olsen, etc. were consistently
used to assess the available nutrients in the soil.
 One of the most used techniques in plant and soil analysis was devised by
Kjeldahl (1879).
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 At present, plant essential nutrients are routinely estimated using automated

spectrocolorimetry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, emission spectroscopy, X-
ray fluorescence spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy, radioisotope techniques, etc.
Page 12 of 169
ENHANCEMENT
ACTIVITIES
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer
on the space provided before each number.
______1. The capability of the soil to produce a specified plant under a specified system
of management.
a. Soil Fertility c. Soil Productivity
b. Soil Chemistry d. Soil organic matter
______2. He is the one who proposed the Law of Minimum
a. Pietro de Crescenzi c. Justus von Liebig
b. J.R. Glauber d. Theodore de Saussure
______3. A fertile soil is
a. Necessarily productive c. Always productive
b. Not necessarily productive d. None of the above
______4. The following are external factors except;
a. Soil c. Genotype
b. Topography d. Climate
______5. He was the first scientist to conduct a field experiment.
a. J.B. Lawes c. J.H. Gilbert
b. J.B. Bousingault d. Justus von Liebig
______6. Place evident of early civilization.
a. Iran c. Israel
b. Iraq d. Singapore
______7. He is the one who developed the seed drill
a. Jethro Tull c. Francis Bacon
b. Robert Boyle d. Theophrastus
______8. All are climatic factors except;
c. Precipitation c. solar radiation
d. parent materials d. wind velocity
______9. Functions of soils that serve as maintenance of ecosystem functions such as

soil acts as filter, buffer, and storage.
a. Production function c. Self-regulation function
b. Transformation functions d. Habitat functions
______10. The most significant discoveries of the early twentieth century that led to a
Nobel prize to Haber for his invention.
c. Ammonia synthesis c. Vermicomposting
d. Beer making d. Distillation
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II. DISCUSSION. Explain the following in 3 or more sentences.
1. Differentiate soil fertility and soil productivity. Are all fertile soils
productive? Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. How would you improve or maintain soil fertility?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. How do anthropogenic factors affect soil productivity?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. How do internal factors affect crop productivity?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. Why is there a need to study soil fertility?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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LESSON II. SOIL-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS
Learning Outcomes:
This chapter aims to:
 Determine the role of essential elements in plant growth.
 Know the functions of each nutrient in the plant.
 Understand how plant roots absorb nutrients.
 Know the mobility of nutrients in the soil.
 Understand the deficiency symptoms of elements.
 Understand the transformation of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur in
soils and related processes.
 Identify the causes of soil fertility decline.
Introduction
A plant needs nutrients that are essential for nourishments and plant metabolic
processes. Understanding the role and functions of each nutrient will enable us to
determine what nutrients should be added to maximize crop production. It is also
important to know the complex processes of how plants absorb nutrients and their
mobility in plants and soils. Moreover, it will also serve as a guide in determining the
deficiency symptoms in plants.
This chapter also tackles additional information about beneficial elements,
why there are only 17 essential elements needed by plants for over 100 elements in
the periodic table, the distribution of elements in a profile, the availability, sources,
and nutrient supply in soils.
By the end of this chapter, students will enable to understand the
transformation of elements, its cycle, and related processes, available forms to be
taken up by plants, nutrient deficiency symptoms, the toxicity of elements, and some
reasons for soil fertility decline.
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DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Nutrient: Nutrients are substances required by an organism for their normal
growth and reproduction.
 Plant Nutrient: The plant nutrient is a ―food‖ which is composed of certain
chemical elements often referred to as ‗plant nutrient‘ or plant food elements
considered very essential for the growth and development of plants.
 Nutrition: The supply and absorption of chemical compounds needed for the
growth and metabolism of an organism.
 Deficient: When an essential element is at a low concentration in a plant that
severely limits the plant growth and produces more or less distinct deficiency
symptoms on plants. Under such conditions, the yield of crops will be low / the
quality of the product will be inferior.
 Insufficient: When the level of an essential nutrient is below their actual content
in a plant or available in an inadequate amount that also affects the plant growth
and development.
 Toxic: When the concentration of an element in plants is very high this affects the
plant growth severely and produces toxicity symptoms on plants.
 Excessive: When the concentration of an essential nutrient is sufficiently high but
not toxic. It results in a corresponding shortage of other nutrients.
2.1. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN SOILS AND THEIR FORMS

A. ESSENTIALITY OF ELEMENTS
There are more than 100 elements in the periodic table yet only seventeen
(17) of those are considered as essential. Arnon and Stout (1939) suggested the
three criteria for the essentiality of a plant nutrient. An element is considered
essential if it meets the following criteria:
1. A deficiency of the essential element makes it impossible for a plant to
complete its life cycle.
2. The deficiency is specific to a particularly essential element or it must not
be replaceable by another element.
3. An essential element is directly involved in the nutrition of the plant.
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B. BENEFICIAL ELEMENTS
The fourth criterion is used because some specific plants need certain
elements. For example, cobalt (Co) is required by bacteria responsible for
nitrogen (N) fixation in legumes; therefore, Co is classified as ‗beneficial‘, rather
than essential. Silica (Si) is not ‗essential‘, but highly ‗beneficial‘ to help plants
cope with multiple stresses. Other beneficial elements include sodium (Na) and
vanadium (V). Essentiality is generally determined by growing plants in a
nutrient.
Table 1. Beneficial elements with their specific functions
Beneficial Functions
elements
1 Silicon (Si)  Strengthens cell walls, energy transfer &
drought
resistance.
 Reduces water loss & prevents fungal
infection.
2 Cobalt (Co)  Essential in N fixation
3 Sodium (Na)  Na replaces K in certain functions in
halophytes
Plants
 For C4 plants having dicarboxylic
photosynthetic
pathway
4 Vanadium (V)  Essential for green algae
C. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR AVAILABLE FORMS

Plants require seventeen (17) elements found in nature to properly grow
and develop. Elements used in large quantities by the plant are
termed macronutrients. Macronutrients include carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen
(O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium
(Mg), and sulfur (S). Nevertheless, micronutrients are essential elements used in
small quantities these micronutrients include iron (Fe), boron (B), copper (Cu),
chlorine (Cl), Manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), and nickel (Ni).
Page 17 of 169
Since the soil provides the most essential nutrients, we must understand
the soil processes that determine the availability of each essential nutrient for
plant uptake. In the table below are presented the 17 essential elements in their
available forms taken up by plants.
Table 2. Essential Elements and their available forms.
Element Available Forms
Non-mineral Macronutrients
1 Carbon (C) CO2, H2CO3
2 Hydrogen (H) H+, OH-, H2O
3 Oxygen (O) O2
Primary Macronutrients
4 Nitrogen (N) NO3- (nitrate)
NH4+(ammonium)
5 Phosphorus (P) H2PO4- , HPO4-2 (phosphate)
6 Potassium (K) K+
Secondary Macronutrients
7 Calcium (Ca) Ca2+
8 Magnesium (Mg) Mg2+
2-
9 Sulfur (S) SO4 (sulfate)
Micronutrients
10 Boron (B) H3BO3 (boric acid)
H2BO3- (borate)
11 Copper (Cu) Cu2+
2+
12 Iron (Fe) Fe (ferrous)
Fe3+ (ferric)
13 Manganese (Mn) Mn2+
14 Zinc (Zn) Zn2+
15 Molybdenum (Mo) MoO42- (molybdate)
16 Chlorine (Cl) Cl- (chloride)
17 Nickel (Ni) Ni2+
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2.2. PROFILE DISTRIBUTION OF ELEMENTS

Soil nutrients do not vary only with location and soil but also from the
horizon within the profile. This relationship is best illustrated by the following
figure.
As the interface between the atmosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere, soil
undergoes an intense vertical exchange of materials resulting in steep chemical
and physical gradients from the surface to bedrock. Changes in soil-profile
nutrient distributions could have a significant impact on the productivity and
ecology of land management systems by altering the quantity and timing of
nutrient availability and the potential for environmental degradation due to
excessive nutrients entering surface and ground waters.
The type, thickness, and position of horizons can yield information about
soil-forming factors such as climate, topography, and vegetation type (Jenny
1941; Marion and Schlesinger, 1985; Honeycutt et al. 1990).
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The mechanisms that shape the vertical distribution of soil nutrients can be
grouped in at least four major processes: weathering, atmospheric deposition,
leaching, and biological cycling (Trudgill, 1988). Weathering dissolution and
atmospheric deposition affect the depth at which nutrient inputs occur (Kirby,
1985). Leaching and biological cycling influence the vertical transport of
nutrients in opposite ways.
2.3. ROLE OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN PLANT NUTRIENTS

Elements that are utilized within the physical plant structure,
namely carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). These elements, obtained
from the air (CO2) and water (H2O), are the basis for carbohydrates such as
sugars and starch, which provide the strength of cell walls, stems, and leaves, and
are also sources of energy for the plant and organisms that consume the plant.
Macronutrients can be further divided as primary or secondary. The
primary nutrients include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). These
elements contribute to plant nutrient content, the function of plant enzymes and
biochemical processes, and the integrity of plant cells. They are the three most
important nutrients supplied by fertilizers. The secondary nutrients
include calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S).
On the other hand, micronutrients that are needed in minute amounts are
necessary for plant survival and most of them are enzyme activators like Fe, B,
Cu, Cl, Mn, Mo, Zn, Co, and Ni.
Table 3. List of essential elements, its available forms, and functions in

plants.
Element Available Functions in Plants

Forms
Non-mineral Macronutrients
1 Carbon (C) CO2, H2CO3 A constituent of carbohydrates;
necessary for photosynthesis
2 Hydrogen (H) H+, OH-, H2O Maintains osmotic balance; important
in numerous biochemical reactions; a
constituent of carbohydrates
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3 Oxygen (O) O2 A constituent of carbohydrates,

necessary for respiration
Primary Macronutrients
4 Nitrogen (N) NO3- (nitrate) A constituent of proteins, chlorophyll,
NH4+(ammoniu and nucleic acids
m)
5 Phosphorus (P) H2PO4- , HPO4- A constituent of many proteins,
2
(phosphate) coenzymes, nucleic acids, and
metabolic substrates; important in
energy
+
6 Potassium (K) K Involved with photosynthesis,
carbohydrate translocation, protein
synthesis, etc.
Secondary Macronutrients
7 Calcium (Ca) Ca2+ A component of cell walls; plays a
role in the structure and permeability
of membranes
2+
8 Magnesium Mg Enzyme activator, a component of
(Mg) chlorophyll
9 Sulfur (S) SO42- (sulfate) An important component of plant

proteins
Micronutrients
10 Boron (B) H3BO3 (boric Believed to be important in sugar
acid) translocation and carbohydrate
H2BO3- (borate) metabolism
11 Copper (Cu) Cu2+ A catalyst for respiration; a
component of various enzymes
2+
12 Iron (Fe) Fe (ferrous) Involved with chlorophyll synthesis
Fe3+ (ferric) and in enzymes for electron transfer
2+
13 Manganese Mn Controls several oxidation-reduction
(Mn) systems and photosynthesis
14 Zinc (Zn) Zn2+ Involved with enzyme systems that

regulate various metabolic activities
15 Molybdenum MoO42- Involved with nitrogen fixation and
(Mo) (molybdate) transforming nitrate to ammonium
16 Chlorine (Cl) Cl- (chloride) Involved with oxygen production in

photosynthesis
17 Nickel (Ni) Ni2+ Necessary for the proper functioning
of the enzyme, urease, and found to be
necessary for seed germination
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Nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur are the macronutrients that will most
likely limit plant growth. Nutrient deficiencies can be due to several reasons. The
most common is that the element is not at a sufficient level naturally in the soil.
Many sand-based soils with high leaching potential are often low in highly
soluble nutrients. In some cases, the element is inadequate levels, but unavailable
due to pH being too high or too low or the soil temperature being too low for
adequate uptake. Other reasons could be too little or too much water or soil
compaction.
Deficiencies are indicated by morphological changes in plants. These
symptoms differ from each element and disappear when sufficient levels are
provided. The part of the plant that shows the effect of the deficiency depends on the
mobility of the mineral. For example, the deficiency of nitrogen, potassium, and
magnesium first appears in the old leaves after which they are mobilized to younger
leaves. However, it is also important to note that deficiency of one element can cause
multiple symptoms or the same symptoms can be caused by the deficiency of
multiple elements. The table below shows the deficiency symptoms of each element,
primary sources of elements, and their mobility in plants.
Table 4. List of essential elements, its sources, deficiency symptoms, and

mobility in plants.
Element Source Deficiency Symptoms Mobility

in
Plants
1 Carbon (C) Air
2 Hydrogen Water Mostly not deficient because

(H) sources are found in water and
air
3 Oxygen (O) Air/Water
4 Nitrogen (N) Air/Soil The light green color of leaves, Mobile

older leaves show the symptoms
first.
5 Phosphorus Soil Leaves show purplish to red Mobile
(P) coloration
6 Potassium Soil Scorching and burning of leaf Mobile

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(K) margins
7 Calcium Soil Failure in the development of Immobile

(Ca) terminal buds, dead spots in the
mid-rib of leaves. In maize, the
tip of the new leaves may have a
sticky material that causes them
to adhere to one another
8 Magnesium Soil Light green venation in leaves, Mobile
(Mg) cupping of leaves
9 Sulfur (S) Soil Similar to N deficiency but seen Mobile

on top leaves as a contrast to N
deficiency symptoms which first
appear in lower leaves. In
rapeseed mustard young leaves
of S deficient plants become
pale, chlorotic, and cupped
10 Boron (B) Soil Terminal buds die, rosette Immobile
formation, flower, and fruit
setting adversely affected
11 Copper (Cu) Soil Leaf tops become white, leaves Immobile
narrow and twisted, stunted
growth
12 Iron (Fe) Soil Yellowing or whitening of Immobile
leaves; in rice nurseries and
sorghum plants may turn pale or
white
13 Manganese Soil Green veins against a pale Immobile
(Mn) lamina, abscission of leaves, a
grey speck of oats, marsh spots
of beans
14 Zinc (Zn) Soil Stunted growth, pale to the white Immobile
coloration of young leaves
(white bud disease of maize);
browning and scorching of
leaves (khaira disease of rice)
15 Molybdenum Soil Symptoms similar to N Mobile
(Mo) deficiency; whiptail disease of
cauliflower
16 Chlorine (Cl) Soil Chlorotic leaves; leaf necrosis Mobile
17 Nickel (Ni) Soil Whole leaf chlorosis along with Immobile

necrotic leaf tips
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2.4. BIOCHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

A. CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENTS
Based on the amounts of these nutrients taken by plants they are classified as:
1. Macronutrients (taken up in large amounts, generally in kg per hectare). These

can be further sub-divided as:
(i) Primary nutrients (taken up in large amounts) like nitrogen (N),

phosphorus (P), and potassium (K).
(ii) Secondary nutrients (taken up in lesser amounts than N and K):
calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S).
2. Micronutrients these are taken up in very small amounts, generally expressed
in g or mg per hectare, these include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper
(Cu), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl) and nickel (Ni).
Table 5. Classification of elements based on biochemical behavior and

physiological functions
Group Nutrient Biochemical Functions

Elements
They are basic structural elements. They
are a major constituent of plants
(carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) and
Group I C, H, O, Ca organic matter. These elements are also
involved in the enzymes process. They
provide energy for growth and development
by an oxidative breakdown.
Accessory structural elements of the more
active and vital living tissues. An essential
Group II N, P & S component of metabolically active
compounds like amino acids, proteins,
enzymes, and non-proteinaceous compounds.
They involve in energy storage (ATP &
ADP) and transfer (Phosphate esters).
Regulators & carriers for the most part of
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plant metabolism. They involve in synthesis

Group III K, Ca, Mg and translocation of carbohydrates, maintain
ionic charge balance and induce enzyme
activation.
Catalysts and activators. These elements
Group IV Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Involve in oxidation-reduction reactions,
Mo, Cl. chlorophyll synthesis and also exists in
organic combinations.
2.5. AVAILABILITY OF NUTRIENTS

Availability of nutrients is highly influenced by soil pH. Most of the
essential elements are affected by the pH of the soil say for example, phosphorus
which are most likely to available in pH ranges between 6.0-7.5. In acidic
Figure 2. Soil pH and Nutrient Availability

Source: Pioneer Talk Crops (Joe Ailts)
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conditions, phosphorus binds with iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) while at alkaline
conditions it also forms complexes with calcium making phosphorus unavailable
for plant uptake. On the other hand, elements also like iron, aluminum, and
manganese are soluble in acid soils. Above pH 7.0 (alkaline conditions), calcium,
magnesium, and sodium are increasingly soluble. However, at low pH values
(acidic conditions) most of the micronutrients like manganese, zinc, and iron are
available except molybdenum (Mo). As the pH of acid soil approaches 7.0,
manganese, zinc, and iron availability decrease and deficiencies can become a
problem, especially on those soils that do not contain appreciable amounts of
these elements. These micronutrients frequently must be supplemented with
fertilizers. Generally, availability of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, and magnesium
decreases at pH below 6.0 and above pH 8.0.
Soil pH is an important regulator of nutrient availability hence, regular soil
testing is a must in order to maintain the balance between soil pH and nutrient
availability to maximize the efficiency of nutrients and attain maximum yield of
crops.
2.6. MECHANISMS OF NUTRIENT UPTAKE

Nutrients must reach the surface of a root for plant uptake of essential
elements to occur. There are three major mechanism of movement of nutrients
from soil to roots.
1. Root interception or Contact exchange

Root interception occurs when a nutrient comes into physical contact with
the root surface. In other words, it is the direct exchange between root surface and
colloid surface. The occurrence of root interception increases as the root surface
area and mass increases, thus enabling the plant to explore a greater amount of
soil. Roots are assumed to occupy usually 1% or less of the soil. Because roots
grow through soil pores which may have higher than average nutrient content,
roots are estimated to contract a maximum of 3% of the available nutrients in the
soil. As the root system develops and exploits the soil completely, soil solution
and soil surfaces retaining adsorbed ions are exposed to the root mass and
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adsorption of these ions by the contact exchange mechanism is accomplished. The

quantity of nutrients that can come in direct contact with the plant roots is the
amount in a volume of soil equal to the volume of roots.
Root interception may be enhanced by mycorrhizal fungi, which colonize
roots and increases root exploration into the soil. Root interception is responsible
for an appreciable amount of calcium uptake, and some amounts of magnesium,
zinc and manganese.
Root interception can be restricted

by anything that affects root
growth like dry soil, compaction,
low soil pH, poor aeration, root
disease, insects, nematodes and
high or low soil temperature. Root
growth is necessary for all three
mechanisms of nutrient supply, but
absolutely essential for root
Figure 3. Nutrient movement through root interception
2. Mass flow
Mass flow occurs when nutrients are transported to the surface of roots by
the movement of water in the soil (i.e. percolation, transpiration, or
evaporation). The rate of water flow governs the amount of nutrients that are
transported to the root surface. Therefore, mass flow decreases as soil water
decreases. Most of the nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, copper, boron,
manganese and molybdenum move to the root by mass flow. Movement of
ions in the soil solution to the surfaces of roots is accomplished largely by mass
flow and diffusion. Mass flow, a convective process, occurs when plant nutrient
ions and other dissolved substances are transported with the flow of water to the
root that results from transpiration water uptake by the plant.
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Some mass flow can also take place in response to evaporation and percolation of soil water.
Amounts of nutrients reaching roots by mass

flow are determined by the rate of water flow
or the water consumption of plants and the
average nutrient concentrations in the soil
water. The level of a particular nutrient
around the root will fluctuate depending on
the balance between the rate at which it
reaches this zone by mass flow and the rate of
uptake by the root. Mass flow supplies an
overabundance of calcium and magnesium in
many soils and most of the mobile nutrients,
such as nitrogen and sulfur, if concentrations
Figure 4. Movement of nutrients through mass flow
3. Diffusion:
Diffusion is the movement of a particular nutrient along a concentration
gradient. When there is a difference in concentration of a particular nutrient
within the soil solution, the nutrient will move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration. This phenomenon is observed
when adding sugar to water. As the sugar dissolves, it moves through parts of the
water with lower sugar concentration until it is evenly distributed, or uniformly
concentrated. Diffusion delivers appreciable amounts of phosphorus, potassium,
zinc, and iron to the root surface. Diffusion is a relatively slow process compared
to the mass flow of nutrients with water movement toward the root. Nutrients
supplied primarily by diffusion are considered immobile nutrients e.g. P, K.
It is induced and takes place in the direction of a decreasing concentration
gradient. Such gradients are generated when plants absorb ions from the
surrounding solution and thereby reduce their concentration near the root relative
to that in the surrounding soil solution.
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Diffusion occurs when an ion moves from

an area of high concentration to one of low
concentration by random thermal motion.
As plant roots absorb nutrients from the
surrounding soil solution, a diffusion
gradient is set up. Plant roots absorbing
nutrients in this manner thus create a sink
to which nutrients diffuse. A high plant
requirement or a high root ―absorbing
power‖ results in strong sink or a high
diffusion gradient, favoring ion transport.
Figure 5. Movement of nutrients through diffusion
Mechanisms of Nutrient and Water Absorption:
Passive Uptake. Occurs in the outer or apparent free space (AFS)

consisting of the walls of the epidermal and cortical cells of the roots. Uptake is
by diffusion and ion exchange, hence controlled by concentration and electrical
gradient. These processes are non-selective and do not require energy from
metabolic reactions in the cell. Passive uptake occurs outside the casparian strip
and plasmalemma as a barrier to diffusion and ion exchange.
Active Uptake. Transport of ions into the inner cells that require energy
due to the higher concentrations of ions beyond the plasmalemma and into the
cytoplasm which is against an electrochemical gradient. Entry of ions into the
impermeable membranes of the other organs within the complex derives energy
from metabolism. The process is selective in that specific ions are transported by
specific carriers.
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2.7. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOIL NUTRIENT SUPPLY AND

PLANT GROWTH
Plant growth and development largely depend on the combination and
concentration of mineral nutrients available in the soil. Plants often face
significant challenges in obtaining an adequate supply of these nutrients to meet
the demands of basic cellular processes due to their relative immobility.
Furthermore, interaction of an element upon another in relation to growth and
crop yield is also a factor. There can be positive or negative interaction of
nutrients occurs either in soil or plant. The positive interaction of nutrients gives
higher crop yield and such interactions should be exploited in increasing the crop
production. However, all negative interactions will lead to decline in crop yield.
There are mainly two types of interactions effect the antagonistic and
synergistic effects. Antagonistic effect means an increase in concentration of any
nutrient element will decrease the activity of another nutrient (negative effect).
While synergistic effects mean an increase of concentration of any one nutrient
element will influence the activity of another nutrient element (positive effect).
Figure 6. Relationship between plant growth and nutrient supply.

Balanced nutrient elements play a critical role in successful growth and
development, and at the same time reduces of fertilizer losses in the environment.
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Each type of plant is unique and has an optimum nutrient range as well as a
minimum requirement level. Below this minimum level, plants start to show
nutrient deficiency symptoms. A plant that lacks an essential nutrient (deficient)
cannot complete its life cycle—the seed may not germinate; the plant may not be
able to develop roots, stems, leaves, or flowers properly; or it may not be able to
produce seeds to create new plants. However, excessive nutrient uptake can also
cause poor growth because of toxicity. For example, having too much nitrogen
can cause a plant to grow more leaves but less or no fruit (luxury consumption).
Too much manganese can make the leaves turn yellow and eventually die. And
excess boron can kill a plant. Therefore, the proper amount of application and the
placement of nutrients is important.
2.8. LINEAR RESPONSE PLATEAU MODEL (LRP)

Crop yields depend on many different factors including soil properties,
genetics, climate, crop management (cultural practices, pest and disease
management), and fertility management. Assuming good crop management and
reasonable growing conditions, a crop response to fertility management could be
expected for soils that are relatively low in a specific nutrient. For example, if
nitrogen is limiting yield, addition of N will result in a crop response.
Trials with multiple N rates can then be used to determine the economic
optimum nutrient rate. Such trials consist of multiple rates of N (typically at least
5 rates) where yield data can be used to determine the plateau yield, the critical
response level and the diminishing returns response curve. In this example, when
fertilizer was applied to a low fertility field, yield increased (phase A) until a
plateau was reached (phase B). Applying more fertilizer than needed does not
increase yield (phase C) and could, in some situations, cause a yield decline
(phase D; not commonly observed in field crops). Often, additions of excess
fertilizer also increase the likelihood of losses to the environment. The crop
response curve will be different for each crop and field, so development of a crop
fertilizer recommendation system requires assembly of data from many field crop
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response trials. Together such trials result in identification of critical response

levels (critical
Figure 7. Crop Response Relationships
Legend:
A- Diminishing returns response curve

B- Plateau yield
C- Critical response level
D- Economic optimum nutrient rate
agronomic test levels) beyond which a response to additional fertility is unlikely

to result in a yield increase. Going from A to B in the figure above, the economic
optimum nutrient rate takes into account the diminishing return to added fertilizer,
and is set where the next addition of fertilizer costs more than the return in yield is
worth. Thus, the most economic rate of fertilizer is slightly lower than the
fertilizer rate at which a maximum yield is obtained.
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2.9. LAW OF THE MINIMUM (LEIBIG)

Plants need light, water, nutrients, heat, air and physical support for
growth. If one or more factors are limited plants growth and related processes will
be affected. These factors are well-explained in the Law of Minimum as proposed
by Justus von Liebig.
Figure 8. Representation of the Law of Minimum or known as the “Liebig’s

Barrel”
The Law of minimum states that the growth of plants is limited by the
plant nutrient present in limiting amounts. A limited supply of one of the essential
nutrients can limit crop yield, although other factors such as heat or water can also
limit yield. The concept that one factor will generally limit yield, or the ‗law of
the minimum‘ is illustrated in Figure 1, where the height of water in the barrel
represents crop yield. In this figure N is initially the factor that limits yield, but
after N is supplied, phosphorus (P) levels control yield. This however, do not
imply a linear relationship. It has been shown that addition of each successive
increment if a limiting growth factor results in an increase in growth that is less
than that obtained from addition of the proceeding increment. This was verified
by Mitscherlich.
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The importance of each of the plant growth factors and the proper
combination of these factors for normal plant growth is best described by the
principle of limiting factors. This principle states: "The level of crop production
can be no greater than that allowed by the most limiting of the essential plant
growth factors." The principle of limiting factors can be compared to that of a
barrel having staves of different lengths with each stave representing a plant
growth factor. Crop yield and quality depends upon the essential growth factors
and the many interrelated soil, plant, environmental and agronomic factors or
variables. Within this system, some of these factors cannot be controlled; others
can be controlled and are manageable.
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2.10. MITSCHERLICH’S EQUATION

Mitscherlich’s Law of Diminishing Returns is an expression of the
principle that has been described as the Law of Diminishing Increments as applied
to the effect of fertilization on crop yields. It was first proposed by Mitscherlich in
1909. The Mitscherlich equation states a decreasing marginal productivity as
levels of the limiting factor are raised. According to this law, plants cannot grow
indefinitely and there is a maximum of production. This law assumes that returns
from fertilization are proportional to the difference between maximum and current
productions, in such a way that the returns tend to zero as production approaches
its maximum value. This supposition gave birth to Mitscherlich‘s famous
equation, which is used by many authors to describe experimental data on crop
science (Gomes, 1953; Harmsen, 2000; Singh et al, 2016; Nikoli et al, 2016).
Mitscherlich hypothesis for the fertilizer-yield relationship as law of
decreasing growth of yield with increasing quantity of fertilizer.
Mitscherlich developed an equation which related growth to the supply of
plant nutrients. He observed that ―the increase in growth with each successive
addition of element in question progressively become smaller‖. Mitcherlich
expressed this mathematically
Log (A - y) = log A – cx
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Example:
If A is 100% and c is 0.301, then the y under a given level of x is shown in
the following calculations:
If x = 0, then y = 0
If x = 1, then
Log (100 – y) = log 100 – 0.301 (1)
Log (100 – y) = .2 - 0.301
Log (100 – y) = 1.699
100 – y = 50
y = 50%
(note that the addition of one unit of x resulted to 50% increase in the maximum yield).
If x = 2, then
Log (100 – y) = log 100 – 0.301 (2)
y = 75%
(Repeat the operation up to 10 x units, and plot the values in the following graph
describe the relationship obtained).
Figure 9. Mitscherlich’s law in terms of nutrient

application
The yield involved in the Mitscherlich‘s equation is called the Law of
Diminishing Return, since the increase in yield with each successive addition of
the nutrient in question is progressively smaller. Maintenance of a nutrient in a
soil at a level to, high above a certain limit is not economical because no
appreciable further increase in yield is obtained. According to general opinion this
limit corresponds to the yield level of about 98 to 99% of the maximum
possible yield and is termed the critical level or critical concentration of the
nutrient. The value varies with the type of nutrient, crop, types of soil, and other
factors.
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2.11. NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, POTASSIUM AND SULFUR

ECONOMY IN SOILS
A. NITROGEN
 Roles in the Plant

Nitrogen (N) is one of the essential primary macronutrients that functions as
an important component of amino acids, nucleic acids, protein, enzymes and integral
part of chlorophyll. It is also an important component of nucleic acids which
functions as hereditary control.
Nitrogen is also essential for carbohydrate use within plants. Nitrogen
stimulates root growth and development, as well as the uptake of other nutrients.
Plants with sufficient amount of nitrogen usually shows dark green color in the
leaves.
Nitrogen is mainly involved in photosynthesis of plants as it is essential
constituent of chlorophyll, a green pigment essential in photosynthesis. It is very
basic constituent of plant life, because, it forms essential constituent of proteins,
nucleotides phosphatides, alkaloids, enzymes, hormones, vitamins etc. It promotes
better vegetative growth and adequate supply of nitrogen promotes rapid early growth
and imparts dark green color to plants, improves quality and succulence of leafy
vegetables and fodder crops. It stimulates the formation of fruit buds; increases fruit
set, and improve quality of fruits. It governs the better utilization of potassium,
phosphorus & other elements.
 Deficiency
Plants deficient in nitrogen show symptoms such as yellowing of leaves or
chlorosis, stunted growth and loss of protein N from chloroplasts. Deficiency of N
usually shows that older leaves become yellowish. It appears first on the lower leaves,
the upper leaves remain green because N is a mobile element, the nitrogenous
compounds in the oldest leaves are broken down and the nitrogen transferred to the
newest foliage, causing the older leaves to show pronounced chlorosis. In nitrogen-
deficient plants, the protein content is low and the sugar content is usually high,
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because carbon compounds normally destined to build proteins cannot do so without

sufficient nitrogen.
Other symptoms of N deficient plants include plants tends to advance the time
of flower bud formation and reduce yield, fruits become hard, small, low bearing
capacity of trees, reduces fertilization, premature dropping and fruits may become
seed less. Severe deficiency leads to necrosis of plant leaves (complete death of
leaf/browning of leaves).
 Toxicity
Excessive N in plants leads to more vegetative growth. Leaves become more
succulent and more susceptible to pest and disease attack. High nitrogen applications
may delay plant maturity and cause the plants to be more susceptible to disease
(particularly fungal disease) and to insect pests. Excess in N also reduces the sugar
content of plant, storage and keeping quality of fruits or leaves and prolong the
growing period and delay the reproductive phase of plant and crop maturity. It can
also degrade crop quality, resulting in undesirable color and flavor of fruits and low
sugar and vitamin levels of certain vegetables and root crops. Flower production in
ornamentals is reduced in favor of abundant foliage. An oversupply can also cause the
buildup of nitrogen in the form of nitrates that are harmful to livestock in the case of
forage and to babies in the case of leafy vegetables.
The excess in N in soil can also leads to eutrophication which is a major water
pollution that can affect water bodies and is a serious problem for humans and
animals. Excessive N also in soils may cause leaching which can affect groundwater.
 Forms of Nitrogen Taken up by Plants

Dynamics and transformation of nitrogen in soil is very important with respect
to plant nutrition. A bulk of total N is present in the organic form (98%) and only
about 2% in inorganic form. However, there are continuous transformations between
these two pools. The crops utilize nitrogen in the inorganic forms only such as NO 3-
and NH4+. The inorganic form of N is also liable to undergo different types of loses
like runoff, ammonia volatilization, leaching, denitrification and fixation by clay
minerals.
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Plant roots take up nitrogen from the soil principally as dissolved nitrate (NO3-
NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) ions. Although certain plants grow best when provided
mainly with one or the other of these forms, a relatively equal mixture of the two ions
gives the best results with most plants. There are two major forms of nitrogen in
mineral soils: organic nitrogen and inorganic nitrogen.
Organic nitrogen: The bulk of soil N in a surface soil is present in the organic
form. Soil organic N consists of proteins (20-40%), amino sugars such as the
hexosamines (5-10%), purine and pyrimidine derivatives (1% or less) and complex
unidentified compounds formed by reaction of ammonium with lignin,
polymerization of quinones with nitrogen compounds and condensation of sugars and
amines. A part of the organic N is also present as clay-humus complexes, which are
resistant to decomposition. This would also explain why only a very small part of
immobilized fertilizer N becomes available to the growing crop plants.
Inorganic nitrogen: Inorganic nitrogen includes ammonium nitrogen fixed by
certain clay minerals, exchangeable ammonium and soluble ammonium and nitrate
compounds. The amount of ammonium nitrogen fixed varies depending on the nature
and amount of clay present; up to 8% of the total nitrogen in surface soils and 40% of
that in subsoils may be in the fixed form. The amount of nitrogen in the form of
soluble ammonium and nitrate compounds is seldom more than 1-2% of the total N
present, except where large applications of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers have been
made.
 Nitrogen cycle
I. Mineralization/Ammonification is the conversion of organic nitrogen to
ammonium-N by microbes as they decompose the organic matter. It is microbial
process by which about 2-3% of organic nitrogen is mineralized annually.
Mineralization takes place in three step-by-step, namely (i) Aminization, (ii)
ammonification and (iii) nitrification. Of these three reactions, the first two are
carried out by heterotrophic microorganisms, while the third one is carried out by
autotrophic bacteria. The heterotrophs derive their energy from oxidation of organic
carbon compounds, while the autotrophs obtain their energy from specific inorganic
salts and their carbon from the carbon dioxide of the surrounding atmosphere.
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II. Immobilization is the process of tying up nitrogen in organic form. It is basically

the opposite of mineralization. Immobilization is the conversion of inorganic
nitrogen ions (NO3- and NH4+) into organic forms. During the process of microbial
decomposition of plant and animal residues especially those low in nitrogen, the
plant inorganic nitrogen as well as that in the soil is converted to organic forms
primarily as microbial tissue. Most nitrogen immobilization occurs biologically
when microorganisms decomposing organic residues require more nitrogen than
they can obtain from the residues they are metabolizing. The immobilized nitrogen
in the microbial tissue becomes an integral part of the soil organic matter.
Mineralization and immobilization occur simultaneously in the soil; whether the
net effect is an increase or a decrease in the mineral nitrogen supply depends
primarily on the ratio of carbon to nitrogen in the organic residues undergoing
decomposition.
III. Nitrification is a two-step process that converts ammonium to nitrite (by one
species of bacteria) and then to nitrate (by a second species of bacteria). These
bacteria are sensitive to temperature, moisture and soil pH. Nitrification is most
rapid when soil is warm (67-86°F), moist and well-aerated, but virtually ceases
below 41°F and above 122°F.
IV. Volatilization is the loss of ammonium N through conversion to ammonia.

Volatilization losses are higher for manures and urea fertilizers that are surface
applied and not incorporated (by tillage or by rain) into the soil. Manure contains
N in two primary forms: ammonium and organic N. If manure is incorporated
within one day, approximately 65% of the ammonium N is expected to be retained;
when incorporated after 5 days the ammonium N will have been lost through
volatilization. Organic N in manure is not lost through volatilization, but it takes
time to mineralize before it becomes plant available.
V. Denitrification Once nitrogen in the soil is in the nitrate (NO3-) form, several
things can happen. Under waterlogged or flooded (anaerobic) conditions, nitrate
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can be converted to gaseous forms of N. Under typical conditions the majority

would be in as N2 gas. However, a significant amount of N released in this process
is in the form of nitrous oxide, a very potent greenhouse gas.
VI. Nitrogen fixation or Symbiotic fixation of nitrogen is a mutually beneficial

process between a legume plant and the associated microorganism (Rhizobium
sp.). The plant provides the microbe with an energy source to convert N2 from the
atmosphere to ammonium that can be utilized by the plant. Nitrogen fixation
requires rhizobia, energy, enzymes and minerals. If a plant available form of N is
present, the crop will use it instead of fixing N from the air.
VII. Leaching. If sufficient rain occurs nitrate can be lost to groundwater by

leaching through the soil profile below the roots of the plants.
VIII. Plant Uptake. If conditions are aerobic (not wet or flooded) nitrate can be taken
up by the plants.
Figure 10. The Nitrogen Cycle (Source: University of Minnesota

Extension)
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B. PHOSPHORUS
 Roles in the plant

Among the essential elements phosphorus is second most important element
for plants. Phosphorus is an essential component of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and phospholipids which play critical roles in cell membranes
that build proteins and other compounds essential for plant structure, seed yield and
genetic transfer. The structures of both DNA and RNA are linked together by
phosphorus bonds. It also plays a major role in the energy system adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) of plants, which provides the energy needed for many essential
processes in organisms and cells.
Phosphorus is essential for the general health and vigor of all plants which
includes stimulate root development, greater role in energy storage and transfer,
constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospholipids, essential for cell division and
development, stimulates early root development and growth, gives rapid and vigorous
start to plants strengthen straw and decreases lodging tendency, essential for seed
formation because larger quantities of P is found in seed, increases the activity of
Rhizobia and increases the formation of root nodules, increased stalk and stem
strength, improved flower formation and seed production, more uniform and earlier
crop maturity and increased resistance to plant diseases and supports development
throughout entire life cycle.
 Deficiency
A phosphorus-deficient plant is usually stunted, thin-stemmed, and spindly,
but its foliage, rather than being pale, is often dark, almost bluish-green. Thus, unless
much larger, healthy plants are present to make a comparison, phosphorus-deficient
plants often seem quite normal in appearance.
Crops usually display no obvious symptoms of phosphorus deficiency other
than a general stunting of the plant during early growth. By the time a visual
deficiency is recognized, it may be too late to correct in annual crops. Some crops,
such as corn, tend to show an abnormal discoloration when phosphorus is deficient.
The plants are usually dark bluish-green in color with leaves and stem becoming
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purplish. The degree of purple is influenced by the genetic makeup of the plant, with
some hybrids showing much greater discoloration than others. The purplish color is
due to accumulation of sugars that favors the synthesis of anthocyanin (a purplish-
colored pigment), which occurs in the leaves of the plant.
 Toxicity
Excess soil phosphorous is concerning because it can easily flow into
waterways when it rains or if excessive irrigation water runs off a property (excess
phosphorus causes algal blooms and excessive vegetative growth when it enters
waterways). Excessive levels of soil phosphorus are not particularly detrimental to
plant health however, though they can impede the uptake of iron and zinc. As a result,
symptoms of phosphorus toxicity when they do occur are actually symptoms of iron
and/or zinc deficiency. Excess levels of P can also lead to abundant root growth like
lateral and fibrous root lets and develops normal growth having green leaf color.
Figure 11. The Phosphorus Cycle

(Source:http://phsgirard.org/Biology/Ecology/PhosphorusCycle.jpg
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 Forms of Phosphorus Taken up by Plants
Phosphorus is present in soils in both organic and inorganic forms.

Inorganic phosphorus. Phosphorus is taken up by the plant in the form of
H2PO4- and HPO42- through diffusion and mass flow action. The amount of dissolved
or solution P mostly H2PO4- and HPO42- ions in the soil is very small and crops will
utilize P from this source. The soil solution P can come from mineralization of
organic matter, added fertilizers, adsorbed phosphate ions and solid P compounds
(primary & secondary minerals). Any P present in solution P form and it is available
to plants is called labile P, where as any P which is bounded in solid P compounds
such as primary and secondary minerals is called non labile P which is not available
to plants.
The P availability mainly depends on pH. In acid soils (Al & Fe) the presence
of Al, Fe, Mn, P gets fixed as AlPO4, FePO4 and not available to the plants. Some
times as CaPO4. these are insoluble in H2O. Under hilly areas (or) high rainfall areas,
all the cations will be leached leaving Fe, Al and Mn. Then, P availability will be
reduced.
Organic phosphorus: The amount of P present in organic form in soils varies
from a few milligrams to about 0.5 g kg-1 soil (20-80% total P), depending upon a
number of factors such as climate, vegetation, soil texture, land use pattern, fertilizer
practices, drainage and irrigation, etc.; a number of these factors are interdependent.
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C. POTASSIUM

Potassium (K) is an essential nutrient for plant growth. It‘s classified as a
macronutrient because plants take up large quantities of K during their life cycle.
In most soils, potassium is present in much larger amounts than nitrogen and
phosphorus; the earth‘s crust contains about 1.9% K. The potassium content in
surface soil may vary from a few hundred kilograms per hectare in light sandy soils to
about 50,000 kilograms per hectare in heavy clayey soils rich in micas and 2:1 layer
silicates. Almost all potassium is present in inorganic form; and is fairly well
distributed throughout the profile, and in some cases sub-soils may even have more
potassium than surface soils.
Potassium plays a major role in plant metabolism, and is involved in
photosynthesis, drought tolerance, improved winter-hardiness and protein synthesis.
It also essential for photosynthesis, development of chlorophyll, improves vigor of
the plants to enable to with stand adverse climatic conditions, reduces lodging in
cereal crops, regulates stomata opening and closing, regulates the movement of ions
with in the plants, activates enzymes for synthesis, peptide bonds synthesis and
regulates H2O imbalance within the plant.
 Deficiency
Compared to deficiencies of phosphorus and many other nutrients, a
deficiency of potassium is relatively easy to recognize in most plants. In addition to
the characteristics previously mentioned (reduced drought tolerance, increased
lodging, etc.), specific foliar symptoms are associated with potassium deficiency.
Because potassium is very mobile within the plant, it is translocated from older
tissues to younger ones if the supply becomes inadequate. The symptoms of
deficiency therefore usually occur earliest and most severely on the oldest leaves.
Some other symptoms of K deficiency include plant becomes stunted in
growth, reduced rate of photosynthesis, yellowing of leaves and leaf scorch in case of
fruits trees, the leaf tips will turn dark brown in color and blades will blueish green,
chlorotic and necrosis are seen in rice, deficiency is seen in the margin and bottom of
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leaves in banana, leaves are yellow with brown spots which are necrotic, brittle with
uneven ripening in grapes.
 Toxicity
Usually potassium is not absorbed excessively by plants. Excess potassium
can aggravate the uptake of magnesium, manganese, zinc and iron. Excess potassium
does not appear to have a toxic effect on plants. It can induce deficiencies of other
nutrients (particularly nitrogen, calcium and magnesium).
 Forms of Potassium Taken up by Plants
Primary mineral K. The potassium bearing minerals in soils are the feldspars
orthoclase [K, Na) AlSi3O8] and microline [(Na, K) AlSiO4] and the micas muscovite
[KAl3Si4O10(OH)2], biotite [K(MgFe)3AlSi3 O10 (OH)2] and phlogopite [KMg3Al
Si3O10(OH)4]. While feldspars are generally present in the coarser fraction of soil,
micas are predominantly in the clay fraction. Potassium in mineral form in soils may
vary from 5000 to 25000 mg K kg-1 soil (0.5 to 2.5%) (Tisdale et al., 1985).
Non-exchangeable or fixed K. Non-exchangeable K is distinct from mineral
K in that it is not bonded covalently within the crystal structure of soil mineral
particles, instead, it is held between adjacent tetrahedral layers of micas, vermiculites
and integrade minerals (Sparks, 1987). Micas (muscovite, biotite and phlogopite)
have K fixed in the interlayer spaces. Bonding of K is stronger in dioctahedral mica
(muscovite) than in tri-octahedral micas (biotite and phlogopite). Weathering of
micas releases K in soils. Due to variation in binding strength, the rate of release of K
from different micas differs. Rate of potassium liberation from biotite is 13 to 16 and
75 to 105 times faster than from phlogopite and muscovite, respectively. The
sequence of K release from K-bearing minerals by oxalic or citric acid has been found
to be: biotite > microline ≈ orthoclase > muscovite.
Exchangeable K. This is the potassium held in exchange complex of 2:1
layer silicates. Thus, soils containing smectite have more exchangeable K than those
containing illite, which in turn have more than the soils containing kaolinite. The
amount of exchangeable K in soils may vary form 40 to 600 mg K kg-1 soil (Tisdale
et al., 1985). Exchangeable K in soils is generally determined by extracting soil with
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neutral 1 N ammonium acetate and therefore includes water soluble K; the entire
value is known as available K in soils.
Soil solution K. This is the potassium present in soil solution and is measured
by extracting the soil with distilled water. Water soluble K in soil may vary from 1 to
10 mg K kg-1 soil. Solution K concentration is important for successful crop
production. There is a continuous transfer of mineral K to exchangeable K and fixed
K and from there to solution K; the process may reverse to the fixed K stage under
some soil conditions or when heavy K dressings are made.
Figure 12. The Potassium Cycle (Source: Soil Science Digital

Textbook Library)
Potassium comes from primary minerals in soil like micas and potassium
feldspar. These minerals slowly weather and eventually the potassium becomes more
and more available to be held in soil solution or taken up by plant roots. Once plants
take up a ton of potassium it is leached from leaves to soil by rainfall. This and
animal urine is how it gets returned to the soil. Some potassium is lost to soil losses,
runoff, and leaching to groundwater. When plants are harvested and taken away from
the soil entirely, the nutrients including potassium goes to wherever the plant matter
goes thus ag. soils need potassium amendments. Soils amendments high in potassium
include poultry manure and wood ash.
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D. SULFUR

Sulfur (S) is a secondary macronutrient element essential for plants. It is used
by plants in amounts similar to those of phosphorus. Sulfur is a constituent of the
essential amino acids methionine, cysteine, and cystine. It is a component of some
plant amino acids so it is required for good protein content in plants. As part of
storage proteins, these sulfur-containing amino acids tend to accumulate in plant
seeds, including grains that are staples of the human diet. The vitamins biotin,
thiamine, and B1 contain sulfur, as do many protein enzymes that regulate such
activities as photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation.
Sulfur is closely associated with nitrogen in the processes of protein and
enzyme synthesis. Sulfur is required for the production of chlorophyll and a number
of enzymes. It also helps legumes form associations with nitrogen fixing bacteria.
Sulfur is also an essential ingredient of the aromatic oils that give the cabbage,
mustard, garlic and onion families of plants their characteristic odors and flavors.
 Deficiency
Sulfur deficiency is more common in plants grown on cold and sandy soils as
well as those that are low in organic matter. Sulfur deficiency is also more likely to
occur in areas with high rainfall or pollution. Sulfur deficiency in plants resembles N
deficiency and S deficient plants also turn pale-yellow. However, S is less mobile
than N in plants and the younger leaves may generally turn pale-yellow, while the
older leaves may remain green. There are frequent exceptions to these symptoms,
such as stoopy plants with short and slender stalks; these symptoms will not disappear
with N application.
Chlorosis is the main symptom of sulfur deficiency. New leaves are affected
first but as the deficiency worsens, older leaves may become affected as well. The
initial symptoms are the yellowing of the entire leaf including veins usually starting
with the younger leaves. Leaf tips may yellow and curl downward. Chlorosis is
uniform across the leaf rather than being blotchy or restricted to interveinal areas. In
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some cases, affected leaves may be smaller than healthy leaves and the whole plant
will usually be stunted. Maturity of the plant may also be delayed.
 Toxicity
Excess soil suffer can prevent the uptake of other elements though - nitrogen
for example. Leaf size will be reduced and overall growth will be stunted. Leaves
yellowing or scorched at edges. The environmental problems associated with excess
sulfur include acid precipitation, certain types of forest decline, acid mine drainage,
acid sulfate soils, and even some toxic effects in drinking water used by humans and
livestock.
Figure 13. The Sulfur Cycle (Source: Google Photos)
 Forms of Sulfur Taken up by Plants

Sulfur in soils is present both in organic and inorganic forms. While inorganic
forms are important because most of the S is taken up by plants as SO 42- (sulphate),
organic forms are important because they often make up the bulk of soil S. Because S
is an integral part of soil organic matter, total S is generally greater in fine textured
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than in coarse textured soils. In general, soils containing greater amounts of organic
matter contain a larger fraction of their S in organic form.
Organic Sulphur. Well over 90% of the sulfur in surface layers of well-
drained non-saline soils is present in organic form. Organic S is divided in two major
groups, namely, C-bonded S (amino acids) and non C-bonded S (ester sulphates such
as phenolic sulphates and sulphated polysaccharides. Since the bulk of S in plant
tissue is present as the S containing amino acids cystine, cysteine and methionine, and
plants residue when added to the soil, plant-S therefore becomes an integral part of
soil organic matter.
Inorganic Sulphur. Inorganic S in most soils is present as SO4 2- ions
associated with monovalent (Na, K) and divalent cations (mostly with Ca and Mg;
traces with Cu, Mn, Zn and Fe). Sulphate salts presents in the soil solution (soluble S)
may be adsorbed on soil colloids or the salts may be present as insoluble compounds.
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2.12. MICRONUTRIENTS
Micronutrients are required by crop plants in small or micro-amounts. There
are eight micronutrients namely Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl and Ni. These are
subdivided into micronutrient cations (Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni) and micronutrient anions
(B, Mo and Cl) depending upon the form in which they are absorbed by the plants.
Micronutrients play many complex roles in plant nutrition and most of the
micronutrients participate in the functioning of a number of enzyme systems.
A. ZINC (Zn)
Zinc is an essential plant micronutrient. It is important for production of plant
growth hormones and proteins and is involved in sugar consumption. Good root
development as well as carbohydrate and chlorophyll formation are also dependent
on zinc. Maintaining adequate zinc levels is important for enabling plants to
withstand low air temperatures. Zinc is also involved in the synthesis of auxin, a
plant hormone that helps plants determine whether to focus on growing tall or
becoming bushy.
Zinc is also present in several dehydrogenase, proteinase, and peptidase
enzymes; promotes growth hormones and starch formation; promotes seed
maturation and production.
 Deficiency:
Zinc deficiency is most commonly seen on alkaline and sandy soil especially
if the soil is boggy. Excess levels of phosphorus and copper as well as low levels of
nitrogen in the soil can also increase the chances of zinc deficiency. Plants may also
find it difficult to take up zinc if the soil is contaminated with high levels of arsenic.
Deficiency can be seen in young mature or old leaves depending on plant
show yellowing, usually interveinal, rosetting, and dwarfing of leaves, broad white
band on either side of corn leaf. Dark, shriveled leaves on turfgrass. Zinc deficiency
may result in interveinal chlorosis and stunted leaves. As zinc is only moderately
mobile in plants, symptoms may occur on either old or new leaves though if the size
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of the leaves is affected, it's more likely to be older leaves that show the symptoms.
Some species may develop necrotic spots though this is certainly not a universal
symptom.
 Toxicity:
Zinc toxicity is most common when plants are grown in acidic soil and when
there is excess magnesium in the soil. Zinc toxicity is hard to detect because the most
common symptom is darker than normal leaves. Excess zinc may however induce and
thus symptoms may also resemble that disorder. Sometimes, symptoms of may also
be visible like pale leaves with necrotic interveinal lesions. Leaf tips water-soaked.
Increased lateral roots, dense root system, barbed-wire pattern.
B. IRON (Fe)
Iron is the fourth most abundant element found in soil though it is largely
present in forms that cannot be taken up by plants. Iron, in small amounts, is essential
for healthy plant growth and is classed as a micronutrient.
It is important for the development and function of chlorophyll and a range of
enzymes and proteins. It is also present in several peroxidase, catalase, and
cytochrome oxidase enzymes; found in ferredoxin, which participates in oxidation–
reduction reactions (e.g., NO3- and SO42-) reduction and N fixation); important in
chlorophyll formation. It also plays a role in respiration, nitrogen fixation, energy
transfer and metabolism. As with other nutrients, plants can have too much iron but
this primarily affects the uptake of other nutrients rather than producing direct
toxicity symptoms.
 Deficiency
Iron deficiency is most likely to occur in plants when the soil is alkaline or
when the level of phosphorus, nitrogen, zinc, manganese or molybdenum in the soil is
high. Heavy metal contamination can also lead to iron deficiency.
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Interveinal chlorosis is the most common symptom of iron deficiency.

Symptoms are usually seen on young leaves first. Young leaves show interveinal
chlorosis, distinct green veins, entire leaf is white or yellow if severe. Roots grow
profuse root hairs, bottle-brush effect.
 Toxicity
Iron toxicity is most commonly associated with highly acidic soil though
symptoms of iron toxicity are mostly symptoms of other nutrient deficiencies.
Symptoms of true iron toxicity usually include bronzing of the leaves and possibly
also the formation of brown spots on leave s. Bronze or black discoloration of leaf
margins, dark, slimy roots, mainly on submerged soils can be observed.
C. MANGANESE (Mn)
Manganese is a plant micronutrient. It fulfils a number of roles and is used in
photosynthesis (manganese is important for a number of aspects of photosynthesis),
synthesis of chlorophyll and nitrogen absorption as well as the synthesis of
riboflavin, ascorbic acid and carotene. It also activates decarboxylase,
dehydrogenase, and oxidase enzymes; important in photosynthesis, nitrogen
metabolism, and nitrogen assimilation.
 Deficiency:
Manganese deficiency is most common on alkaline and poorly drained soils as
well as those high in available iron. Symptoms of manganese deficiency
include interveinal chlorosis of new/young leaves, necrotic spots and sometimes,
small and/or irregularly shaped leaves. Interveinal yellowing with greener veins,
tissue near veins remains green, mottled appearance on dicots can be seen in zinc
deficient plants. Dead tissue in later stages and no lateral roots can be observed.
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 Toxicity:
Manganese toxicity is more common on very acidic soil. Excess manganese
can also induce iron deficiency. Manganese toxicity may present as distorted leaves
with dark specks. In severe cases, leaves will start to die from the outer edges in.
Dark green leaves with red flecks early, later bronze/yellow interveinal tissue, patchy
green colors are some other symptoms of manganese toxicity.
D. COPPER (Cu)
Copper is a micronutrient in plants and an important constituent, in small
amounts, of the human diet. It is a naturally occurring element in the soil and it can be
found as a metal or in a variety of ores. Copper plays a range of roles in plants. It
facilitates respiration and photosynthesis and is important for plant metabolism. It is a
component of a variety of enzymes and plant cell walls so it is important for plant
strength. Copper also affects the flavour, sugar content and storage life of fruit. It is
present in laccase and several other oxidase enzymes; important in photosynthesis,
protein and carbohydrate metabolism, and probably nitrogen fixation.
 Deficiency
Copper deficiency is more likely to be seen in plants grown in sandy, alkaline
soils. Copper deficiency in plants can result in poor growth, delayed flowering and
sterility. As a result of the latter, seed saved from copper deficient plants, even plants
that recover from a copper deficiency, will often have a poor germination rate.
Uniform chlorosis may also occur on new leaves and leaves may curl under and/or
wilt. In some cases, interveinal chlorosis may be the initial symptom
with chlorosis extending to the veins after prolonged deficiency. Deficiency can also
be seen in young leaves as yellowish in color, rolled or dead leaf tips, stunted leaves
and plants. Drooping of leaves on trees can also be observed in zinc deficient soils.
 Toxicity:
Copper toxicity in plants can inhibit iron uptake and can also stunt growth.
Excess soil copper can inhibit seed germination. High soil copper levels can occur as
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a result of excessive use of copper containing fungicides and industrial activity (such
as mining).
Deficiency symptoms includes stunted plants, pale leaves—that may induce
Fe deficiency, red coloration on leaf margins and roots short with barbed-wire
pattern.
E. NICKEL (Ni)
Nickel contributes to nitrogen fixation and the metabolism of urea (a nitrogen
containing compound) and is important for seed germination. Nickel is also
important for bacteria and fungi, which are both important for good plant growth. It
is essential for urease, hydrogenases, and methyl reductase; needed for grain filling,
seed viability, iron absorption, and urea and ureide metabolism (to avoid toxic levels
of these nitrogen-fixation products in legumes).
 Deficiency:
It does appear though that seeds of nickel deficient plants are often unviable
and that the yield of many crops is reduced. Plants may also show symptoms of if
they have a nickel deficiency and in some cases, chlorosis of new leaves may occur.
Newest leaves chlorotic, small ―mouse ear‖ leaves on pinnate-leafed trees, death of
meristems are symptoms of nickel deficiency.
 Toxicity:
Young leaflets distorted, white interveinal banding, dark green veins, irregular
oblique streaking or white stripes brown patches and brown, stunted roots can be
observed in excess concentrations of nickel in the soil. It can also impede the uptake
of other essential nutrients especially iron. It can also inhibit seed germination as well
as shoot and root growth. Photosynthesis is impeded by excessive concentrations of
nickel and flowers are often deformed under these conditions. Affected leaves may
show signs of chlorosis and/or necrosis but this is not always the case.
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F. BORON (B)
Boron is an essential plant micronutrient used by plants during cell division
and is required for development of tissue near the tips of shoots and roots. It is also
required for the growth of the pollen tube during flower pollination and thus fruit and
seed production. Boron is thought to increase nectar production by flowers so it is
important for attracting pollinating insects. It is also required for good cell structure
and as a result, the tissue of boron deficient plants often breaks down prematurely
resulting in brown flecks, necrotic spots, cracking and corky areas in fruit and tubers.
Excess boron inhibits seed germination. Boron also functions that activates certain
dehydrogenase enzymes; facilitates sugar translocation and synthesis of nucleic acids
and plant hormones; essential for cell division and development.
 Deficiency:
Boron is easily leached from soil so is most likely to be deficient in sandy
soils located in areas of high rainfall. A lack of organic matter in the soil will also
increase the likelihood of plant boron deficiencies. Symptoms of boron can be seen in
growing points of shoots and roots die, reddish young leaves, malformed buds,
necrosis of internal tissues in fleshy stems, tubers, seeds, stubby, bushy root system.
Symptoms of boron deficiency can vary greatly between different species but
often new leaves will be discolored - usually they will be a reddish color though they
may just be chlorotic. Often new leaves will develop necrotic spots and will be
wrinkled. Frequently, the buds at the ends of stems (apical buds) will die. In severe
cases, older leaves may become irregularly shaped. Root necrosis may result in
reduced growth of the whole plant. Plants affected by boron deficiency will most
likely fail to set seed regardless of how many flowers they produce though flower
production is frequently reduced.
 Toxicity:
Boron toxicity most often occurs either as a result of excess boron containing
fertilizer use or because the soil is naturally high in boron. Soil in areas that were
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previously under sea water are more likely to be naturally high in boron. Irrigation
water may also be a source of boron but soil may build up high levels of boron if it is
contaminated with wastes from surface mining, fly ash or industrial chemicals.
Symptoms of boron toxicity initially consist of chlorosis along the margins of
leaves that progresses towards the veins. When boron toxicity is severe, leaves may
blacken and then die between the veins. Interveinal chlorosis, marginal necrosis with
distinct boundaries and relative normal root appearance are some symptoms of
excessive boron.
G. MOLYBDENUM (Mo)
Molybdenum is present in nitrogenase (nitrogen fixation) and nitrate reductase
enzyme which is essential for nitrogen fixation and nitrogen assimilation.
Molybdenum is only required in very small amounts but it is important for nitrogen
metabolism without molybdenum, plants may be able to take up nitrogen but if it's in
the form of a nitrate (NO3-). Molybdenum also plays an essential role in the use of
phosphorus within plants. Without molybdenum, plants may be able to take up
inorganic phosphorus but they will struggle to convert that phosphorus into an
organic form that they can use.
 Deficiency:
Deficiency of molybdenum may mimic N deficiency in legumes, mottled
yellowing in young leaves, narrow, whip-like leaves in brassicas, whitish color, leaf
tip death in grasses. Acidic soils and those comprised primarily of sandstone are more
likely to be deficient in molybdenum. Molybdenum deficiency stunts plant growth
and plants may appear to have a nitrogen deficiency (because they're unable to use
nitrogen properly). Leaves may also exhibit spots of chlorosis between the veins and
along the edges. Eventually, the edges of leaves may turn brown and die though this
only occurs in some plant species. Symptoms appear in older leaves first. The pollen
of molybdenum deficient plants will usually be less viable than that of healthy plants
so grain and fruit production is often reduced. Molybdenum deficiency is usually seen
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first in cauliflower as it has a high molybdenum requirement. Affected cauliflower

plants will usually have cupped leaves.
 Toxicity:
Molybdenum toxicity is rare and it is of greater concern to the animals
(generally ruminants) that eat plants containing excess molybdenum than it is to the
plants themselves. Symptoms of toxicity are similar to deficiency and the more
obvious symptoms of toxicity are actually symptoms of deficiency of other nutrients
because high levels of molybdenum can reduce the absorption of other
nutrients - copper in particular. Reddish colors along leaf margins normal-appearing
roots can be observed. If molybdenum toxicity is ever suspected, an application of
sulfur can reduce molybdenum uptake until the soil level drops and especially if the
pH of the soil is greater than 7; care must be taken though to prevent other nutrient
imbalances. In such circumstances, molybdenum containing fertilizers should not be
used.
H. CHLORINE (Cl)
Chlorine is essential for photosynthesis and enzyme activation. It plays role
in regulation of water uptake on salt affected soils. Chlorine is also important for
plant photosynthesis as it is involved in the opening and closing of stomata (pores in
leaves that enable plants to take in and release carbon dioxide, oxygen and other
gases as required). It also helps ensure leaves are firm.
 Deficiency:
Soil is unlikely to be deficient in chlorine in coastal areas (due to the large
amounts of sodium chloride (salt) in the soil) but sandy, inland soil may become
deficient in chlorine if rainfall is high or plants are irrigated too frequently.
Chlorine deficiency results in blotchy leaf chlorosis and necrosis. Chlorine
deficiency can be distinguished from other nutrient imbalances because leaves will
exhibit characteristic distinct and abrupt boundaries between the affected and healthy
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tissue. Severe cases of chlorine deficiency may result in bronzing and/or wilting of
leaves though these are not reliable symptoms.
 Toxicity:
Chlorine toxicity can occur naturally when plants are grow in coastal soils and
near chlorinated pools (though much of the damage associated with chlorinated pools
is due to the vapors coming into contact with leaves rather than because the plant has
uptake too much chlorine).Chlorine toxicity will usually result in necrosis along leaf
margins and smaller than usual leaves and plants. Symptoms are usually seen on older
leaves first. In some species, chlorosis may also occur. Leaf tip and margin burn
(necrosis) resembles K deficiency, but on younger leaves. Death of root tips is also
noticeable.
2.13. CAUSES OF SOIL FERTILITY DECLINE

Soil fertility decline occurs when the components which contribute to fertility
are removed and not replaced, and the conditions which support soil's fertility are not
maintained thus, this leads to poor crop yields. Soil fertility decline includes nutrient
depletion or nutrient decline (larger removal than addition of nutrients), nutrient
mining (large removal of nutrients and no inputs), acidiﬁcation (decline in pH and or
an increase in exchangeable Al), the loss of organic matter, and increase in toxic
elements (e.g., Al, Mn). Deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, sedimentation,
pollution, poor and continuous cultivation are some causes that accelerates soil
fertility decline. Most soils lost their fertility in terms of the physical, chemical and
biological properties such as macronutrient, micronutrient and organic
matter depletions.
Depletion can be due to excessively intense cultivation and inadequate soil
management. The erosion hazard is aggravated by nutrient mining by crops,
extended farming on sloping areas, shortened fallow system and reduced
vegetative cover, depletion of soil organic matter and mismanagement of
crop lands. On the other hand, continuous cropping or monoculture and
intensive cultivation of crops can significantly decrease the nutrient level of
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the soil and its total fertility for a particular crop under cultivation; which,
finally leading to a decrease in yield of the crops. Some of the reasons are
discussed below:
1. Leaching. Plant nutrients are lost beyond the reach of plant roots. Usually caused
by excessive rainfall washing nutrients deep down into sub-soil beyond new roots
reach.
2. Soil erosion. Top soil is lost by the agent of erosion e.g. wind, water. Rainfall,
surface runoff, floods, wind erosion, tillage, and mass movements result in the
loss of fertile top spoil thereby declining soil quality.
3. Monocropping. This utilizes only specific nutrients from a particular zone
making it exhausted. It also causes accumulation of certain pests and diseases.
4. Continuous cropping. This continuously exhaust the fertility of land unless the
land is fallowed.
5. Change of soil pH. Use of either acidic or basic fertilizers affect soil pH and
consequently the presence of micro-organisms hence soil fertility affected.
6. Burning of vegetations. Destroys organic matter and soil structure. Nutrients are
lost and soil exposed to erosion.
7. Accumulation of salts. Common in waterlogged areas and semi-arid areas in
which poor drainage causes evaporation during the dry periods, making the soil
saline.
8. Biological Factors. Biological factors refer to the human and plant activities that
tend to reduce the quality of the soil. Some bacteria and fungi overgrowth in an
area can highly impact the microbial activity of the soil through biochemical
reactions, which reduces crop yield and the suitability of soil productivity
capacity. Human activities such as poor farming practices may also deplete soil
nutrients thus diminishing soil fertility. The biological factors affect mainly
lessens the microbial activity of the soil.
9. Deforestation causes soil fertility decline by exposing soil minerals by removing
trees and crop cover, which support the availability of humus and litter layers on
the surface of the soil. Some of the contributing activities include logging and
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slash and burn techniques used by individuals who invade forest areas for
farming, rendering the soils unproductive and less fertile in the end.
10. Misuse or excess use of fertilizers. The excessive use and the misuse of pesticides
and chemical fertilizers kill organisms that assist in binding the soil together
thereby contributing to the killing of soil‘s beneficial bacteria and other micro-
organisms that help in soil formation. The complex forms of the fertilizer‘s
chemicals are also responsible for denaturing essential soil minerals, giving rise to
nutrient losses from the soil.
11. Industrial and Mining activities. Soil is chiefly polluted by industrial and mining
activities. As an example, mining destroys crop cover and releases a myriad of
toxic chemicals such as mercury into the soil thereby poisoning it and rendering it
unproductive for any other purpose. Industrial activities, on the other hand,
release toxic effluents and material wastes into the atmosphere, land, rivers,
and groundwater that eventually pollute the soil and as such, it impacts on soil
quality.
12. Improper cultivation practices. The tillage on agricultural lands is one of the
main factors since it breaks up the soil into finer particles, which increase erosion
rates. The soil quality decline is exuberated more and more as a result of the
mechanization of agriculture that gives room for deep plowing, reduction of plant
cover, and the formation of the hardpan. Other improper cultivation activities
such as farming on steep slope and mono-cropping, row-cropping, and surface
irrigation wear away the natural composition of the soil and its fertility and
prevent soil from regenerating.
13. Overgrazing. The rates of soil erosion and the loss of soil nutrients, as well as the
topsoil, are highly contributed by overgrazing. Overgrazing destroys surface crop
cover and breaks down soil particles, increasing the rates of soil erosion. As a
result, soil quality and agricultural productivity are greatly affected.
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ENHANCEMENT
ACTIVITIES
Name: ____________________________________ Score ______________

I. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your
answer on the space provided before each number.
______1. The dominant forms of nitrogen available or absorbed by plants are

a. NO3- and NO2- c. NH4+ and N2+
+ -
b. NH4 and NO3 d. All of the above
______2. Most micronutrients become less available at

a. Low pH c. Neutral pH
b. b. High pH d. All of these
______3. Which of the following nutrients are easily leached?

a. NH4+ c. Ca2+
-
b. NO3 d. Mg2+
______4. The general forms of nutrients taken up by plants.

a. Molecules c. Ionic form
b. Elemental form d. Nutrients
______5. Branch of soil science concerned with the quality of soil to provide nutrients.
a. Soil Chemistry c. Soil Genesis
b. b. Soil Physics d. Soil Fertility
______6. Nutrients that are needed by plants in large amounts.

a. Macronutrients c. Mobile
b. Micronutrients d. Immobile
______7. Conversion of organic N to mineral form NH4+

a. Ammonification c. Immobilization
b. Nitrification d. All of the above
______8. A form of nutrient uptake where nutrients move into the root as the plant take
up water.
a. Diffusion c. Root interception
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b. Mass Flow d. All of the above
______9. All are available forms of N except:

a. SON c. N2
b. NO3- d. NH4+
______10. The conversion of organic to inorganic forms of nitrogen.

a. Mineralization c. Immobilization
b. Nitrification d. Volatilization
1. When can you consider an element as essential to plants?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Differentiate essential element from beneficial elements.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Why are some nutrient deficiencies exhibited in older leaves, while other
nutrient deficiencies show up first on newer leaves?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. What is the difference between macronutrient and micronutrient?

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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. How does soil pH affect the availability of nutrients?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
6. What is luxury consumption?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
III. INTERPRETATION & EXPLANATION. Describe and explain the graph

below.
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LESSON III. EVALUATION OF SOIL FERTILITY
Learning Outcomes:

 Familiarize the plant diagnostic techniques for soil fertility evaluation.
 Determine the advantages and disadvantages of each diagnostic techniques.
 Know the procedures in determining the amount of nutrients needed by plants.
 Familiarize with the microbiological and pot culture methods in soil fertility
evaluation.
 Knowledgeable about fertilizers, its sources and fertilizer management.
Introduction
Soil fertility evaluation is an important tool to determine the nutrient requirements

of plants. It is also used to determine the nutrient supplying capacity of soils. In this
chapter, it focuses on the different diagnostic procedures in soil fertility evaluation and its
advantages and disadvantages over another techniques.
It is also expected to learn valuable procedures in determining the amount of
nutrients needed, how much of the nutrients to be added, and when to apply fertilizers. It
is also in this chapter that students will be have in-depth learning about fertilizer
materials, types and classification of fertilizers and fertilizer computations. Additional
knowledge also about microbiological methods, pot cultures and soil sampling
procedures will also be tackled.
Thus, soil fertility evaluation will serve as basis for determining the potential
productivity of soils, nutrient management strategies and fertilizer recommendations.
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DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Chlorosis. General yellowing of the leaf tissue. A very common deficiency
symptom, since many nutrients affect the photosynthesis process directly or
indirectly.
 Firing. Yellowing, followed by rapid death of lower leaves, moving up the plant
and giving the same appearance as if someone touched the bottom of the plants
 Interveinal Chlorosis. Yellowing in between leaf veins, but with the veins
themselves remaining green. In grasses, this is called striping.
 Necrosis. Severe deficiencies result in death of the entire plant or parts of the
plant first affected by the deficiency. The plant tissue browns and dies. The tissue
which has already died on a still living plant is called necrotic tissue.
 Stunting. Many deficiencies result in decreased growth. This can result in shorter
height of the affected plants.
 Abnormal coloration. Red, purple, brown colors caused by pigments.
3.1. DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURES

Soil fertility evaluation is the process of estimating the amount of
nutrients which could be available for crops and the amount of fertilizer to be
supplemented for profitable crop production. The techniques commonly
employed to assess the fertility status of a soil includes: (1) nutrient-deficiency
symptoms of plants, (2) plant tissue analysis (3) biological tests and (4) chemical
soil tests/soil analysis.
1. Nutrient-deficiency symptoms of plants
Nutrient deficiency symptoms of plants is a visual method of evaluating
soil fertility and diagnosing the disorder affecting the plant. It is a qualitative
measurement of availability of plant nutrients. An abnormal appearance of the
growing plant may be caused by a deficiency of one or more nutrient elements. If
a plant is lacking in a particular element, more or less characteristic symptoms
may appear. This visual method of evaluating soil fertility is unique in that it
requires no expensive or elaborate equipment and can be used as a supplement to
other diagnostic techniques.
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Sometimes plants possess hidden hunger symptoms. Hidden hunger refers

to a situation in which a crop needs more of a given element, yet has shown no
deficiency symptoms. The content of an element is above the deficiency symptom
zone but still considerably below that needed to permit the most profitable crop
performance.
Common deficiency symptoms include complete crop failure at seedling
stage, retarded/stunted growth, chlorosis, necrosis, malformation of different plant
parts, delayed maturity, poor quality of crops like low protein, oil, starch content,
keeping/ storage quality reduced, internal abnormality like hidden hunger.
Table 6. Advantages and disadvantages of nutrient deficiency symptoms

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 rapid  Visual symptom may be caused by

deficiency of several nutrients.
 does not require  Other plant stresses (diseases,
expensive or elaborate insects, herbicide damage, etc.) can
equipment be difficult to distinguish from
nutrient deficiencies.
 can be used as a  Nutrient deficiency symptoms
supplement to other appear too late to correct the
diagnostic techniques. deficiency without yield loss.
2. Plant analysis
Plant tissue analysis is a way to measure the nutrients actually taken up by
the plant and is another aid in diagnosing crop nutritional problems. Plant analysis
is often used to confirm soil test results and can indicate when the cause of the
problem is something other than a nutrient deficiency in the soil. Plant nutrient
content represents the effects soil nutrient status and all the other factors
controlling plant growth. It indicates the actual removal of nutrients from the soil
and identifies nutrient status of plant and deficiency of nutrient element. It is a
direct reflection of nutrient status of soil.
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Two general types of plant analysis have been used. One is the tissue test
which is customarily made on fresh tissue in the field. The other is the total
analysis performed in the laboratory with precise analytical technique.
Tissue tests: Rapid tests for the determination of nutrient elements in the
plant sap of fresh tissue have found an important place in the diagnosis of the
needs of growing plants. In these tests the sap from ruptured cells is tested for
unassimilated nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. These are semiquantitative
tests intended mainly for verifying or predicting deficiencies of nitrogen,
phosphorus, or potassium. The results are read as very low, medium or high.
Through the proper application of tissue testing it is possible to anticipate or
forecast certain production problems – while still in the field. Although not as
widely used, similar on-the-spot tissue tests have been developed for other
nutrients, including sulfur, magnesium, manganese and zinc.
Total analysis: Total analysis is performed on the whole plant or on plant

parts. Precise analytical techniques are used for measurement of the various
elements after the plant material is dried, ground, and ashed. Simultaneous
analysis of up to 22 elements is possible by inductively coupled plasma optical
emission spectrometry. This method is at least as sensitive as older but less
automated techniques such as flame atomic absorption spectrometry. The
spectrograph can also be used for the simultaneous determination of several
elements.
Table 7. Advantages and disadvantages of plant analysis

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Standardized equipment or  Plants are already growing and

methods of analysis are used. the detection of some
deficiency may already be too
late.
 Serves as an option to  May be difficult to distinguish
monitor the fertility of the whether the lack of nutrient in
soil while the plant is already tissue is due to a true nutrient
growing deficiency or due to some soil
physical stresses (e.g. roots
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can‘t penetrate through a hard

pan).
 Cannot distinguish whether the

soil just need some amendments
for nutrients to be available.
 May be expensive
 Nutrient content in the tissue
may vary depending on which
plant part is sampled.
3. Biological Test
Biological test involves the planting of the crop in the soil being evaluated.
The soil would be considered fertile if the performance of the test plants are
comparable or better than the optimum growth and yield expected of the particular
variety used/planted. Making timely and focused observations in the field has been a
valuable way to diagnose problems since the dawn of agriculture and continues to be
the most common and valuable way to identify deficiencies and the basis for
interventions. Use of the growing plant understandably has much appeal in the study
of fertilizer requirements, and much attention has been devoted to these methods for
measuring the fertility status of soils. Biological test could either be through field
experiment or pot experiment.
Field tests. The field-plot method is one of the oldest and best known of the
biological tests. Field tests are expensive and time consuming, and one is unable to
control climatic conditions and other limiting factors. They are valuable tools,
however, and are widely used by experiment stations, although they are not well
adapted for use in determining the nutrient status of large numbers of soils. Rather,
they are used in conjunction with laboratory and green house studies as a final
proving ground and in the calibration of soil and plant tests.
Pot experiment. Pot experiments, as a complement to field measurements,
allow the investigation of plants under controlled conditions without distracting
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effects of heterogeneous environmental factors. These are simple and more rapid
biological techniques for soil fertility evaluation. Here, higher plants and small
amounts of soils are used for testing. All these techniques are based on the uptake of
nutrients by a large number of plants grown on a small amount of soil. It is used to
assess availability of several nutrients and they are quantitatively determined by
chemical analysis of the entire plant and soil.
Table 8. Advantages and disadvantages of biological test

o Advantages: o Disadvantages:
 Provides definitive indication  Time-consuming

of whether the soil can support
the growth of the crop/plant or
not.
 Allows evaluation of  Expensive

appropriateness of other factors
(e.g. climate)
 By the time you do the actual
wide-scale growing of the crop,
the fertility status may already
have changed.
4. Chemical Analysis/Soil Analysis
Soil tests are considered to be a helpful diagnostic tool that provides

information about the fertility level and chemical properties of the soil. It is
usually used for estimating the nutrient-supplying power of a soil. It is much more
rapid and has the added advantage over deficiency symptoms and plant analyses
in that one may determine the needs of the soil before the crop is planted. A soil
test measures a part of the total nutrient supply in the soil thus, it will give basic
information about deficiencies and problems and suggest measures that should be
taken to correct problems and specific nutrients that are needed to obtain better
yields.
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Soil analysis are done to determine the relative ability of a soil to supply
crop nutrients during a particular growing season, predict the probability of
obtaining a profitable response to fertilizer application, determine the need to
adjust soil pH, diagnose problems such as excessive salinity or alkalinity, provide
a basis for fertilizer recommendations for a given crop and valuate the fertility
status of the soil as the basis for planning a nutrient management program.
Soil samples are collected from an area, air-dried, pulverized and sieved,
and submitted to an accredited laboratory for soil analysis . Extra care has to be
exercised when soil samples are being sampled.
Table 9. Advantages and disadvantages of chemical/soil analysis
o Advantages: Disadvantages:
 The soil itself is being  Time-consuming

analyzed.
 Standardized  Expensive and requires

methods/equipment are being specialized equipment.
used.
 Provides some idea on the  Accuracy of results depends
fertility of the soil before the largely on the accuracy in
crop is planted. sampling.
3.2. PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS

NEEDED
A. SOIL TESTING
Determining the amounts of nutrients in the soil is essential to evaluate the
nutrient supplying capacity of the soils and determine the amount of fertilizer
needed by crops in order to maximize production. As mentioned in the earlier
topic above, there are various methods that are available to evaluate soil fertility.
Among these methods, soil testing is commonly used. By testing soils, it is
possible to determine their properties, and the level of plant nutrients. This
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information is useful in making recommendations for appropriate land-use and

sustainable productivity. The soil sample tested need to be a true representative
sample of the area under study. A poor sample would result in recommendations
that are misleading or inaccurate. Below are the steps in order to obtain the most
accurate results for determining the exact amounts of nutrients needed by plants.
1. Soil Sample Collection and Preparation
Utility of the results obtained from the laboratory analysis depends on the
sampling precision. Hence, collection of large number of samples is advisable so
that sample of desired size can be obtained by sub-sampling. Soil sample
collection is generally done for two purpose: soil fertility evaluation and for
characterization or pedological studies.
Soil sampling for soil fertility evaluation involves the collection of
composite surface samples from the plow depth using a soil auger or a shovel. It
usually done by identification of sampling points in a more or less homogeneous
field in terms of slope, texture, depth, drainage and cropping and fertilizer history.
Randomization of sampling points (10-20) is important. Approximately 1 kg from
the bulk samples will be collected, air-dried and sieved and brought to the
laboratory for soil analysis.
2. Soil Analysis
Soil analysis is a set of various chemical processes that determine the
amount of available plant nutrients in the soil. Preparation of soils samples after
bringing to the laboratory for subsequent analysis for determination of physical,
chemical and biological properties is an important step and a laboratory routine.
Usually the purpose of soil analysis is to determine the level of availability of
nutrients, predict the increase in yields and profitability of fertilization, provide
the basis for calculating the required fertilizing of each crop and to evaluate the
status of each nutrient element and simultaneously determine nutrient
management plan.
Chemical soil analysis determines the content of basic plant nutrients;
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P2O5), potassium (K2O), pH, humus content, total
CaCO3, available lime, organic matter, total sulfur (S), trace elements, and other
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physical characteristics (capacity, permeability, density, pH - value). These

parameters are important as basis for fertilizer recommendations.
3. Interpretation of Soil Test Results
Soil test results usually indicates the type of test conducted, the
result, and may include interpretation or recommendations. The results
provided in a soil test report reflect the properties of the soil sample. Soil test
results will typically indicate whether a nutrient level is low, medium (moderate)
or high (adequate). These levels are known as ―nutrient classes‖ or categories and
some laboratories may break these classes down further to very low, low,
medium, high and very high. Results can be presented in parts per million
(ppm) or lb/acre .
4. Fertilizer Recommendation
Soil test results typically include a fertilizer recommendation. Fertilizer
recommendations are based upon the previous crop, the crop to be grown and the
yield goals. Recommended fertilizer rates may need to be adjusted based on
climate and soil properties at specific location.
Recommendations are designed to keep nutrients from being the
limiting resource to the crop, while maintaining economic and environmental
balance. When all nutrients are in the optimum range, recommendations are
based on crop removal, meaning recommendations are to replace the
nutrients removed by the harvested crop. When nutrients are below optimum,
recommendations are based on a building approach, meaning the
recommendations are designed to get the soil nutrients to the optimum rage
over the three years of the soil test.
In some recommendations, information about split applications of
nitrogen, recommendations on applications timing, animal health issues, etc.
can be found. It can also provide valuable insights and tips into proper
applications and nutrient timing.
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B. FIELD PLOT TECHNIQUE

It is an experiment that is carried out under field conditions. It should to
conduct in different placed under different seasons. When managed and conducted
properly, the results obtained from field fertilizer experiments can be used as the
standard against which we test the reliability of soil and plant analysis, microbial
assays, and short-term pot culture studies in controlled growth chambers or under
greenhouse conditions.
The principle involved is that the growth and yield of a given crop in a
given soil is dependent upon the supply of available nutrient or nutrients in the
soil. It is necessary that all factors affecting growth, either than the fertility
variable under study, be provided according to the best information available:
adaptable variety, sufficient water, proportion tillage and control pH (by liming),
insects, disease, and woods. Adequate quantities of the plant nutrients other than
the one(s) under study must applied.
The unit of the experiment is a plot the size of which various with the kind
of crop and resources available to the experimenter. For grain crops, legumes, and
vegetables, plot size ranged from 10 to 50 square meters; for sugar cane, 100 sq.
meters or larger; and for fruit trees, the plot size is based on number of trees.
Aside from replications from each treatment, randomization of the plots
within a replication is a prerequisite of a good field experiment. By randomization
is meant the physical placing of treatments is such a way that each treatment will
have an equal opportunity to be assigned some particular space in the experimental
area.
3.3. MICROBIOLOGICAL METHODS

In the absence of nutrients, certain microorganisms exhibit behavior
similar to that of higher plants and Winogradsky was one of the first to observe
that. For example, growth of Azotobacter or Aspergillus niger reflects nutrient
deficiency in the soil. The soil is grouped from very deficient to not deficient in
the respective elements, depending on the amount of colony growth. In
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comparison with methods that utilize growing of higher plants, microbiological

methods are rapid, simple and require little space.
It was shown that the growth of Azotobacter served to indicate the limiting
mineral nutrients in the soil, especially calcium, phosphorus, and potassium, with
greater sensitivity than chemical methods. Since that time several techniques
which employ different types of microorganisms have been developed.
(i) Sackett and Stewart technique: The Sackett and Stewart technique is based on
Winogradsky‘s work and was used to study the phosphorus and potassium status
of Colorado soils. A culture is prepared of each soil, phosphorus is added to one
portion, potassium to another, and both elements to a third portion. The cultures
are then inoculated with Azotobacter and incubated for 72 hours. The soil is rated
from very deficient to not deficient in the respective elements, depending on the
amount of colony growth.
(ii) Aspergillus niger: To determine phosphorus and potassium small amounts of

soil are incubated for a period of four days in flasks containing the appropriate
nutrient solution. The weight of the mycelial pad or the amount of potassium
absorbed by these pads is used as a measure of the nutrient deficiency.
(iii)Mehlich’s Cunninghamella-Plaque method for phosphorus:

Cunninghamella is sensitive for P. Test soil is mixed with nutrient solution and a
paste is prepared. The paste is spread on a clay dish. Cunninghamella is
inoculated at the center and incubated for 5-6 days. Based on the diameter of
mycelial growth, the soil is diagnosed as deficient (<10 cm), moderately deficient
(11-21 cm), or not deficient (>22 cm). The diameter of the mycelial growth on the
dish is used to estimate the amount of phosphorus present.
3.4. POT CULTURES

Pot cultures can be most helpful to enlarge on, or clarify studies of growth,
soil fertility, insect and disease problems. Pot cultures can be a nursery tool. As a
tool they should be used to support a hypothesis or data obtained from chemical
analyses (soils, tissues, etc.) However, as pot culture conditions are usually not
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representative of field environment, pilot tests in the field should be set up based
on information accumulated from chemical analyses and pot cultures.
1. Mitscherlich Pot Culture Method:
Mitscherlich predicted the plant nutrient reserved (native fertility) as the
percentage of increases in the yield expected from the addition of a given quantity
of fertilizers. In this method oats are grown to maturity in pots containing 6 lb of
soil. The yields of the N-P and N=K treatments are expressed as a percentage of
the yield from the complete N-P-K treatment. With these percentage yields, the
plant nutrient reserve in the unfertilized soil can be read in pounds per acre from
yield tables prepared by Mitscherlich, and from these same tables predictions of
the percentage increased in yield expected from the addition of given amounts of
nutrients can be obtained.
2. Jenny Pot Culture Tests:
Jenny modified Mitscherlich‘s technique to determine N, P, K, S and lime
supply in soils using lettuce. The plants were grown to six weeks and harvested.
The criterion of treatment effect is the percentage yield values. He grouped the
plants into 3 categories:
(a) Definite deficiency

(b) Probable deficiency and
(c) Uncertain deficiency based on the percentage of yield.
3. Neubauer Seedling Method:

Neubauer seedling technique is a method is based on the principle of rapid
and intensive uptake of nutrient elements by a large number of seedlings grown in
a small quantity of soil. The roots of plants occupy the entire soil column and
exhaust the available nutrients supply within a short time. The total nutrients
removed by the crops are usually determined quantitatively by chemical analysis
of the entire plant. This quantification of nutrients will be utilized for achieving
satisfactory yields of various crops.
In some procedures, however, the tops and the roots are harvested and
analyzed separately. Tables have been set up to give the minimum values for
satisfactory yields of various crops. The Neubauer method has been used for the
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availability of several nutrients including phosphorus, potassium, calcium, micro-

nutrients, or fertilizer materials.
4. Sunflower Pot Culture Techniques for Boron:
Sunflower is grown in the test soil supplied with nutrient solution with all
essential nutrients excepting boron. From the day of appearance of B deficiency
symptoms of leaves, the soil is identified as deficient (36 days). In this method, B
is vigorously extracted from small amounts of soil by massive plant growth.
There are various methods to do this. In the Colwell method, one pound of soil is
given the complete nutrients except boron. Five sunflower seed are planted. B
deficiency is noted on the plants and the criterion of B deficiency in soils is the
number of days it takes for the B symptoms to appear in the first of the five
plants. The soil is said to be markedly deficient if the symptoms of B deficiency
appear in less than 28 days, moderately deficient if the symptoms appear between
28-36 days; and little or no deficiency if the symptoms are not seen within 36
days. Sand cultures grown with increasing amounts of B are used as the standards.
Deficiency is classified as marked deficiency, moderate deficiency and not or
little deficiency based upon the number of days after which boron deficiency is
observed.
5. Short term sand culture
In this method, 2 sets of plastic or wax paper pots are used for each
treatment. In the first pot the seeds of annual test plant (rice) are planted on sand
medium. After a week, the pot (bottom removed) with the rapid growing seedling
is placed on the second pot containing the test soil. The soil should be at field
capacity then so that the roots of the seedling can start growing on it immediately.
After a week the rice seedling are harvested and analyzed for nutrients. The levels
of nutrients are then compared against standards. This should show whether the
soil contains sufficient amount of the essential element. The results are
intercepted like any other plant analysis.
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FERTILIZER AND FERTILIZER MATERIALS
FERTILIZER TERMINOLOGIES
 Fertilizer – any substance which is added to the soil or applied at the plant to
supply the elements essential for plant nutrition
 Fertilizer grade - the guaranteed percentage of total nitrogen (N), available
phosphorus (P2O5), and water-soluble potassium (K2O), in that order, in a
fertilizer material; 16-20-0 means that the fertilizer material contains N, P, K
equivalent to 16% N, 20% P2O5, and 0% K2O
 Total plant food – the total percentage of nutrients (usually of N, P, K and S) in a
fertilizer material; 17-0-17-12 has 46% while 14-14-14-12 has 54% total plant
food
 Carrier – a material that is necessary to hold the fertilizer element in a form
suitable for use
 Filler – a material used to provide the fertilizer with the desired amount of
nutrient per unit of weight, to make application easier or to reduce the absorption
of water from the air
 Fertilizer recommendation – the amount (kg) of N, P2O5, and K2O recommended
per hectare; 90+30+60 means that for 1 ha, you must apply 90 kg N, 30 kg P 2O5,
and 60 kg K2O
A. CLASSIFICATION OF FERTILIZER MATERIALS ACCORDING TO FORM
1. Natural organic – any fertilizer of plant and/or animal origin that has undergone
decomposition. Ex: Commercial organic fertilizer (OF), compost, chicken manure
Table 10. Types of natural organic fertilizer (commercial)
Organic Moisture N+P2O5+K2O

C: N Ratio
Matter (%) Content (%) (%)
Pure
≥ 20 12:1 ≤ 35 ≤7
Organic
Fortified
≥ 20 12:11 ≤ 35 >7
Organic
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2. Chemical or inorganic – any fertilizer material which is natural or synthetic product

of chemical reaction of certain raw materials.
 Natural chemical – rock phosphate, Chilean nitrate of soda, most potassium

materials
 Synthetic chemical – ammonium sulfate, ordinary superphosphate, ammonium

phosphate, complete fertilizer; Urea is synthetic but in organic form.
3. Biofertilizers - the bio-inoculants or preparations containing microorganisms that

supply nutrients especially nitrogen and phosphorus are known as biofertilizers. On
the basis of nutrients supply, these are broadly classified in four groups:
 Nitrogen fixers- micro-organisms like bacteria and blue-green algae, legume
inoculants, Rhizobia, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, azolla
 Phosphorus solubilizers- phosphorus solubizing bacteria, mycorrhizae
 Plant growth promoters- plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria
 Organic matter decomposers- bacteria, fungi
B. ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF FERTILIZER ELEMENTS PRESENT

 Single fertilizers – contain only one of the 3 major fertilizer elements (N, P, and
K)
Examples: Urea, Ammonium sulfate, ordinary superphosphate, muriate of potash,

sulfate of potash
 Incomplete fertilizers – contain 2 of the 3 major fertilizer elements
Examples: ammonium phosphate, 17-0-17, potassium nitrate, potassium

phosphate, urea superphosphate (20-10-0)
 Complete fertilizers – contain all the 3 major fertilizer elements
Examples: 14-14-14; 17-7-17; 10-15-15; 12-12-12
 Mixed fertilizers – contain 2 or more of the major fertilizer elements that are
supplied by 2 or more fertilizer materials
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Examples: ammonium phosphate + muriate of potash; urea superphosphate (20-

10-0).
Table 11. Properties of organic and inorganic fertilizers
Properties of organic fertilizer Properties of inorganic fertilizers
 Low nutrient content  High nutrient analysis

 Bulkiness  High solubility
 Limited supply  Good supply
 Slow nutrient availability  Not bulky
 Contains many seeds of weeds
 Can be a source of plant disease
and spread parasites
 Contains matter important in
improving soil structure
 Supplies some of the minor
elements which are not usually
present in commercial fertilizers
 Little danger of over supplying
to crops
C. FERTILIZER PLACEMENT
For solid fertilizer:
a. Broadcast – the fertilizer is applied uniformly over the surface of the land. It
may be plowed in. For perennial crops (pastures) fertilizer is spread on the soil
surface. For annual crops, only a part of the fertilizer required is applied on
this method.
b. Band – fertilizer is lain in a narrow band or strip alongside the row. 2.5 cm to
the side and 5 cm below the seed or transplanted. This method is used for corn
and other wide row crops. It also minimizes fixation of the phosphorus and
potassium.
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c. Top-dressed or side-dressed – fertilizer is applied after emergence. Top-

dressed is broadcast application on crop such as small grains and forage crops.
Side-dressed is placement beside the row of the crop such as corn or cotton.
d. In-the-row application – the fertilizer is applied with the seed during seeding.
This is applicable for small grains and at low rates of application.
e. Spot application – the fertilizer is applied around the hill as with crops like
melon or squash.
For liquid fertilizer:
a. Foliar application – farm or cannot be supplied with the quantity of
macronutrients required for economic crop production by foliar application
alone. However, foliar sprays are an effective method in supplying the
micronutrients to a plant if and when required. Urea could be supplied in this
manner.
b. Soil injection – this is a direct soil application of a liquid fertilizer particularly
the anhydrous ammonia.
c. Fertigation – applied with the irrigation water. Some solid fertilizers are also
applied in this manner.
D. FERTILIZER CALCULATION
Formula:
( ))
( ) ( )
( )
Fertilizer Calculation:
Sample Problem 1: Calculate the amount of fertilizer materials for 1 ha at the
recommended rate of 90-30- 60 using different material combinations:
1. Combination of single fertilizer materials:
• 21-0-0 (ammonium sulfate)
• 0-18-0 (ordinary superphosphate)
• 0-0-60 (muriate of potash or potassium chloride)

Solution:
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 ( ) x 1 ha = 428.6 kg
 ( ) x 1 ha = 166.7 kg
 ( ) x 1 ha = 100 kg
2. Combination of incomplete & single fertilizer materials
• 16-20-0 (ammonium phosphate)
• 46-0-0 (urea)
• 0-0-60 (muriate of potash)
Solution:
 ( ) x 1 ha = 150 kg
 ( ) x 1 ha = 143.5 kg
 ( ) x 1 ha = 100 kg
Therefore, you must apply 150.0 kg 16-20-0, 143.5 kg 46-0-0, and 100.0 kg 0-
0-60 to satisfy the recommended rate of 90-30- 60.
3. Combination of complete and single fertilizer materials
• 14-14-14 (complete)
• 46-0-0 (urea)
• 0-0-60 (muriate of potash)
Solution:
 ( ) x 1 ha = 214.3 kg
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 ( )
( )
= = = 130.4 kg
 ( )
( )
= = = 50 kg
Therefore, you must apply 214.3 kg 14-14-14, 130.4 kg 46-0-0, and 50.0 kg 0-
0-60 to satisfy the recommended rate of 90-30-60.
Sample Problem 2. Determine the least expensive fertilizer combination that can
satisfy the recommended rate (90-30-60)
Cost of combination 1
NOTE: 1 BAG = 50 KG
Fertilizer Quantity of Price /bag Cost
material fertilizer needed
21-0-0 428.6 kg ₱ 660.00 ₱ 5,657.52
0-18-0 166.7 kg ₱ 1,190.00 ₱ 3,967.46
0-0-60 100 kg ₱ 2,175.00 ₱ 4,350.00
TOTAL COST ₱ 13,974.98

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NOTE: 1 BAG = 50 KG
16-20-0 150.0 kg ₱ 1,315.00 ₱ 3,945.00
46-0-0 143.5 kg ₱ 1,115.00 ₱ 3,200.05
0-0-60 100.0 kg ₱ 2,175.00 ₱ 4,350.00
NOTE: 1 BAG = 50 KG
14-14-14 214.3 kg ₱ 1,420.00 ₱ 6,086.12
46-0-0 130.4 kg ₱ 1,115.00 ₱ 2,907.92
0-0-60 50 kg ₱ 2,175.00 ₱ 2,175.00

Page 84 of 169
ENHANCEMENT
ACTIVITIES
Name: ____________________________________ Score ______________
I. IDENTIFICATION. Write your answer on the space provided.
________________1. It is a common deficiency symptom often called as the yellowing

of leaves.
________________2. Form of fertilizer application that is applied uniformly over the
surface of the land.
________________3. Visual method of evaluating soil fertility and diagnosing the

disorder affecting the plant.
________________4. Any substance which is added to the soil or applied at the plant to
supply the elements essential for plant nutrition.
________________5. It is the process of estimating the amount of nutrients which could
be available for crops and the amount of fertilizer to be
supplemented for profitable production.
________________6. Fertilizer material that contain only one of the 3 major fertilizer
elements.
________________7. A diagnostic technique that involves the planting of the crop in the
soil being evaluated.
________________8. Fertilizer placement that is applied around the hill as with crops.
________________9. Severe deficiencies result in death of the entire plant or parts of the
plant first affected by the deficiency
________________10. Fertilizer that contain all the 3 major fertilizer elements.
1. What are the methods in soil fertility evaluation? Explain each.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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2. How can you evaluate fertility of soil by soil test methods?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. How important is soil sample collection and preparation in soil analysis?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. In diagnostic techniques for soil fertility evaluation, what is the easiest and
the cheapest way? Why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Page 86 of 169
LESSON IV. PROBLEM SOILS
Learning Outcomes:

 Provide basic information about the characteristics of different problem soils.
 Describe both physical and chemical problems in soils.
 Know how saline and sodic soils are formed.
 Understand the behavior of plants grown in halomorphic soils.
 Devise management strategies foe saline, sodic, acidic and zinc deficient soils.
Introduction
Soil serves as the basis in agriculture; however, several problems are arising
in relation to soil health quality and productivity such as degradation of soil, soil
fertility decline; and problems related to physical, chemical and biological properties
of soils. Soil problems is a major constraint for crop productivity. It is usually the
limiting factor for crop growth and development.
In this chapter, different characteristics of problem soils such as saline, sodic,
saline-sodic, acidic, heavy metal polluted soils, heavy clay soils, and highly
permeable soils will be thoroughly discussed. Classification, formation and
management strategies will also be given emphasis in this chapter. Topics also related
to the behavior of plants grown in halomorphic soils will be undertaken.
Thus, by the end of the chapter students will be able to remediate and devise
strategies for problem soils for better management of soil.
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4.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT PROBLEM SOILS

Problem soils are those soil that productivity is lowered due to inherent
unfavorable environment conditions such as salt content and soil reaction.
A. PHYSICAL PROBLEMS IN SOILS

1. Heavy clay soils
Slow permeable soil is mainly due to very high clay content, infiltration
rate < 6cm/day, so more runoff which eventually leads to soil erosion and nutrient
removal. Since the capillary porosity is high it leads to impeded drainage, poor
aeration and reduced conditions.
2. Soil surface crusting
Surface crusting is due to the presence of colloidal oxides of iron and
aluminium in soils which binds the soil particles under wet regimes. On drying it
forms a hard mass on the surface. It is predominant in Alfisols but also occur in
other soils too.
3. Sub soil hard pan
The reasons for the formation of sub surface hard pan in red soils is due to
the illuviation of clay to the sub soil horizons coupled with cementing action of
oxides of iron, aluminum and calcium carbonate.
4. Shallow soils
Shallow soils are formed due to the presence of parent rocks immediately
below the soil surface (15-20 cm depth). It restricts root elongation and spreading.
Due to shallowness less volume of soil is available exhaustive soil nutrients.
5. Highly permeable soils
Excessive permeability of the sandy soils results in poor water retention
capacity, very high hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rates. These soils being
devoid of finer particles and organic matter, the aggregates are weakly formed,
the non-capillary pores dominating with very poor soil structure. So, whatever the
nutrients and water added to these soils are not utilized by the crops and subjected
to loss of nutrients and water. In addition, it is not providing anchorage to the
crops grown.
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6. Eroded soils
Soil erosion is defined as the detachment and transportation of soil mass
from one place to another through the action of wind, water in motion or by the
beating action of rain drops. Erosion extensively occurs in poorly aggregated soils
(low humus) and in a higher percentage of silt and very fine sand. Erosion
increases when soil remains bare or without vegetation. The surface soil is taken
away by the runoff causing loss of valuable topsoil along with nutrients, both
native and applied.
B. CHEMICAL PROBLEMS IN SOILS
1. Sodic Soils/Alkali Soils

Alkali (or) sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the
saturation extract less than 4 dS m-1 and an ESP of > 15. The pH is usually
between 8.5 and 10.0. Formerly these soils were called ―black alkali soils‖. Most
alkali soils, particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions, contain CaCO3 in the
profile in some form and constant hydrolysis of CaCO3 sustains the release of OH
ions in soil solution.
2. Saline Soils
Saline soils are defined as soils having a conductivity of the saturation
extract greater than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage less than
15. The pH is usually less than 8.5. Formerly these soils were called white alkali
soils because of surface crust of white salts. The saline soils contain toxic
concentration of soluble salts in the root zone. Soluble salts consist of chlorides
and sulphates of sodium, calcium, magnesium.
3. Saline-Sodic Soils
The pH values of these soils are usually less than 8.2. These soils have
both excess soluble salts and excess exchangeable sodium. The dominant salts
in saline–sodic soils are chlorides and sulfates of sodium, calcium and magnesium
along with carbonates and bicarbonates. Saline–sodic soils have an ECe >4 dS
m−1 and an ESP >15. Thus, both soluble salts and exchangeable Na+ are high in
these soils. Since electrolyte concentration is high, the soil pH is usually <8.5 and
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the soil is flocculated. However, if the soluble salts are leached out, usually
Na+ becomes an even greater problem and the soil pH rises to >8.5 and the soil
can become dispersed.
4. Alkaline Soils.
In regions where precipitation is less than potential evapotranspiration, the
cations released by mineral weathering accumulate because there is not enough
rain to thoroughly leach them away. The pH of soils in these arid and semiarid
environments is generally in the alkaline range—that is, 7 or above.
Minimal leaching in dry environments means that soil acidification is
minimized. The cations in the soil solution and on the exchange, complex are
mainly Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and Na+. These cations are non-hydrolyzing and so do not
produce acid (H+) upon reacting with water as Al3+ or Fe3+do. However, they
generally do not produce OH− ions either. Rather, their effect in water is neutral,
and soils dominated by them have a pH about 7 unless certain anions are present
in the soil solution. The basic hydroxyl (OH-)-generating anions are principally
carbonate (CO32-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-). These anions originate from the
dissolution of such minerals as calcite (CaCO3) or from the dissociation of
carbonic acid (H2CO3). In this series of linked equilibrium reactions, carbonate
and bicarbonate act as bases because they react with water to form hydroxyl ions
and thus raise the pH.
5. Acidic Soils
Soil acidity refers to presence of higher concentration of H+ concentration
in soil solution and at exchange sites. Acid soils are characterized by low soil pH,
which varies form strongly acidic (4.5--‐5.5) to extremely acidic (<4.5) and with
low base saturation. In acid soil regions (ASR) precipitation exceeds the
evapotranspiration and hence leaching is predominant causing loss of bases from
the soil. Acidification is a natural process involved in soil formation. It reaches its
greatest expression in humid regions where rainfall is sufficient to thoroughly
leach the soil profile.
When the process of weathering is drastic, the subsoil and in many cases,
the whole profile becomes acidic this can be due to several factors such as
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leaching due to heavy rainfall, acidic parent material and alumina silicate
minerals, acid forming fertilizers, humus and other organic acids, carbon
dioxide and hydrous oxides, and acid rain. Acidic soils become a problem since it
can cause a lot of production constraints including increased solubility and
toxicity of Al, Mn and Fe; deficiency of Ca and Mg, reduced availability of P and
Mo and reduced microbial activity.
6. Acid-sulphate soils.
Acid sulphate are drained coastal wetland soils that have become acid
(pH<4) due to oxidation of the pyritic minerals in the soil. Undrained soils
containing pyrites need not be acid and they are called potential acid sulphate
soils. Land flooded with waters that contain sulphates, particularly salt waters,
accumulate sulfur compounds, which in poorly aerated soils are bacterially
reduced to sulphates. Such soils are not usually very acidic when first drained in
water.
When the soil is drained and then aerated, the sulphide (S 2- ) is oxidized
to sulphate (SO2-4) by a combination of chemical and bacterial actions, forming
sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The magnitude of acid development depends on the amount
of sulphide present in the soil and the conditions and time of oxidation. If iron
pyrite (FeS2) is present, the oxidized iron accentuates the acidity but not as much
as aluminium in normal acid soils because the iron oxides are less soluble than
aluminium oxides and so hydrolyze less.
Such strong acidity in acid sulphate soils results toxicities of aluminium
and iron, soluble salts (unless leached), manganese and hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
gas. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) often formed in lowland rice soils causing akiochi
disease that prevents rice plant roots from absorbing nutrients.
7. Peat Soils/ Highly Organic Soils
Soils rich in organic matter and undecomposed plant material
are Histosols. They occur particularly in areas where decomposition of organic
matter is hampered by cold temperatures (in Boreal climates) or where the
decomposition is hampered by continuous wet conditions (in the Wet Tropics).
The fertility of Histosols is normally low when the natural vegetation is abruptly
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replaced with agricultural crops. The cycling of plant nutrients is interrupted and
leads to chemical exhaustion. Especially micronutrients such as boron, copper and
zinc may be lacking.
8. Heavy metal polluted soils
Soil contamination is the presence of man-made chemicals or other
alteration of the natural soil environment. This type of contamination typically
arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks, application of pesticides,
percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, leaching of wastes
from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most
common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides,
lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated
with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage. The concern
over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, both of direct contact
and from secondary contamination of water supplies.
Heavy metal contamination due to the sewage and sludge application to
soils imposes a major limitation on potential land use. Cultivated areas under peri-
urban agriculture are worst affected by this problem. The heavy metals
accumulating in soil may get entry into the human and animal food chain through
the crops grown on it.
4.2. FORMATION OF SALINE AND SODIC SOILS
FORMATION OF SALINE SOILS

The process by which the saline soil formed is called salinization. Saline soils
occur mostly in arid or semi-arid regions. In arid regions saline soils occur not only
because there is less rainfall available to leach and transport the salts but also because
of high evaporation rates, which tend further to concentrate the salts in soils and in
surface waters.
In arid and semi-arid areas salts formed during weathering are not fully
leached. During the periods of higher rainfall, the soluble salts are leached from the
more permeable high laying areas to low laying areas and where ever the drainage is
restricted, salts accumulate on the soil surface, as water evaporates the excessive
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irrigation of uplands containing salts results in the accumulation of salts in the

valleys. In areas having salt layer at lower depths in the profile, seasonal irrigation
may favor the upward movement of salts. Salinity is also caused if the soils are
irrigated with saline water. In coastal areas the ingress of sea water induces salinity in
the soil.
FORMATION OF SODIC SOILS

Soil colloids adsorb and retain cations on their surfaces. Cation adsorption
occurs as a consequence of the electrical charges at the surface of the soil colloids.
While adsorbed cations are combined chemically with the soil colloids, they may be
replaced by other cations that occur in the soil solution. Calcium and magnesium are
the principal cations found in the soil solution and on the exchange complex of
normal soils in arid regions. When excess soluble salts accumulate in these soils,
sodium frequently becomes the dominant cation in the soil solution resulting alkali or
sodic soils.
Some sodic soils in the order Alfisols (Natrustalfs) have a very thin A horizon
overlying a clayey layer with columnar structure, a profile feature closely associated
with high sodium levels. The pH values of sodic soils generally exceed 8.5, rising to
10 or higher in some cases. These extreme pH levels are largely due to the fact that
sodium carbonate is much more soluble than calcium or magnesium carbonate and so
maintains high concentrations of CO32- and HCO3− in the soil solution. The
extremely high pH levels in sodic soils may cause the soil organic matter to disperse
and/or dissolve.
4.3. GROWTH OF PLANTS ON HALOMORPHIC SOILS

Natural soil salinity, which occur in regions situated in arid- and semi-arid
climatic areas due to insufficient amounts of precipitation, limits crop
productivity due to specific ion toxicity associated with over accumulation of Na+
and Cl- ions along with osmotic effect. Moreover, the presence of high salt
concentrations in soil may indirectly prevent plant growth through interaction of
ion toxicity.
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Salinity is a process that significantly reduces agricultural yield, restricting

productivity, seedling growth and germination of plants, land productivity and
value in arid and semi-arid climate regions. High ground water, wrong irrigation
practices, low irrigation water quality and topographic of the land are particularly
important among the factors that cause salinization of soils. These areas inhibit
plant‘s sufficient intake of water and nutritional elements from the soil due to
intense sodium percentage and/or soluble salt concentrations.
When salt sensitive plants are grown on saline soils plant injury can
occur. In addition to affecting yields, salt injury symptoms include necrosis
(burning) of leaf margins, stunted plants, wilting and in severe cases, plant
death. Salt sensitive plants are less able to uptake water from saline soils and
can become water stressed. Another way plant is injured when sodium,
chloride or sulfate levels become toxic and cause nutrient imbalances with
potassium and calcium. Salt tolerant plants respond to saline soils differently
than salt sensitive ones. Some salt tolerant plants simply do not uptake
excess salts. Others uptake excess salts, but then excrete them through
leaves. Still others, store excess salts in cells (in vacuoles). Below are some
of the effects of holomorphic soils in the growth of plants:
Osmotic Effect of Salts. Soluble salts in the soil water reduce the ability of
plants to absorb water through their root hair membranes (a process called
osmosis). If the salt concentration is high enough, water actually starts moving out
of the plant roots back into the soil, and the plant may soon die; this is called
plasmolysis. At lower salt levels, plants may suffer leaf tip burn, stunting, and
defoliation. Germinating seeds and young seedlings are the most sensitive to this
osmotic effect. As shown in Table 12-2, crops vary considerably in their salinity
tolerance.
Effect of Sodium. Sodic soils harm plant growth mainly through the toxic
effect of sodium itself, the high alkalinity (pH 8.5-10), and the toxicity of the
bicarbonate ion with which the sodium is often associated. Germinating seeds and
young seedlings are the most sensitive.
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Boron Toxicity. Most irrigation water contains boron which becomes

toxic above 1-2 parts per million. Boron is not easily leached from the soil.
Irrigation water with a high boron content may limit productivity.
Rainfall-induced injury. If high evaporation and lack of sufficient
leaching allow a high level of salts to accumulate at the soil surface over the
weeks, an unseasonal, light rain shower can move these salts only as far as the
crop root zone and cause injury. This is mainly a problem on peat soils when sub-
irrigation is used.
On the other hand, sodic soils, dominated as they are by active Na, exert
detrimental effect on plants in three ways:
i. Caustic influence of the high alkalinity induced by the sodium carbonate and
bicarbonate,
ii. Toxicity of the bicarbonate and other ions, and
iii. The adverse effect of the active Na ions on plant metabolism and nutrition. As
already suggested, the removal of the neutral salts from a saline sodic soil ill
raise its pH and increase the activity of its adsorbed Na to the point where it
affects plants in the ways already described for sodic soils. Thus, uncontrolled
leaching of saline – sodic soils may lead to their being rendered essentially
useless.
4.4. MANAGEMENT OF SALINE, SODIC, ZINC DEFICIENT AND

ACIDIC SOILS
MANAGEMENT OF SALINE SOILS
The reclamation of saline soils involves basically the removal of salts
from the saline soil through the processes of leaching with water and drainage.
Provision of lateral and main drainage channels of 60 cm deep and 45 cm wide
and leaching of salts could reclaim the soils. Sub-surface drainage is an effective
tool for lowering the water table, removal of excess salts and prevention of
secondary salinization. of ions like chloride, sulphate, etc.
Irrigation management. Proportional mixing of good quality water with
saline water and then using for irrigation reduces the effect of salinity. Alternate
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furrow irrigation favors growth of plant than flooding. Drip, sprinkler and pitcher
irrigation have been found to be more efficient than the conventional flood
irrigation method since relatively lesser amount of water is used under these
improved methods.
Fertilizer management. Addition of extra dose of nitrogen to the tune of
20-25% of recommended level will compensate the low availability of N in these
soils. Addition of organic manures, compost, will help in reducing the ill effect of
salinity due to release of organic acids produced during decomposition. Green
manuring (Sunhemp, Daincha, Kolingi) and or green leaf manuring also
counteracts the effects of salinity.
Crop choice / Crop management. Crops are to be chosen based on the soil
salinity level. Use of salt-tolerant crops is advisable.
Soil / cultural management. Planting the seed in the center of the raised
bed / ridge may affect the germination as it is the spot of greatest salt
accumulation. A better salinity control can be achieved by using sloping beds
with seeds planted on the sloping side just above the water line. Alternate furrow
irrigation is advantageous as the salts can be displaced beyond the single seed
row. Application of straw mulch had been found to curtail the evaporation from
soil surface resulting in the reduced salt concentration in the root zone profile
within 30 days.
MANAGEMENT OF SODIC SOILS

Physical Amelioration. This is not actually remove sodium from exchange
complex but improve physical condition of soil through improvement in
infiltration and aeration. The commonly followed physical methods includes deep
ploughing is adopted to break the hard pan developed at subsurface due to sodium
and improving free-movement water. This also helps in improvement of aeration.
Providing drainage is also practiced to improve aeration and to remove further
accumulation of salts at root zone. Sand filling which reduces heaviness of the
soil and increases capillary movements of water. Profile inversion can also be
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done. Inverting the soil benefits in improvement of physical condition of soil as

that of deep ploughing.
Chemical Amelioration. Reclamation of alkali/sodic soils requires
neutralization of alkalinity and replacement of most of the sodium ions from the
soil – exchange complex by the more favorable calcium ions. This can be
accomplished by the application of chemical amendments (the materials that
directly or indirectly furnish or mobilize divalent cations, usually Ca 2+ for the
replacement of sodium from the exchange complex of the soil) followed by
leaching to remove soluble salts and other reaction products. These materials on
application solubilize the precipitated CaCO3 in sodic soils and releases Ca for
reclamation.
Crop choice. Rice is preferred crop in alkali / sodic soil as it can grow
under submergence, can tolerate fair extent of exchangeable sodium percentage
(ESP) and can influence several microbial processes in the soil. Agroforestry
systems like silviculture, silvipasture can improve the physical and chemical
properties of the soil along with additional return on long-term basis. Some
grasses like Bracharia mutica (Para grass) and Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda
grass) has been reported to produce 50% yield at ESP level above 30.
MANAGEMENT OF ZINC DEFICIENT SOILS

Crops need readily available Zn, especially when plants are young and
growing vigorously. Zn does not move in the soil, so the small seedling‘s root
system may have difficulty finding and taking up Zn reserves. Preventing Zn
deficiency is an intricate part of general crop management. The general measures
to prevent Zn deficiencies includes grow Zn-efficient varieties, use fertilizers that
generate acidity (e.g., replace some urea with ammonium sulfate), application
organic manure before seeding or transplanting or applied to the nursery seedbed
a few days before transplanting. Moreover, allowing permanently flooded fields
(e.g., where three crops per year are grown) to drain and dry out periodically,
monitor irrigation water quality, broadcasting ZnSO4 in nursery seedbed and
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dipping seedlings or presoak seeds in a 2−4% ZnO suspension (e.g., 20−40 g

ZnO/ 1L H2O) are some methods that can also be implemented.
Other implemented methods to alleviate zinc deficient areas includes crop
diversification, application of Zn fertilizers, draining the field, use of organic
manures containing fairly high content of Zn and use of tolerant varieties.
MANAGEMENT OF ACIDIC SOILS

Management of the acid soils should be directed towards enhanced crop
productivity either through addition of amendments to correct the soil
abnormalities or by manipulating the agronomic practices depending upon the
climatic and edaphic conditions. Soil amelioration such as using lime has been
recognized as an effective soil ameliorant as it reduces Al, Fe and Mn toxicity and
increases base saturation, P and Mo availability of acid soils. Liming also
increases atmospheric N fixation as well as N mineralization in acid soils through
enhanced microbial activity.
Liming materials. Liming is one of the methods in correcting soil pH.
Commercial limestone and dolomite limestone are the most widely used
amendments. Carbonates, oxides and hydroxides of calcium and magnesium are
referred to as agricultural lime. Among, the naturally occurring lime sources
calcitic, dolomitic and stromato litic limestones are important carbonates. The
other liming sources are marl, oyster shells and several industrial wastes like steel
mill slag, blast furnace slag, lime sludge from paper mills, mudpress from sugar
mills, cement wastes, precipitated calcium carbonate, equally effective as ground
limestone and are also cheaper. Considering the efficiency of limestone as 100%,
efficiencies of basic slag and dolomite are 110 and 94 % respectively. Basic slag
and mudpress are superior to calcium oxide or carbonates for amending the acid
soils. Fly ash, a low- density amorphous ferro-alumino silicate, also improves pH
and nutrient availability.
Crop choice. Selection of crops tolerant to acidity is an effective tool to
counter this soil problem and breeding of such varieties is of specific importance
for attaining higher productivity, particularly in areas where liming is not an
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economic proposition. The crops can be grouped on the basis of their performance
in different soil pH range. Use of gypsum and organic materials to reduce
aluminum toxicity and the use of plant species or genotypes that tolerate acid
conditions can also be considered.
Page 99 of 169
ENHANCEMENT
ACTIVITIES
Name: ____________________________________ Score ______________

I. MATCHING TYPE. Choose the best answer from the choices in the box. Write
your answers on the space provided.
Peat soils Sodic soils Acid-sulfate soils Eroded soils

Acidic soils Saline soils Alkaline soils Shallow soils
Heavy metal contaminated soils Heavy clay soils Highly permeable soil
____________1. Soils containing pyrite that produced sulfuric acid when oxidized.
____________2. Can be recognized with the presence of white salt crust on the surface.
____________3. Usually called as black alkali soils.
____________4. Soil with low pH containing relative high amount of exchangeable H+
and Al3+.
____________5. Soils that are recognize with relatively high presence of man-made
chemicals or other alteration of the natural soil environment.
____________6. It is an organic complex soil.
____________7. Soils that are usually taken away by the runoff causing loss of valuable
topsoil along with nutrients.
____________8. Soils having pH of greater than 7.
____________9. Slow permeable soil is mainly due to very high clay content.
____________10. Often term as white alkali soils.

1. Does fertilizer application affects soil pH?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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2. What are the causes of soil acidification?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. What is liming? What are the benefits of liming?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. What are the major differences between physical and chemical problems in the
soils?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. Differentiate saline soils from sodic soils.

________________________________________________________________
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6. How do you remediate heavy metal polluted soils?

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MASTERY TEST
Name: ____________________________________ Score ______________

DIRECTION: Answer the following problem set. Show your solutions in a short
bond paper. Box your final answer.
1. Determine the nutrient content of the following fertilizer materials: 2 bags urea
(46-0-0); 3 bags superphosphate (0-20-0); 2 bags of muriate of potash (0-0-60)
and 1 bag complete (12-24-12).
2. If 4 bags of 20-0-0, 4 bags of 0-20-0 and 3 bags of 0-0-60 were applied by Mang
Juan to one-hectare of corn, how much nutrients had he applied? What was the
approximate ratio of fertilizer elements? (1 bag = 50 kg)
3. A fertilizer experiment calls for the application of 90-45-30 kg/ha of N, P2O5 and
K2O, respectively. How much of the following materials are you going to apply?
a.) ammonium sulfate (20% N)
b.) single superposphate (20% P2O5)
c.) muriate of potash (60% K2O).
4. If 5 bags of ammosol (20% N), 4 bags of single superphosphate (20%P2O5) and 3

bags of muriate of potash (60% K2O) were applied by a farmer to one hectare of
rice, how much nutrients had been applied? What was the approximate ratio of
fertilizer elements?
5. If you mix 1 bag ammonium sulfate (20% N), 1 bag single superphosphate (20%
P205) and 1 bag of muriate of potash (60% K20), what is the resulting grade or
percentage of N, P2Os and K2O in the mixture? (1 bag = 50 kg).
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6. A certain multinational company recommends the application of 4 bags of

complete fertilizer (10.5-15-15) and 3 bags of urea (46-0-0) per hectare of rice
crop. Calculate the recommended rate being followed.
7. A farm technician recommends that a farmer apply 9 bags of ammonium sulfate

(20-0-0), 6 bags superphosphate (0-20-0) and 1 bag muriate of potash to one
hectare. However, the available fertilizer at the store were complete fertilizer (14-
14-14), amophous (16-20-0) and ammonium sulfate. How many bags of these
should the farmer use?
8. A 2.5 ha field was planted to mango spaced at 5m x 5m. The trees will be
fertilized at the rate of 120-60-60 kg N, P2O5, K2O/ha using 14-14-14 and 20-0-0
with a density of 1.8 and 1.65 g/cc, respectively. To facilitate the application of
fertilizer, milk can having a diameter of 5 cm and height of 8 cm will be used.
Compute for the number of cans/trees needed to satisfy the recommendation.
9. To provide the recommended amounts of N, P2O5, K2O in the soil, a nearby

fertilizer agent assures the supply of the following materials: complete (14-14-14)
at ₱ 1,750.00/bag; ammonium sulfate at ₱ 1,210.00/bag; urea (45-0-0) at ₱
1,462.00/bag; ordinary superphosphate (0-20-0) at ₱ 1,440.00/bag; ammophos
(16-20-0) at ₱ 1,290.00/bag; and KCl (0-0-60) at ₱ 1,395.00/bag. Each bag
weighs 50 kg.
From the above data, you are to manage the area and your first move is to
determine the amount of fertilizers that need to be applied in the whole area to
be planted to corn (RR=90-60-60 kg N, P2O5, K2O/ha). Among the other
things, you are made to determine the cheapest fertilizer combination.
10. You learned from Mr. Ambo that he applied the total amount of 40 kg complete
fertilizer (14-14-14), 5 kg urea (45-0-0) and 12 kg solophos (0-20-0) to his lot
which measures 30 meters wide and 40 meters long. You know also that the
current recommendation to Mr. Ambo‘s area is 90-60-60 kg N, P2O5, K2O. Is Mr.
Page 103 of 169
Ambo‘s rate of fertilization equivalent to the recommended rate? Prove your

answer by showing your solutions.
SOLVE HERE:
Page 104 of 169
REFERENCES
Arnon, D.I. and Stout, P.R. (1939). The essentiality of certain elements in minute
quantity for plants with special reference to copper. Plant Physiology 14:371-375.
Asio, V. B., A. A. Ferraren, B. C. Jadina, S. B. Lina, D. S. Maranguit, C. M. O.

Quiñones, F. P. Villamayor. (2015). Principles of Soil Science Laboratory
Manual. Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture and Food Science.
Visayas State University, Baybay City, Leyte.
Brady, N.C. (1984). The Nature and Properties of Soils. 9th Ed. Macmillan Pub. Co., New
York.
Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. (2017). Nature and Properties of Soil. Harlow England:
Pearson Educational Limited.15th edition.
Cosico, W. (2005). Primer of Soil Science. College of Agriculture. University of the

Philippines, Los Baños, Laguna.
Glauber, J.R. (1604-1668). Cited in: Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. S.L. Tisdale, W.L.
Nelson and J.D. Beaton (Eds.), MacMillan Pub. Co. New York. pp. 5-18.
Honeycutt, C.W., R.D. Heil & C.V. Cole. (1990). Climatic and topographic relations of
three Great Plains soils. I. Soil morphology. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 54: 469–475.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). Undated. Soil Chemistry, Soil Fertility
& Nutrient Management. ICAR e-Course for BSc (Agriculture) and BTech
(Agriculture).
Jan Baptiste Van Helmont . 1577-1644. Cited in: Soil Fertility and Fertilizers (S.L.
Tisdale, W.L. Nelson and J.D. Beaton (Eds.), MacMillan Pub. Co. New York. pp.
5-18.
Jenny, H. (1941). Factors of soil Formation. McGraw-Hill, New York, US.
Jones, C. and K. O. Rutz. (2016). Module 2. Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility. Montana
State University Extension, 135 Culbertson Hall, Montana State University.
Katyal, J.C. and Sharma, B.D. (1979). Role of micronutrients in crop production.
Fertilizer News 24(9):33-50.
Ketterings, Q., K. Czymmek, D. Beegle, J. Lawrence. (2016). Northeast Region Certified

Crop Adviser (NRCCA) Soil Fertility & Nutrient Management – Study Guide.
Kirby, M.J. (1985). A basis for soil profile modelling in a geomorphic context. J. Soil
Sci. 36: 97–121.
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Krishna, K.R. (2002). Soil Fertility and Crop Production. Oxford & IBH Pub. Co., New
Delhi.
Latha, M.R. and P. Janaki. Undated. Problem soils and their management. Department of
Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore.
Lawes, J.B. and Gilbert, J.H. (1843). Cited in: Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. S.L. Tisdale,
W.L. Nelson, J.D. Beaton (Eds.). Macmillan Pub. Co., New York. pp. 5-18.
Marion, G.M. & W.H. Schlesinger. (1985). CALDEP: A regional model for soil CaCO3
(caliche) deposition in the southwestern deserts. Soil Science 139: 468–481.
Sharma, S.N. Undated. Division of Agronomy. Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi.
Trudgill, ST. (1988). Soil and Vegetation Systems. Oxford University Press, New York,
US
Page 106 of 169
MODULE 2 SOIL COSERVATION AND

MANAGEMENT
”The soil is the great connector of lives, the source and destination of all. . . Without proper care
for it, we can have no life”
-Wendell Berry
Learning Outcomes:
This module aims to:

 Relate factors enhancing soil erosion with soil properties
 Asses and measure soil loss
 Develop/ design soil and water conservation management strategies for
specific land uses
 Integrate the knowledge in soil fertility with soil conservation and
management
Introduction
The last four lesson of this module teach us about the complexity of soil system
where in physical, chemical and biological properties are involve. Soils as a natural
resources are being utilize for goods and services however, it tends to be depleted over a
period of time. Therefore, different conservation practices and strategies were being
developed using different modeling approach to assess and formulate specific
management plan. In this module you will understand the following:
 Erosion processes and Mechanics
 Different types of Water and Wind Erosion
 Factors Affecting the Rate of Soil Erosion
 Soil Erosion assessment and Modelling
 Application and Limitation of Modelling Approaches
 Soil Conservation and Management Strategies
 Cultural and Mechanical Practices to Control Soil Erosion
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Name: _______________________________________ Score: ____________________
Course/Year/Section: __________________________ Date: _____________________
PRE – TEST
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read the following questions carefully and choose the best
answer. Write your answer on the space provided.
_____1.) Which of the following situations is MOST likely to lead to soil erosion?
a.) An unusual long dry spell for b.) Excessive tilling of a farmer‘s
an area field
c.) A lack of sun for three weeks d.) Adding vegetation to an area
in arrow
_____2.) Which of the following is NOT an effect of soil erosion?

a.) Reduce soil quality b.) Water pollution
c.) Decreased crop yield d.) Improved water quality
_____3.) What can occur at the site of an area that is experiencing soil erosion?
a.) Vegetation is able to grow
b.) Water pollution is cleared up.
easily.
c.) Crops are planted at an off-site
d.) The soil quality is reduced.
location.
_____2.) Which of the following is NOT an effect of soil erosion?

e.) Reduce soil quality f.) Water pollution
g.) Decreased crop yield h.) Improved water quality
_____3.) What can occur at the site of an area that is experiencing soil erosion?
e.) Vegetation is able to grow
f.) Water pollution is cleared up.
easily.
g.) Crops are planted at an off-site
h.) The soil quality is reduced.
location.
_____4.) A widely used computerized assessment model in predicting soil loss.

a.) USLE b.) RUSLE
c.) MUSLE d.) SWAT
_____5.) Which positive effects are associated with Mulching? Select all that applies.
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a.) It adds organic matter to the b.) It protects the soil against
soil Wind Erosion
c.) It protects the soil against d.) It increases the evaporation rate
Splash Erosion of soils
_____6.) Terracing is an effective method of soil conservation in:

a.) Tooslope b.) Riverine Areas
c.) Footslope d.) Hilly areas
_____7.) One of the following crops is the most effective in controlling soil erosion:
a.) Maize b.) Kudzu
c.) Sweet Potato d.) Vetiver
_____8.) Sheet Erosion is caused by:

a.) Wind b.) Running water
c.) Heavy Rains d.) Glacier
_____9.) Erosion of very fine particles is seen on account of:

a.) Saltation b.) Suspension
c.) Surface Creeps d.) Shifting of dunes
_____10.) Soil erosion is a three phase phenomena

a.) Detachment, Deposition, Transport
b.) Detachment, Saltation, Deposition
c.) Detachment, Transport, Deposition
d.) None of the Above
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LESSON I. EROSION PROCESS AND MECHANICS
Learning Outcomes:
After reading this lesson, student should be able to:
 Differentiate among the different types of water and wind erosion
 Discuss the effects of soil erosion
 Discuss the mechanisms and processes of soil erosion caused by water and wind
 List the factors affecting water and wind erosion
Learning Outcomes:
This lesson defines the difference between natural and anthropogenic soil erosion,
including its effect in the ecosystem. The differences among the types of erosion, its
processes and mechanics and the factors that affects the rate of soil erosion is further
discuss in this lesson. This is to develop a technical knowledge to the readers on how soil
erosion affects the environment. How different factors are involved during the soil
erosion and allow them to categorized different types of erosion caused by water and
wind erosion.
In addition, a different factor that enhances the rate of soil erosion is thoroughly
discussed, as this aspect is related to the next lesson.
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1.1 Definition
Soil erosion is a process where soil is being detached from one point on earth
surface and deposited elsewhere. There are two types of soil erosion: geologic and
accelerated erosion. Geologic soil erosion is a natural process of soil formation which is
the wearing a way of rocks and formation of soil horizons affected by slow but
continuous geologic erosion. It occurs over a long period of time without the interaction
of human and animals. Antelope Canyon (Grand Canyon) in Navajo, Arizona is a very
scenic place caused by a natural process of erosion. However, soil erosion becomes a
major concern when erosion rate exceeds a certain threshold level and becomes rapid,
known as accelerated soil erosion. This type of erosion is usually caused by
anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, slash-and burn agriculture, intensive
plowing, intensive and uncontrolled grazing, and biomass burning. Accelerated erosion is
often 10–1000 times as destructive as geological erosion, especially on sloping lands in
regions of high rainfall.
In the Philippines, soil erosion is one of the major land degradation problem
wherein more than half of the country‘s land area having a slope exceeding eight (8)
percent is affected. Out of 8.17 million ha of agricultural land having less than 8 percent
slope, 2.87 million ha have moderate to severe erosion. The NRAP (FAO, undated) have
put together results of several studies which quantified erosion rates for various land uses
in tonnes/ha/yr. As erosion rates vary in different vegetative covers and across different
slopes. The highest rate was measured in grassland/pastureland, which averaged 267.8
tonnes/ha/yr, and lowest in lands planted to forest tree crops (1.0 tonne/ha/yr), in paddy
areas (2.3 tonnes/ha/yr) and in secondary forests (3 tonnes/ha/yr) (table 1).
Table 1. Average erosion rates of different land uses in the Philippines
Land use Average soil loss (tons/ha/yr)
Grassland/Pastureland 267.8
Upland Agriculture 112.8
Open Grassland 79.6

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Fruit Trees 22.1
Trees, shrubs, grasses 12.5
Secondary Forest 3.0
Paddy rice, irrigated 2.3
Gmelina, ipil-ipil, coffee, grass 1.0
Source: IRG, Edgevale Associates and MADECOR (1991).
1.2 Effects of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion causes adverse effects ecologically, environmentally and
economically. The on-site effect involves decreasing productivity, while the off-site
effect is mostly on the deposition of sediments and chemicals into the bodies of water and
depositional sites by wind.
On-site Effects
The on-site effect of soil erosion is mainly reducing the capacity of the soil to
produce crops, filter pollutants and store carbon and nutrients. The impact of this effect
to the characteristics of soils results in structural degradation, compaction, nutrient
depletion and loss of organic matter.
Off-site Effects
The off-site effect of soil erosion is the transport of sediments and chemicals
which causes pollution, sedimentation and silting of water resources. Sediments
transported off-site alters landscape characteristics which often reduces wildlife habitat,
causes flooding and economic loss. During the process of soil erosion, large amount of
Carbon are rapidly loss, releasing CO2 and CH4 to the atmosphere (Lal, 2003) in which
soil erosion contributes to the global climate change. In addition, wind erosion causes
dust pollution, which alters the atmospheric radiation, reduces visibility, and causes
traffic accidents
1.3 Water Erosion
One of the type of soil erosion which refers to the movement of soil particles
along the surface with flowing water such as rainwater, runoff, snowmelt and irrigation,
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deposition of sediments/ eroded materials at the lower landscape position and into the
bodies of water. Rainwater is the main driver of water erosion in the form of run-off.
Mechanics of Water Erosion
Understanding the mechanisms and magnitude of water erosion is important in
managing and developing erosion control practices. Erosion involves three distinct
action, (1) detachment of individual particles in a soil mass, (2) transport of these by
erosive agents such as running water and wind and (3) deposition occurs when sufficient
energy is no longer available to transport the particles (Fig.1).
Types of Water Erosion

The main types of soil erosion are: splash, sheet (interrill), rill, gully and
streambank.
Splash Erosion
Splash erosion occurs during rainfall where raindrops splash the soil, displacing
the particles from their original position. Processes of splash erosion involve raindrop
impact, splash of soil particles, and formation of craters (Ghadiri, 2004). Raindrops
striking the soil surface develop a raindrop-soil particle momentum before releasing their
energy in the form of splash. These raindrops strike the soil like small bombs forming
craters or cavities of contrasting shapes and sizes.
Figure 1: Diagram showing the distinct action (detachment of soil

particles, transport and deposition) of soil erosion
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Sheet (Interill) Erosion

Sheet or interill erosion is the most common type of erosion. This type of water
erosion is mostly due to shallow flow where soil particles are carried away in a thin sheet
by flowing water (runoff).
Rill Erosion
The type of erosion which naturally occurs in small channels or rill. Runoff water
that concentrates in a small channel and gain velocity or energy will erode soil at faster
rate cutting rills and gully. Rill erosion is the predominate form of erosion under most
conditions. It is most serious where intense storm occurs on soils with high-runoff-
producing characteristics and highly erodible topsoil.
Gully Erosion
Gullies are primarily formed by concentrated runoff converging in lower points
of the field removing entire soil profile segments of the field and creating either V- or U-
shaped channels. Undulating fields cause runoff to concentrate in natural swales as
runoff moves downslope in narrow paths in the form of channelized flow. As gullies
grow,
Figure 2. Sheet erosion, splashed soil is removed more or less uniformly, leaving the
colomn like structure in the surface usually 0.1 m distance in each column
(Drawings from FAO (1987); photos courtesy Ray R. Weil)
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Figure 3. Rill erosion is formed when there is a concentrated flow of water (Drawings
from FAO (1987); photos courtesy Ray R. Weil)
Figure 4: Gully erosion usually has 10 m wide channels which cannot be easily manage
(Drawings from FAO (1987); photos courtesy Ray R. Weil)
more sediments are transported. There are two types of gully erosion, ephemeral gullies
are shallow channels that can be corrected by routine tillage operations while permanent
gullies have large channels that cannot be easily corrected.
Streambank Erosion
The type of erosion that occurs along the bank of the stream. The erosive power
of runoff from upland fields collapse the banks along streams, creeks and rivers. It is
mainly aggravated due to the removal of vegetation, cultivation along the area or over
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grazing. Stream banks may also collapse when there is a sudden drawdown of the water
surface (usually when a flood recedes). During high flow, the stream bank is saturated
with water and during drawdown the bank cannot sustain the high water pressure of the
saturated soil and they collapse.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Water Erosion

The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by water is controlled by the following factors:
a) Rainfall Erosivity
b) Runoff Erosivity
c) Soil Erodibility
d) Slope Gradient and Length
e) Cropping and Vegetation
f) Tillage Practices
Rainfall Erosivity
It is the capacity of the rainfall to cause soil erosion. There are factor which
affects the total erosivity of a rain such as: amount, intensity, terminal velocity, drop size,
and drop size distribution. The greater the intensity and duration of a rainstorm, the
higher the erosion potential. The impact of raindrops on the soil surface can break down
soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter aggregate materials such as
very fine sand, silt, clay and organic matter are easily removed by the raindrop splash and
runoff water. Soil movement by rainfall (raindrop splash) is usually greatest and most
noticeable during short-duration, high-intensity thunderstorms. Erosivity of rain and its
effects differ among climatic regions. The same amount of rain has strikingly different
effects on the amount of erosion depending on the intensity and soil surface conditions.
Rains in the tropics are more erosive than those in temperate regions due to the presence
of strong winds and high temperature. Annual distribution of rainfall also influences the
erosivitiy of rain. Rains in temperate regions are uniformly distributed across seasons,
known as unimodal, and cause less erosion than those intense rains in tropical regions,
which are distributed in two seasons, known as bimodal.
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Runoff Erosivity
Runoff is the portion of water from rain, snowmelt, and irrigation that runs off the
field and often reaches downstream water courses or bodies such as streams, rivers, and
lakes also known as surface flow. It occurs whenever there is excess water on a slope that
cannot be absorbed into the soil. Raindrops impacting soil surface loosen up, detach, and
splash soil particles, while runoff carries and detaches soil particles. Interaction among
rain, runoff, and soil particles results in erosion. Floating and creeping soil particles in
turbulent runoff also contribute to aggregate detachment. Rain has more erosive power
than runoff.
Soil Erodibility
Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on the
physical characteristics of each soil. It is a dynamic attribute that changes over time and
space with soil properties. Soil texture, soil structure (e.g., macroporosity, aggregate
properties), organic matter content, hydraulic properties, and wettability are some of the
factors which affect erodibility.
Soil texture is the principal characteristic affecting erodibility, but structure,
organic matter and permeability also contribute. Generally, soils with faster infiltration
rates, higher levels of organic matter and improved soil structure have a greater resistance
to erosion. Sand, sandy loam and loam-textured soils tend to be less erodible than silt,
very fine sand and certain clay-textured soils. Sandy soils are less cohesive than clayey
soils and thus aggregates with high sand content are more easily detached.
Tillage and cropping practices that reduce soil organic matter levels, cause poor
soil structure, or result in soil compaction, contribute to increases in soil erodibility. The
formation of a soil crust, which tends to "seal" the surface, also decreases infiltration.
On the other hand, the soil‘s ability to resist erosion depends on its structure. Soils
with poor soil structure are more detachable, unstable, and susceptible to compaction,
thereby have low water infiltration and high runoff rates. Because soil structure is a
qualitative term, related parameters such as water infiltration, permeability, and soil
organic matter dynamics are used as indicators of soil structural development.
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Slope Gradient and Length

Soil erosion by water increases as the slope length increases due to the greater
accumulation of runoff. The greater the slope angle of the land and the length of the
slopes, the more severe is the soil erosion that may occur. Increased slope angles cause
increased runoff velocity and with this, the kinetic energy of the water causes more
erosion. Long slopes allow the runoff to build up, increasing its volume and causing yet
more serious erosion.
Cropping and Vegetation
The potential for soil erosion increases if the soil has no or very little vegetative
cover of plants and/or crop residues. Plant and residue cover protects the soil from
raindrop impact and splash, tends to slow down the movement of runoff water and allows
excess surface water to infiltrate. The erosion-reducing effectiveness of plant and/or crop
residues depends on the type, extent and quantity of cover. The effectiveness of any
protective cover also depends on how much protection is available at various periods
during the year, relative to the amount of erosive rainfall that falls during these periods.
The figure below (Fig.5) is an example of the relationship between residue cover (Cover
crop) and soil loss. Crops that provide a full protective cover for a major portion of the
year can reduce erosion much more than can crops that leave the soil bare for a longer
period of time particularly during periods of highly erosive rainfall such as spring and
summer.
Figure 5: Effect of Residue Cover to Soil Erosion (Source: UNL)

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Tillage Practices
Tillage operation in agriculture is one of the human activities increasing the rate
of soil erosion. Tillage and other practices performed up and down field slopes creates
pathways for surface water runoff and can accelerate the soil erosion process. Minimum
till or no-till practices are effective in reducing soil erosion by water.
1.4 Wind Erosion

It is a dynamic process of erosion where soil particles are detached and displaced
by forces of the wind also known as eolian erosion. It occurs when forces of the wind
exceeds the threshold level of soil‘s resistance to erosion which is caused by an abrupt
fluctuations in weather pattern triggering a severe windstorm. Wind erosion is the result
of complex interactions among wind intensity, precipitation, surface roughness, soil
texture and aggregation, agricultural activities, vegetation cover, and field size. Plowed
soils with low organic matter content and those intensively grazed and trampled upon are
the most susceptible to erosion. About 50% of the dust clouds result from deforestation
and agricultural activities (Gomes et al., 2003).
Mechanics of Wind Erosion

 Detachment
 Transport
 Deposition
Modes of Wind-Induced transportation

Suspension
Dust/ fine particles (0.05 mm diameter) are moved parallel to the ground surface
and upward. It transport dust up to several miles upward to the atmosphere and hundreds
miles horizontally. Generally accounts 15% of the total movement during erosion.
Saltation
Intermediate size particles (0.05 – 0.5 mm diameter) or sand particles moves by a
series of short bounces along the ground surface. During salting, particles can break
surface crust/ aggregates and put other particles in motion. It accounts 50% – 90% of the
total movement.
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Soil Creep
Soil particles having 0.5 – 1.0 mm diameter size rolling and sliding along the
surface usually moved by wind and salting particles. It account for 5% – 25 % of the total
movement.
Figure 5: Modes of Soil Particle Transport by Wind during Erosion
Factors that Influences Wind Erosion

The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by wind is controlled by the following factors:
1. Soil Erodibility
2. Soil Surface Roughness
3. Climate (wind patterns, precipitation, frost action)
4. Unsheltered Distance
5. Vegetative Cover
6. Wind Velocity and Turbulence
7. Land Management
Soil Erodibility
Very fine soil particles are carried high into the air by the wind and transported
great distances (suspension). Fine-to-medium size soil particles are lifted a short distance
into the air and drop back to the soil surface, damaging crops and dislodging more soil
(saltation). Larger-sized soil particles that are too large to be lifted off the ground are
dislodged by the wind and roll along the soil surface (surface creep). The abrasion that
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results from windblown particles breaks down stable surface aggregates and further
increases the soil erodibility.
Soil Surface Roughness
Soil surfaces that are smooth offer little resistance to the wind. Keeping the
surface rough by tilling when the soil is moist enough to form large clods will reduce
wind erosion. Although, it is important to recognize that excessive and frequent tillage
can gradually reduce roughness of soil by breaking clods and aggregates that resist
erosion. Tilling a dry soil may cause a dry dust to form, which aggravates the erosion
problem.
Climate
The speed and duration of the wind have a direct relationship to the extent of soil
erosion. Soil moisture levels are very low at the surface of excessively drained soils or
during periods of drought, thus releasing the particles for transport by wind.
Unsheltered Distance
A lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, crop residue, etc.) allows the wind to put soil
particles into motion for greater distances, thus increasing abrasion and soil erosion.
Knolls and hilltops are usually exposed and suffer the most.
Vegetative Cover
The lack of permanent vegetative cover in certain locations results in extensive
wind erosion. Loose, dry, bare soil is the most susceptible; however, crops that produce
low levels of residue (e.g., soybeans and many vegetable crops) may not provide enough
resistance. In severe cases, even crops that produce a lot of residue may not protect the soil.
Vegetation can also help lessen or deflect wind, intercept wind-borne sediment, and keep
soils moist, making them less susceptible to wind-related erosion.
Wind Velocity and Turbulence
Wind erosion potential begins when the wind speed increases to 25 km/h (15
mph). Soil movement increases by the cube of the wind velocity, so the amount of soil
transported increases rapidly with wind speed. Turbulent winds carry soil particles into
the atmosphere to greater altitude, and increases soil particle detachment.
Land Management
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Activities that disturb soil surface such as removal of existing vegetation,

cultivation and excavation thereby increasing erosion risk. Other than cultivation by
agriculture, road and housing construction also causes soil erosion. Massive surface
clearing usually done by Construction Company‘s uses large equipment which
compacted soil, clears vegetation which dramatically decreases organic matter increasing
soil erosion rate.
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Enhancement Activity
Name: ____________________________________ Score _______________

Course/Year/Section: ______________________ Date _______________
Activity I. Matching Type: Below are the different effects of soil erosion. Identify the
following if it is on – site effect and/or off – site effects of soil erosion. Put your answers
on the space provided.
On – Site Effects 1.) Lowering of Food Production
2.) Abandonment of land, due to the

loss of soil fertility
3.) Eutrophication of water bodies

(Due to high sediment flushing)
4.) Release of previously bound CO2

into the atmosphere
5.) Decline of soil nutrient content
Off – Site Effects 6.) Mud Flood in community areas
7.) Increase costs of drinking water
8.) Long term productivity loss
9.) Loss of arable land
10.) Rise of water level in rivers or

streams
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Activity II. Discussion: After reading the instructional module, answer the following
question in a short essay with a minimum of 150 words per question. COMPREHEND
your answers before submitting. Write/encode the question with your answer in a
separate sheet.
Questions:
1.) Using the graph below, describe the relationship of % residue cover and soil loss?
Would this relationship be expected for all residue types? Why or Why not?
2.) Compare differences between water and wind erosion in terms of sediment
transport.
3.) Discuss the difference between erodability and erosivity.
Submission:
Submit your paper online through email.
Grading and Rubric:

Each answer will earn a maximum of 10 points, as described in the rubric below.
Criteria Possible
Points
Answer should elaborate the ask question, precise and direct to the
6
point.
Writing should be clear and well organized. Answers subjected to 2
plagiarism will be deducted with points.
Complete answers should link to concepts discussed in this module and 2
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previous module.
LESSON III. ASSESSMENT OF EROSION HAZARD AND
EROSION MODELLING
Learning Outcomes:
After reading this lesson, student should be able:

 Understand the importance of assessing soil erosion
 Understand the parameters and factors useful in measuring soil loss
 Explain the difference between modelling applicable erosion caused by water and
wind
Learning Outcomes:
Soil is one of the important natural resources that support life on the earth,
therefore, conservation of this valuable resource needs high priority, so that it can afford
the ever-increasing population fulfilling their basic needs. Soil erosion assessment
provides a baseline data for effective soil conservation measures and management.
Thus, this lesson will provide students with technical know-how on what
appropriate approach is applicable in specific soil erosion. USLE and RUSLE as the most
convenient and familiar tool in measuring and predicting soil loss is further discuss in this
lesson. Aside from it, other modelling approach useful in predicting soil loss in assessing
soil erosion hazard is also introduce to familiarize its principle and methods.
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2.1 Methods of General Assessment for Soil Erosion

General Assessment involves the collection, analysis and interpreting empirical
data used to measure soil loss. In assessing erosion hazard, a set of data are collected to
develop a spatial patterns of soil loss present in a specific area. Digital Elevation Model
(DEM), soil data, precipitation data and land use/ cover layer are primary data sources.
The following are different soil loss prediction model used in assessing soil erosion.
Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP)

WEPP is a new generation of prediction technology with a complex and digitized
erosion model which is based on the fundamental mechanisms involved in processes that
leads to soil erosion. It is used for hillslopes and watersheds based on fundamental
principles of overland flow dynamics, infiltration, evaporation, evapotranspiration,
erosion mechanics, percolation, drainage, surface ponding, interception of rainfall and
runoff by plant, residue decomposition, soil consolidation, and tillage and soil
management. WEPP can predict soil erosion on a storm event and continuous basis for
diverse tillage and cropping systems (e.g., crop rotations, terracing, contouring, strip
cropping).
The advantage of WEPP over other erosion models is that it can estimate erosion
for single hillslopes (hydrologic units) and the whole watershed which comprises various
hillslopes. It simulates soil erosion at different temporal (daily, monthly, annual basis)
and spatial (hillslope, small, medium, and large watersheds) scales. It simulates rill and
interrill erosion over hillslopes and sediment transport and deposition in channels and
impoundments interaction with surface cover conditions, soil properties, surface
roughness, and soil management.
The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)

Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is a public domain model designed to
simulate the physical processes governing water runoff and erosion from small to
regional watersheds. It was developed by United State Department of Agriculture –
Agriculture Research Service (USDA – ARS). The SWAT combines many individual
computer models into a large complex ―super model‖ capable of simulating many
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hydrologic processes within large heterogeneous watersheds. Model components include

weather, hydrology, erosion/sedimentation, plant growth, nutrients, pesticides,
agricultural management, channel routing, and pond/reservoir routing. Agricultural
components in the model include fertilizer, crops, tillage options, and grazing and have
the capability to include point source loads (Neitsch et al., 2001a; Neitsch et al., 2001b).
The SWAT model predicts the influence of land management practices on constituent
yields from a watershed.
It model simulates hydrology as a two-component system, comprised of land
hydrology and channel hydrology. The land portion of the hydrologic cycle is based on a
water mass balance. Soil water balance is the primary considerations by the model in
each HRU, which is represented as (Arnold et al., 1998):
∑( )
Where:
SW – Soil Water Content
i – time in days for the simulation period
R – Runoff
Q – Daily precipitation
ET – Evapotranspiration
P – Percolation
QR – Return flow
Water enters the SWAT model‘s watershed system boundary predominantly in

the form of precipitation. Precipitation inputs for hydrologic calculations can either be
measured data or simulated with the weather generator available in the SWAT model.
Precipitation is partitioned into different water pathways depending on system
characteristics. The water balance of each HRU in the watershed contains four storage
volumes: snow, the soil profile (0-2 m), the shallow aquifer (2-20 m) and the deep aquifer
(>20 m). The soil profile can contain several layers. The soil water processes include
infiltration, percolation, evaporation, plant uptake, and lateral flow. Surface runoff is
estimated using the SCS curve number or the Green-Ampt infiltration equation.
Percolation is modeled with a layered storage routing technique combined with a crack
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flow model. Potential evaporation can be calculated using Hargreaves, Priestly-Taylor or

Penman-Monteith method (Arnold et al., 1998).
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)

USLE is the most widely used model worldwide in estimating soil loss
(Wischmeier and Smith, 1965). It was developed in the USA by the Agricultural
Research Service (ARS) from measured rather from physically based modelling
approaches. USLE predicts long-term average annual field level erosion rate based on
rainfall pattern, soil type, topography, cropping system and management practices. This
modelling approach was specifically developed to predict the soil loss from cultivated
soils under specific characteristics however, it was utilized in non-agricultural conditions
such as construction sites.
USLE on the other hand is simple, easy to use and does not require numerous
input parameters data sets for prediction. However, USLE has lots of limiting factor
which the following USLE cannot simulate:
The average annual soil loss can be estimated following this equation:
Annual Soil Loss (A). This represents the potential long-term average annual soil loss in
Tons per hectare (tons per acre) per year.
Rainfall and Runoff Erosivity Index (R). The greater the intensity and duration of the
rain storm, the higher the erosion potential. It is based on long-term average rainfall
conditions for specific geographic areas.
Soil Erodibility Factor (K). It is a measure of the susceptibility of soil particles to
detachment and transport by rainfall and runoff. Texture is the principal factor affecting
K, but structure, organic matter and permeability also contribute.
Table 1. Soil Erodibility factor determined by soil texture and organic matter content
Organic Matter Content (%)
Soil Texture
0.5 2 4
Fine Sand 0.16 0.14 0.10
Very Fine Sand 0.42 0.36 0.28
Loamy Sand 0.12 0.10 0.08
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Loamy very fine Sand 0.44 0.38 0.30

Sandy Loam 0.27 0.24 0.19
Very fine sandy loam 0.47 0.41 0.33
Silt loam 0.48 0.42 0.33
Clay loam 0.28 0.25 0.21
Silt clay loam 0.37 0.32 0.26
Silt clay 0.25 0.23 0.19
Topographic Factor (LS). The LS factor represents a ratio of soil loss under given
conditions to that at a site with the "standard" slope steepness of 9% and slope length of
22.13 m (72.6 ft). The steeper and longer the slope, the higher the risk for erosion.
Table 2. Approximate LS soil loss factor determined by the length and steepness of slope
Slope Length (m) Degree of Slope (%) LS – Soil Loss Factor
250 2 0.2
200 4 0.4
150 6 105
125 8 2
110 10 2.5
100 6 1.2
90 14 4
60 16 4
50 18 4.5
45 20 5
*Note: this table gives the LS values which C can be used in USLE
Crop/Vegetation and Management (C). It is used to determine the relative effectiveness

of soil and crop management systems in terms of preventing soil loss. It is based on the
concept that the soil loss changes in response to vegetative cover during the five crop
stage periods: rough fallow, seedling, establishment, growing, and maturing crop, and
residue or stubble.
Support Practice Factor (P). P factor refers to the practices used to control soil erosion.
This is defined as the ratio of soil loss by a support practice to that of straight-row
farming up and down the slope. The most commonly used supporting cropland practices
are cross-slope cultivation, contour farming and strip cropping. The P values vary from 0
to 1 where the highest values correspond to a bare without any support practices.
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Table 3. Conservation practice factor values

Support Practice P Factor P Factor
Up and Down Slope 1.0
Cross Slope 0.75
Contour Farming 0.50
Strip cropping, cross slope 0.37
Strip cropping, contour 0.25
Calculation:
1. Determine the R factor.
2. Based on the soil texture determine the K value. If there is more than one soil type in a
field and the soil textures are not very different, then use the soil type that represents
the majority of the field. Repeat for other soil types as necessary.
3. Divide the field into sections of uniform slope gradient and length. Assign an LS value
to each section.
4. Choose the crop type factor and tillage method factor for the crop to be grown.
Multiply these 2 factors together to obtain the X factor.
5. Select the P factor based on the support practice used. 6. Multiply the 5 factors
together to obtain the soil loss per hectare.
Example of calculation of soil erosion using USLE
Given:
Rainfall and Runoff Factor (R)= 100
Soil Erodibility Factor (K)= 0.18
Slope Length-Gradient Factor (LS) = 1.91
Crop/Vegetation and Management Factor (C)=0.36
Support Practice Factor (P)= 0.75
Therefore,
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Applications of Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)

1. USLE is intended for soil erosion prediction and soil conservation and erosion
control planning. It is only applicable for small areas where most of the
quantification was derived using the standard plot size of soil erosion assessment.
2. Application of the USLE to the analysis of nonpoint source pollution has been
increasing in recent years and in many cases may be used beyond its limitations.
Better predictive tools are needed, particularly with respect to sediment delivery
ratios, and models which consider the physical processes involved in erosion and
sediment transport.
3. The USLE only predicts soil loss by sheet and rill erosion as a result of rainfall
impact on soils. The movement of dislodged soil particles to streams is not
modelled. In some applications of the USLE, this is covered by a sediment
delivery ratio. The determination and use of sediment delivery ratios is subject to
considerable controversy and misuse.
Limitations of Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
1. USLE model applies only to sheet and rill erosion.
2. The relations between kinetic energy and rainfall intensity generally used in this
model however, it is only applicable in near plains and not to mountainous
regions although different sub-models can be developed for the index of rainfall
erosivity.
3. The model applies only for average data over 20 years and is not valid for
individual storms.
4. It neglects certain interactions between factors in order to distinguish more easily
the individual effect of each factor.
5. It does not calculate sediment deposition.
Revised USLE
USLE has been widely used in estimating soil loss despite of the limitations of the
model. Consequently, USLE was updated and computerized in 1990 to create an erosion
prediction tool. The Revised USLE (RUSLE) uses the same basic factors of the USLE,
although some are better defined, and interrelationships between them improve the
accuracy of soil-loss prediction. The RUSLE is a computer software package that is
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constantly being improved and modified as experience is gained from its use around the
world. The major differences between USLE and RUSLE are listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Differences between USLE and RUSLE (Renard et al., 1994)
Universal Soil Loss Equation Revised Soil Loss Equation
FACTOR
(USLE) (RUSLE)
Similar to USLE but averages
may be based on data from more
weather stations and are more
Based on long-term average rainfall
R precise for specific locations.
conditions for specific geographic
RUSLE computes a correction to
areas.
R for flat land to reflect the effect
of raindrop impact on ponded
water.
Same as USLE but adjusted to
Based on soil texture, organic matter
K account for seasonal changes,
content, permeability, and other
such as freezing and thawing, soil
factors inherent to soil type.
moisture, and soil consolidation.
Refines USLE by considering
LS Based on length and steepness of
complex slopes and the ratio of
slope, regardless of land use.
rill to interrill erosion.
Uses these subfactors: prior land
use, canopy cover, surface cover,
surface roughness, and soil
moisture.
Based on cropping sequence, surface
Refines USLE by calculating the
residue, surface roughness, and
soil-loss ratio for each 15-day
canopy cover, which are weighted by
C interval in the year. Recalculates a
the percentage of erosive rainfall
new soil-loss ratio every time a
during six crop stages. Lumps these
tillage operation changes one of
factors into a table of soil-loss ratios,
the subfactors.
by crop and tillage scheme.
RUSLE provides improved
estimates of soil-loss as changes
in residue and canopy cover occur
throughout the year.
P factor values are based on
hydrologic soil groups, slope, row
grade, ridge height, the amount
Based on installation of practices that
and location of deposition and the
slow runoff and thus reduce soil
P ten-year single storm erosion
movement. P factor values change
index value. The effect of strip-
according to slope ranges with some
cropping based on the transport
distinction for various ridge heights.
capacity of flow in dense strips
relative to the amount of sediment
reaching the strip.
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Ephemeral Gully Erosion Model (EGEM)

The EGEM was specifically developed to predict gully formation and erosion
based on physical principles of gully bed and side-wall dynamics (Foster and Lane,
1983). Common erosion models such as USLE, RUSLE, and WEPP do not include direct
options for predicting gully erosion. The EGEM considers the dynamic processes of
concentrated flow responsible for gully incision and headcut development. It consists of
two major components: hydrology and erosion. The hydrologic component is estimated
using the runoff curve number, drainage area, watershed slope and flow depth, peak
runoff discharge, and runoff volume. The erosion component is based on the width and
depth of ephemeral channels. The EGEM can predict gully erosion for single storms or
seasons or cropstage periods. It assumes that soil erodes to a depth of about 45 cm (e.g.,
tillage, resistant layer).
Wind Erosion Prediction Equation (WEQ)

The WEQ is an empirical model and assumes that wind erosion varies linearly
with changes in climate, soil properties, and surface conditions and does not fully account
for the complex interactions, combinations, and spatial variability of erosion processes
and factors. The Wind Erosion Prediction Equation (WEQ) is the classical equation of
wind erosion prediction (Woodruff and Siddoway, 1965). The WEQ is the most widely
used wind erosion model. While WEQ has limitations for predicting soil erosion rates for
a single storm or on a daily basis, it provides useful estimates of wind erosion rates.
Wind Erosion Prediction System (WEPS)
WEPS was designed with a process – based, continuous, daily time – step, and
computer – based model to simulate wind erosion based on physically – based processes
of erosion. It simulates complex field conditions accounting for the spatial and temporal
variability, and it separately simulates transport processes of suspension, saltation, and
creep. It relies heavily on the dynamics of soil properties and processes and can estimate
wind erosion damage to crops and determine air pollution with dust emissions. The
WEPS is specifically designed to assist land managers and extension agents in
understanding processes of soil erosion and controlling wind erosion from croplands,
forestlands, rangelands, pasturelands, and any disturbed (e.g., construction sites) land. It
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is still under refinement for handling topographically complex terrains and hydrologically
diverse soils under different regions.
Limitations of Water and Wind Models

Although the available models have advanced understanding of soil erosion
processes and estimation of erosion rates, they remain constrained in their applicability to
conditions other than those for which they were created. In most current models the broad
and comprehensive data needed as input are rarely available. Current models
performance is highly variable, and site-specific. Further model development of process-
based models is needed for a wide variety of soil, management and climate scenarios.
The temporal and spatial heterogeneity of the conditions must be integrated in model
domains.
2.2 Land Capability Classification (USDA)

Land capability classification (LCC) is defined as a system of grouping land in to
various classes based on inherent limitations imposed on sustained use by soil attributes,
topography, drainage and climate. The most widely used land classification system is that
of Soil Conservation Service of the USDA, summarized of Klingebiel and Montgomery
(1966).
LCC is mainly based on published soil survey with a scale 1:20,000 or 1: 15,840.
The guiding principle underlying LCC is ―use land according to its capability and treat it
as per its need‖. The capability classification provides three major categories of soil
groupings these are capability unit, capability subclass, and capability class.
Capability Unit
A grouping of soils having about similar responses to system of management of
common cultivated crops and pasture plants.
Capability Subclass
A grouping of capability units having similar kinds of limitations and hazards. (1)
Erosion hazard, (2) wetness, (3) rooting zone limitations, and (4) climate.
Capability Class
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The broadest category in the capability classification places all the soils in eight
capability classes. The capability classes falls in two groups, one suited for cultivation
and other not suited for cultivation. Each group is further sub-divided in to four
capability based on intensity of hazards and limitations of use. The subclasses are further
divides in to unit based on a specific management practice.
Thus land is classified in to eight land capability classes under two broad groups as:
 Land suitable for agriculture and other uses which include class I to class IV
lands.
 Land not suitable for agriculture but very well suited for forestry, grass land and
wild life which include class V to class VIII lands.
The capability grouping of soils is designed (1) to help land owners and others use
and interpret the soil maps, (2) to introduce users to the detail of the soil map itself, and
(3) to make possible broad generalizations based on soil potentialities, limitations in use,
and management problems.
Table 2.1 Features of Land Capability Classes According to Klingebiel and Montgomery
(1966) of Soil Conservation Practices in USDA.
LCC Characteristics
Land Suitable for Cultivation
Very good cultivable, deep, nearly level productive land
with almost no limitation or very slight hazard. Soils in
I this class are suited for a variety of crops, including
wheat, barely, cotton, maize, tomato and bean. Need no
special practices for cultivation
Good cultivable land on almost level plain or on gentle
slopes, moderate depth, subject to occasional overland
II flow, may require drainage, moderate risk of damage
when cultivated, use crop rotations, water control system
or special tillage practices to control erosion
Soils are of moderate fertility on moderate steep slopes
III
subject to more sever erosion and severe risk of damage
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but can be used for crops provided adequate plant cover

is maintained, hay or other sod crops should be grown
instead of row crops.
These are good soils on steep slopes, subject to severe
erosion, with severe risk of damage but may be cultivated
IV occasionally if handled with great care, keep in hay or
pasture but a grain crop may be grown once in 5 or 6
years.
Land unsuitable for cultivation but suitable for permanent vegetation
Land is too wet or stony which make it unsuitable for
cultivation of crops, subject to only slight erosion if
V properly managed, should be used for pasture or forestry
but grazing should be regulated to prevent cover from
being destroyed.
These are shallow soils on steep slopes, used for grazing
and forestry; grazing should be regulated to preserve
VI
plant cover; if the plant cover is destroyed, use should be
restricted until cover is re-established.
These are steep, rough, eroded lands with shallow soils,
also includes droughtly and swampy land, severe risk of
VII
damage even when used for pasture or forestry, strict
grazing or forest management must be applied
Very rough land, not suitable even for woodland or
VIII grazing, reserve for wild life, recreation or wasteland
consideration.
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Name: ____________________________________ Score _______________

Activity I. Build an Erosion Model (Do It Your Own)

Material Needed
 3 plastic bottles of the same size (2 liter bottles work well)
 Soil (enough to fill bottles)
 3 clear cups
 2 wire hangers
 Cups or blocks to support your bottles
 Scissors or utility knife (utility knife works better)
 Mulch
 Sprinkling-style watering can, spray bottle, or rain simulator
 Grass seed or sod
 Tape (or other materials to build your supports)
Procedures
 Cut off one side of each bottle.
 Fill with soil (if you intend on growing grass,
plant grass in one bottle now and wait for it to
sprout).
 Add mulch or dead leaf cover to one of the non-
grass bottles; leave the last bottle of soil bare.
 Suspend the bottles over the 3 cups at a 25 to 40
degree angle with the spouts facing downward.
Get creative in finding ways to accomplish this.
As you can see in the photo, we stacked cups.
Some people cut notches into wood blocks. How
they‘re held is unimportant as long as they‘re
angled.
 Run water over the top of the soil in each bottle.
(If your soil hasn‘t had time to settle, you should discard the first few centimeters
from each cup.)
 Use your rain simulator (or watering can) to apply equal amounts of water to
each bottle.
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Activity II. Discussion: After setting up activity I, answer the following question in a
short essay. COMPREHEND your answers before submitting. Write/encode the
question with your answer in a separate sheet.
1.) Explain the difference of the color of the water inside the cup.
2.) Observe each surface of the soils during rain simulation and discuss.
3.) Why is it importance to conserve soil on the surface?
Submission:
Grading and Rubric:

Criteria Possible
Points
6
point.
previous module.
Page 138 of 169
LESSON III. SOIL EROSION MEASUREMENT
Learning Outcomes:
After reading this lesson, student must be able to:

 Conceptualize and established erosion control practice
 Comprehend soil erosion measurements
 Understand the purpose of each control measures
Introduction
A small amount of accurate information is more valuable than a huge amount of

unusable information since it is inaccurate. The use of incomplete or unreliable data is
much more likely to create problems than to make it easier. Students will learn the proper
ways to use various types of plot according to its intent in measuring soil erosion in this
lesson. Selecting the size of the plot and careful replication are ways to reduce the
measurement uncertainty. Selecting the size of the plot and approach to measurement
depends on the purpose of the research and the erosion phenomenon that is under
consideration.
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3.1 Importance of Estimating Soil Loss
a.) To plan for the best management of a soil resources

b.) To evaluate the consequences of alternative tillage practices/shift in
management strategy.
c.) To determine compliance of environmental regulations .
Traditionally, data on soil erosion rates is collected using laboratory and field plot
experiments under actual, simulated rainfall conditions. Different types of rainfall
simulators on a laboratory scale and on a field scale are used to measure soil erosion
Calculating soil erosion from plots involves consideration of plot size and knowledge of
factors influencing data variability. Differences in the amount of soil erosion under the
same soil from two similar plots, management and environment conditions demonstrate
natural variation that is not due to human or experimental errors. Choosing the plot size
and proper replication are ways to eliminate the uncertainty in the calculation. Selection
of plot size and approach to measurement depends on the purpose of the research and the
phenomenon of erosion (interrill, rill, and gully erosion) under concern.
Micro Plots
Micro plots were often used in laboratory experiments, the size of the plot vary
from 0.05 m2 to 2.00 m2. Under simulated rainfall conditions, it can provide hands-on
opportunity to manipulate and understand principles of soil erosion processes and factors.
Micro plots allow the isolation of a specific or part of an erosion process for a detailed
study of physics of erosion under controlled conditions. It is designed for studying
stability, disintegration, and wettability of aggregate and surface sealing practically in
interrill erosion.
Medium or USLE Plots

Medium plot is similar to the standard plots used for the assessment of the USLE
model with a size 4 x 22.10 m. The minimum width should be at least 2m in order to
minimize the effect of plot boundary influence on soil erosion. This was often used in
collecting erosion data and validates the USLE for local conditions.
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Large or watershed Plots

The size of large plots is at least 100 m2 and is suitable for studying combined
processes of rill and interrill erosion. Large plots portray the erosion occurring at large
field scale conditions and are used to test one or various hypotheses of the effects of
different management scenarios simulating typical local and regional practices. These
plots represent a sample of the landscape and capture the different erosional phases.
Wind-Tunnel Method
The most common method to directly measure wind erosion is by means of wind
tunnels. This method uses transparent tunnels or tubes to monitor wind flow
characteristics and soil particle transport dynamics through the tunnel. While this
technique is mostly used in the lab for developing and validating soil erosion models,
portable units are used in the field (Pietersma et al., 1996). Large fans are used to
simulate different wind intensities and sediment samples collected over time. Most of the
available models of wind erosion prediction are validated against data from wind tunnel
experiments.
Point Measurements
Changes in topsoil and profile thickness are rapid in soils under severe erosion.
Excessive wind erosion causes visual changes in soil surface features such the exposure
of stones, rocks, and plant roots (e.g., tree roots). These changes in soil level with respect
to a reference point can provide estimates of wind erosion rates. Many simple techniques
such as the use of erosion pins (e.g., nail, rods), paint collars, and profile meter are
available for making point measurements. A large number of replicates are required to
obtain credible estimates. In some soils, significant changes in soil level are detectable
only after a long period of monitoring. The pin method consists of driving pins into the
soil to monitor over time changes in soil level due to erosion with respect to the nail top.
Painting collars around tree trunks, shrubs, rocks, and fence posts is another technique.
Decrease in soil level with reference to the paint lines gives an estimate of soil lost by
wind. The profile meter is similar to the device used to determine soil roughness caused
by tillage. It has two permanent vertical supports and a horizontal bar with a number of
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adjustable rods to measure surface roughness and soil depth change. These techniques
provide only rough estimates and have limited use for understanding the dynamics of
wind erosion processes.
Radionuclide Fallouts
The fallout of radionuclide 137Cs from nuclear tests performed in the 1950‘s and
1960‘s offers an opportunity to quantify wind erosion rates over large areas (Chappell
and Warren, 2003). By using the 137Cs approach, the spatial distribution of 137Cs is
quantified and related to total soil loss by wind assuming that erosion by water and tillage
are negligible. The 137Cs activity (Bq kg−1) is measured on soil samples by
spectrometry equipped with x-ray detectors (Chappell and Warren, 2003). Soil samples
are collected from wind-erosion affected areas (e.g., croplands) and from uneroded sites
(control) for comparisons purposes. Models and variograms are fitted to the measured
data to map the 137Cs distribution across the fields of interest. The use of 137Cs as a
tracer of wind erosion rates is relatively new. In the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, the use of
137Cs was found to be a sensitive technique to estimate wind erosion, which were 84Mg
ha−1 yr−1 for shrub coppice dune, 69Mg ha−1 yr−1 for semi-fixed dune fields, 31Mg
ha−1 yr−1 for dry farmlands, and 22Mg ha−1 yr−1 for grasslands (Yan et al., 2000).
Page 142 of 169
Name: ____________________________________ Score _______________

Activity I. True or False.

__________1. Medium plot size is used in collecting data and validates the USLE in
measuring wind erosion.
__________2. Micro plots is one of the techniques used in point measurements.
__________3. Large or watershed plots and Medium plot are both used in studying sheet
erosion.
__________4. Radionuclide fallouts is applicable in investigating soil erosion and soil
redistribution affecting agro-ecosystems.
__________5. Wind tunnels allow control over the wind and surface factors controlling
aeolian movement.
separate sheet.
Questions:
1.) Briefly discuss the importance of estimating soil loss.
2.) How important is determining the specific plot size in measuring soil loss.
3.) How small plots and large plots differ in measuring soil loss caused by water
erosion?
4.) Discuss the limitation of point measurements in measuring soil loss caused by
wind erosion.
Submission:
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Grading and Rubric:

Criteria Possible
Points
6
point.
previous module.
Page 144 of 169
LESSON IV. SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

MANAGEMENT AND PRACTICES
Learning Outcomes:
After reading this lesson, student should be able to:

 Discuss the importance of conserving the natural resources
 Explain the principles of erosion control strategies
 Enumerate and differentiate cultural and mechanical practices to reduce the rate
of erosion
 Identify what conservation practices are applicable to specific eroded area
Learning Outcomes:
Soil as natural resource provides animal and human necessities. On the other
hand, soil is a non-renewable resource that is depleted over a period of time, and must be
managed properly. You will learn in this lesson about the purpose of conserving the soil.
Different agronomic and mechanical steps are discussed further, how it functions and
what particular soil erosion is applicable thereto. Student must be able to identify specific
base practice to develop a strategic plan in managing soil erosion.
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4.1 Why conserve soil?

Soil is an essential resource providing food, feed, fuel and fiber. It promotes food
safety and the quality of the environment, both essential for human existence. Soil
essentialness to human well-being is often not realized until food production drops or is
jeopardized when the soil is severely eroded or degraded to the level it loses its inherent
resilience. One of the major soil degradation process is soil erosion which directly affects
the production of crops and distorts nature. Soil erosion also reduces soil fertility, crop
production, and biodiversity and also alters water quality and increases risks of global
climate change and food insecurity.
Soils across the world are properly manage today to: (1) meet the ever increasing
food demand, (2) filter air, (3) purify water, and (3) store carbon (C) to offset the
anthropogenic emissions of CO2. The need to maintain and enhance multi-functionality
necessitates improved and prudent management of soil for meeting the needs of present
and future generations. The extent to which soil stewardship and protection is professed
determines the sustainability of land use, adequacy of food supply, the quality of air and
water resources, and the survival of humankind. Soil conservation has been traditionally
discussed in relation to keeping the soil in place for crop production. Now, soil
conservation is evaluated in terms of its benefits to increasing crop yields, reducing water
pollution, and mitigating concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
4.2 Principles of Erosion Control Strategies (Morgan, 2005)
Erosion is a natural process which cannot be completely prevented. However, it

can be reduced. The measures used to prevent soil from eroding can be subdivided into
three principles: agronomic measures, soil management and mechanical methods.
Depending on the local situation and the cause of erosion a different measure (or a
combination of measures) may be favorable.
Agronomic measures most commonly refer to preventing soil from eroding by

using a vegetation cover. A soils surface cover is crucial with regard to soil and water
conservation and is commonly used to prevent soil and water losses, especially on sloped
Page 146 of 169
land (Duan et al. 2017). Land cover can include litter and living vegetation, and it
prevents soil erosion in several ways (Vannoppen et al. 2015):
1. It protects the soil surface against raindrop impact and runoff erosion,
2. It decreaces runoff volumes and velocities by enhancing the soils infiltration capacity
and its surface roughness, and
3. It reduces sediment transport by capturing sediments.
Soil Management is the preparation of soil to promote plant growth and improve
its structure to be more resistant. Ochoa et al. (2016) conducted research on the change of
natural cover and discovered that pasture or crops can evoke a rapid decline in organic
matter content of soil, leading to depletion and desertification risk. Generally, a deep,
medium-textured, moderately permeable soil that has subsoil characteristics favourable
for plant growth will be more resistant to soil erosion than soils with shallow root zones
or high percentages of shale at the surface (Renard et al. 1997). Plant roots further modify
mechanical and hydrological soil characteristics, including the soil aggregate stability by
root exudates, soil cohesion, infiltration rate, and the soil moisture and organic matter
content. Their effectiveness in reducing concentrated flow erosion is dependent on
several root and soil properties, such as root density, root architecture, soil texture, soil
moisture (Vannoppen et al. 2015). Consequently, interference with nature such as
deforestation should generally be avoided to keep the soil cover in good condition (ed.
IPBES 2018; Ochoa et al. 2016).
Mechanical Methods are typically based on engineering structures and depend on

changing the surface topography to control/reduce the flow of water and air (Morgan
2005). These methods may include the installation of wind breaks, terraces, one-rock
dams, log mats, felled trees, brush dams, etc. (Zeedyk & Jansens 2006). Mechanical
methods are generally effective for controlling the transport phase of soil erosion, but
have only little effect with respect to soil detachment, and are therefore largely
ineffective on their own (Morgan 2005).
Page 147 of 169
4.3 Agronomic Measures (Cultural Practices)

Cover Cropping
Cover crops are innovative conservation practices. It serves as an important
companion practice to no-till, reduced tillage, alley cropping, agroforestry, and other
conservation practices designed to reduce soil erosion and improve quality of soil and
water resources. It is utilized to protect soil against erosion, improving soil properties,
enhancing soil fertility, suppressing weeds, fixing N, increasing soil organic matter
content, increasing crop yields, recycling nutrients, preventing leaching of nutrients, and
improving water quality. Because of multi-faceted benefits, use of cover crops is highly
desirable. Cover crops are mainly grown between the cropping seasons. When plowed
under and incorporated into the soil, cover crops may be referred to as green manure
crops. They can also be grown as rotational crops and companions to main crops.
Most crops used for cover cropping are belonging to graminae and legumenuceae,
as they increases the biomass return to the soil, enhances activity of soil organisms, and
improves soil productivity. Use of cover crops not only reduces runoff, soil erosion, and
use of inorganic fertilizers but also controls weeds, a major constraint in reduced and no-
till systems (Fig.4.2.1).
The use of cover crops has been somewhat constrained by local economic and
social conditions, especially in developing countries. If not properly managed, some
cover crops can deplete soil water and reduce crop yields (e.g., late- or early-kill).
Balancing benefits of cover crops in controlling soil erosion against possible reduction in
crop yields is important to assessing short-term economic gains of this conservation-
effective measure.
Mulching
Mulches are used to minimize rain splash, reduce evaporation, control weeds,
reduce temperature of soil in hot climates, and moderate the temperature to a level
conducive to microbial activity. It is any material such as straw, sawdust, leaves, plastic
film, loose soil, etc., (Fig. 4.2.2) that is spread or formed upon the surface of the soil to
protect the soil and/or plant roots from the effects of raindrops, soil crusting, freezing,
evaporation, etc.
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Conservation Tillage
Any tillage sequence that reduces loss of soil or water relative to conventional
tillage generally leaves at least 30% of the soil surface covered by residues. This
conservation tillage includes the following tillage practices which are designed to
prevent/limit detachment while the area could still be devoted to agriculture.
Figure 4.2.1: Erosion from three February to March storms was negligible for forage
radish despite rapid decomposition of the surface residues (Weil, 2009)
Figure 4.2.2. Using rice straw as a mulch

Page 149 of 169
a) Minimum Tillage: It is the operation in which tillage and sowing are combined in one
operation. Such operations create a coarse soil surface and fine lumps of soil between
rows. The loose and porous texture of the soil allows a good infiltration capacity. The
surface runoff by this operation is reduced by about 35% and soil erosion by about 40%.
b) No tillage: No-till or zero tillage refers to a system where a crop is planted directly
into the soil with no primary or secondary tillage (SSSA, 2008, cited by: Blanco and Lal,
2010). It is an extreme form of conservation tillage in which soil remains undisturbed at
all times except during planting. It is a practice that leaves all surface residues (stalks,
cobs, leaves, etc.) on the soil following harvest. Residue left on the surface of no-till soils
absorbs and buffers the erosive energy of raindrops and generally improves soil
properties. This buffering process reduces aggregate detachment and surface sealing and
crusting, thus decreasing risks of runoff and soil erosion.
c) Strip Tillage: This operation is an improvement over the no tillage system. In this type
of cultivation, narrow strips of approximately 0.2 m width and 0.1 m depth are generally
laid out following the contour, and the land between the strips left uncultivated. These are
also called loosening strips. In the constructed narrow strips, there are no stubbles, which
help in sowing operations and facilitate better plant growth.
Contour Cultivation/Strip Cropping

Strip cropping is the practice of growing strip of crops having poor potential for
erosion control, such as root crop (intertilled crops), cereals, etc., alternated with strips of
crops having good potentials for erosion control, such as fodder crops, grasses, etc.,
which are close growing crops. Strip cropping is a more intensive farming practice than
contour farming. The farming practices that are included in this type of farming are
contour strip farming, cover cropping, farming with conservation tillage and suitable crop
rotation. A crop rotation with a combination of intertilled and close growing crops,
farmed on contours, provides food, fodder and conserves soil moisture. Close growing
crops act as barriers to flow and reduce the runoff velocity generated from the strips of
intertilled crops, and eventually reduce soil erosion. Strip cropping is laid out by using
the following three methods:
Page 150 of 169
a) Contour strip cropping: Alternate strips of crop are sown more or less following the
contours, similar to contouring. Suitable rotation of crops and tillage operations are
followed during the farming operations.
b) Field strip cropping: Strip of uniform width are laid out across the prevailing slope,
while protecting the soil from erosion by water. To protect the soil from erosion by wind,
strips are laid out across the prevailing direction of wind. Such practices are generally
followed in areas where the topography is very irregular, and the contour lines are too
curvy for strict contour farming.
c) Buffer strip cropping: It is practiced where uniform strip of crops are required to be
laid out for smooth operations of the farm machinery, while farming on a contour strip
cropping layout. Buffer strip of legumes, grasses and similar other crops are laid out
between the contour strips as correction strips. Buffer strips provide very good protection
and effective control of soil erosion.
Addition of Soil Conditioner

Soil modification is characterized as any material left on the surface of the soil or
incorporated into the surface layer to minimize runoff and soil erosion while also
improving soil properties (SSSA, 2008, cited by: Blanco and Lal, 2010). Applying
amendments on the soil surface is especially effective when used in conjunction with the
introduction of conservation tillage systems as opposed to traditional practices where
amendments are plowed under. Some soil amendments (e.g., animal manures, crop
residues, green manures) have been used since the dawn of agriculture. They provide
innumerable benefits including reduction of soil erosion and improvement in soil
physical, chemical, and biological properties.
Page 151 of 169
4.4 Mechanical/Engineering Practices
Establishment of Ripraps
Riprap is a
layer of large stones Figure 4.3.1. Cross Section of a Riprap Revetment
used to protect soil
from erosion in areas
of concentrated runoff
as shown in the figure
below. Riprap can
also be used on slopes
that are unstable
because of seepage
problems. When
properly designed and installed, riprap can prevent the protected area from erosion. The
steepness of the slope limits the applicability of riprap, because slopes steeper than 2:1
can cause riprap loss due to erosion and sliding. If used improperly, riprap can actually
increase erosion. In addition, riprap can be more expensive than other stabilization
options.
Terracing
Terracing is a soil conservation practice applied to prevent rainfall runoff on
sloping land from accumulating and causing serious erosion. It is a permanent erosion
control technologies, which can be used on steeper slopes (3 to 30 percent). The level
steps of a terrace reduces the velocity water by stopping the water from flowing downhill.
Terraces allows the water to be move nearly parallel to the slope of the land and
discharges the water to a safe and stable outlet. By slowing the movement of water,
terraces gives the water time to seep into the ground. Terracing is a combination of
contouring and land shaping in which the slope length is reduced by the construction of
ridges or channels across the slope. Terraces are suitable on slopes similar to contouring
but preferably with long slope lengths.
Page 152 of 169
Bioengineering
Bio-engineering uses plant materials in a structural way to reinforce and stabilize
eroding stream banks. This technique relies on the use of dormant cuttings of willows,
shrub dogwoods and other plants that root easily. Bio-engineering practices range from
simple live stakes to complex structures such as fabricated lifts incorporating erosion
control blankets, plants and compacted soil. These practices use native materials, wood
and stone to armor stream banks and deflect flow away from them. Low rock walls and
log crib-walls can be used to armor the bank. Rock and logs can be used to construct a
variety of structures that stabilize the streambed and banks. Cross vanes are rock
structures that stabilize the streambed while aiding in stream bank stabilization. Rock or
log vanes redirect stream flow away from the toe of the stream bank and help to stabilize
the bank upstream and downstream from the structure.
Sediment Trap
Sediment traps are structures built in the area which includes cascading catchment
canal, silt traps and catch basin along perimeter, between pineapple fields and along
diversion ditches to collect run-off during rains, preventing and minimizing the eroded
soils cascading into natural bodies of water.
This technology was developed to control of dispersed runoff; serves as water
harvesting facility; and serves as sediment retention / trapping.
Retention ponds/Sedimentation Basin

A retention ponds/ sediment basin is a temporary settling pond designed to slowly
release runoff, detaining it long enough to allow sediment to settle out. Sediment basins
may also be retrofitted to permanent storm water detention or retention basins after
construction has ended.
Wind Breaks
The term wind break is defined as any type of barrier either mechanical or
vegetative used for protecting the areas like building apartments, orchards or farmsteads
etc. from blowing winds. This is a permanent vegetative measure which helps in the
reduction of wind erosion. It is most effective vegetative measure used for controlling
Page 153 of 169
severe wind erosion. The wind break acts as fencing wall around the affected areas,
normally constructed by one row or maximum up to two rows across the prevailing wind
direction. A windbreak reduces the wind velocity for a distance of 30–35 times the
windbreak height in the leeward side and about 5 times in the windward side.
Shelter Belts
A shelterbelt is a longer barrier than the wind break, is installed by using more
than two rows, usually at right angle to the direction of prevailing winds. The rows of belt
can be developed by using shrubs and trees. It is mainly used for the conservation of soil
moisture and for the protection of field crops, against severe wind erosion.
Shelterbelt is more effective for reducing the impact of wind movement than the
wind break. Apart from controlling wind erosion, it provides fuel, reduces evaporation
and protects the orchard from hot and cold winds.
Page 154 of 169
Name: ____________________________________ Score _______________

Activity I. Name Me. Identify the photos below and answer the questions below.
1. Type of Soil Erosion:________________________
2. Cause:_____________________________________
3. Effect: ____________________________________
1. Type of soil erosion: _________________________

2. Conservation method used: ____________________

3. Benefits: __________________________________

3. Benefits: ___________________________________
1.Type of soil erosion:__________________________

2. Cause: ____________________________________
3. Effect:_____________________________________
Page 155 of 169
separate sheet.
Questions:
4.) Discuss how the principles of erosion control strategies work together.
5.) Discuss the difference between cultural and mechanical practice in soil
conservation.
6.) Describe the benefits of windbreaks to crop and livestock production as well as
environmental quality.
7.) Provide two (2) examples of cover crops that are best used to control soil erosion
while improving soil quality at the site.
Submission:
Grading and Rubric:

Criteria Possible
Points
6
point.
previous module.
Page 156 of 169
Mastery Test
1. Using USLE, complete the following table and show your solution on the sheets
provided.
Case Rainfall Erodibility Slope Crop management Support Soil Loss
Factor Factor (K) Gradien Factor (C) Practice Estimate
(R) Soil Type K t Factor Land Use C Factor (ton/ha/yr)
(LS) (P)
1 300 Sandy 0.28 0.59 Cropland, 0.46 Updown
conventionally Hill
loam
tilled Farming
(P -1.00)
2 300 Sandy 0.28 0.59 Pasture (95 0.00 P-1.00

loam 100% Cover) 3
3 400 Sandy 0.24 4.47 Disturbed 1.00 P-1.00

Construction
loam
Site
4 400 Sandy 0.24 4.47 Grassland 0.04 P-1.00

loam 2
2. Using the data above, discuss the effect of land use on the amount of soil lost by
comparing:
a.)Case 1 versus Case 2
b.)Case 3 versus Case 4
Page 157 of 169
Solve here!
Page 158 of 169
REFERENCES
Blanco, H. and Lal, R. (2010). Principles of Soil Conservation and Management.

Springer Science and Business Media B.V. Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg
London New York. 29:77–89
Brady, N. C. and Weil, R.R. (2017). The Nature and Properties of Soil Science. Pearson
Education Limited. Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England. 15 th
Edition.
Chappell, A. and Warren, A. (2003). Spatial scales of Cs-137-derived soil flux by wind in a
25 km (2) arable area of eastern England. Catena 52:209–234
Dickey, E. C., Shelton, D. P., and Jasa, P. J., (1981). G81-544 Residue Management for
Soil Erosion Control.Historical Materials from University of Nebraska-
LincolnExtension.711. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/extensionhist/711
Duan, J., Yang, J., Tang, C., Chen, L., Liu, Y. & Wang, L. (2017). Effects of rainfall
patterns and land cover on the subsurface flow generation of sloping Ferralsols in
southern China‘, PLOS ONE, vol. 12, no. 8.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), undated. Soil resources depreciation and
deforestation: Philippine case study in resource accounting. FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (1987). Protect and Produce. U.N. Food and
Agriculture Organization, Rome.
Foster, G. and Lane, L., (1983). Erosion by concentrated flow in farm fields. In: Li RM.
Lagasse PF (eds)
Ghadiri, H. (2004). Crater formation in soils by raindrop impact. Earth Surf Processes
Landforms
Gomes L, Arrue JL, Lopez MV et al. (2003). Wind erosion in a semiarid agricultural area
of Spain: the WELSONS project. Catena 52:235–256
International Resources Group, Ltd.(IRG), Edgevale Associates and Mandala agricultural
Development Corporation (MADECOR) (1991). Natural Resources Accounting
Project Phase I. The Philippine Natural Resource Accounting Project: Final
Report of Phase I Activities. Manila
Morgan, R.P.C. (2005). Soil erosion and conservation, (3rd ed.): Blackwell Pub, Malden.
Ochoa, PA, Fries, A, Mejía, D, Burneo, JI, Ruíz-Sinoga, JD & Cerdà, A (2016). Effects
of climate, land cover and topography on soil erosion risk in a semiarid basin of
the Andes, 0341-8162, vol. 140, Supplement C, pp. 31–42,
Pietersma, D., Stetler, L.C. and Saxton, K.E. (1996). Design and aerodynamics of a portable
wind tunnel for soil erosion and fugitive dust research. Trans ASAE 39:2075–2083
Proceedings of the D.B. Simons Symposium on erosion and sedimentation.
Colorado State University, Colorado, pp 9.65–9.82
Renard, K. G., G. Foster, D. Yoder, and D. McCool. (1994). RUSLE revisited: Status,
questions, answers and the future: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
49:213–220.
Soil Conservation Service U.S. Department of Agriculture. (1966). Land Capability
Classification. Agriculture handbook No.210: U.S. Government Printing Office
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SSSA (2008) Glossary of Soil Science Terms. http://www.soils.org/sssagloss/. Cited 2

Jan 2008 by Blanco and Lal, 2010.
Vannoppen, W., Vanmaercke, M., Baets, S. de & Poesen, J. (2015). A review of the
mechanical effects of plant roots on concentrated flow erosion rates: Earth-
Science Reviews, vol. 150, pp. 666–78.
Wischmeier, W.H. and Smith, D.D. (1978). Predicting rainfall erosion losses: A guide to
conservation planning. USDA Agric Handbook Source of soil, vol 537.: U.S. Gov
Print Office, Washington DC
Woodruff, N.P. and Siddoway, F.H. (1965). A wind erosion equation. Soil Sci Soc Am
Proc 29: 602–608
Yan, P., Dong, G.R., and Zhang, X.B. (2000). Preliminary results of the study on wind
erosion in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau using Cs-137 technique. Chinese Sci Bull
45:1019–1025
Page 160 of 169
MICA G. BINONGO is an instructor of College of Agriculture and Forestry in Central

Philippines State University in Kabankalan City, Negros Occidental and a licensed
Agriculturist. She graduated as Cum Laude at Visayas State University – main campus
with a degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture major in Soil Science where she
specialize on Soil Fertility Management. She pursued her education in the same
University in 2016 relishing the scholarship granted to her by DOST Scholarship
program ASTHRDP NSC and finished in 2018 with a Master‘s degree major in Soil
Science minor in Tropical Ecology.
MARLYN C. ENTUNA is current employed at Central Philippines State University as

Science Research Assistant specifically assigned at CAF soils laboratory, at the same
time an instructor in the same institution and a licensed Agriculturist. She obtained her
college degree (Bachelor of Science in Agriculture major in Soil Science) from Visayas
State University – main campus with a research study focuses on Soil Survey and
Classification. She pursued her education with Master‘s degree in Soil Science minor in
Tropical Ecology in 2017 at the same University and also DOST ASTHRDP NSC
Scholar.
MARYVIC P. PEDROSA is an instructor, licensed Agriculturist and the program head

of Agriculture under the College of Agriculture and Forestry in Central Philippines State
University. She graduated with a college degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture
major in Soil Science at Visayas State University – main campus. She obtained her
Master‘s Degree in Soil Science minor in Tropical Ecology in 2018 in the same
institution with a scholarship granted to her by DOST scholarship program ASTHRDP
NSC. Her research study focuses on Soil Characterization in Andisols in Negros Island.

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Central Philippines State University

College of Agriculture and Forestry

College of Agriculture and Forestry

N OTE TO THE READERS

This module is designated to provide technical knowledge and applicable

Understanding the principles of soil fertility is vital to efficient nutrient

Causes of the decline in soil fertility 59

Enhancement Activities 123

ABOUT THE AUTHORS 161

MODULE 1 SOIL FERTILITY AND

“Fertility of the soil is the future of civilization”

This module aims to:

 Provide basic information about the historical background of the soil.

Name: ____________________________________ Score ______________

______7. Most micronutrients become less available at

LESSON I. INTRODUCTION TO SOIL FERTILITY

SOIL FERTILITY AND SOIL PRODUCTIVITY

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL FERTILITY/SOIL QUALITY

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL PRODUCTIVITY

I. Internal factors: maybe called genetic or hereditary factors that cannot be

a. Climatic factors: precipitation (rainfall), solar radiation, atmospheric gases

(altitude, steepness of the slope)

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT NUTRITION AND SOIL

IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOIL FERTILITY

1. Theophrastus (327-287 B.C.) - he suggested that plants

2. Pietro de Crescenzi (1233–1320) -published a book on

3. Francis Bacon (1561 – 1624) suggested that the principal

4. Jan Baptiste van Helmont (1577 – 1644), a Flemish

5. Robert Boyle (1627-1691)- reported the work of van

6. J.R. Glauber (1604 – 1668)- a German chemist, suggested

7. Jethro Tull (1674–1741)- thought that small particles were

8. John Woodward (1700's)- believed that plant growth is

9. Albrecht Thaer (1752-1829) – he believed in the Humus

10. Philip Carl Sprengel (1787-1859) - a student of Thaer,

11. Theodore de Saussure (1800s) – believed that the soil

12. Justus von Liebig (1802 – 1873)- a German chemist, stated

13. J.B. Bousingault (1802-1882)- French chemist

14. J.B. Lawes and J.H. Gilbert (1843)- established an

15. John B. Lawes -patented a process of phosphate rock

SOIL FERTILITY RESEARCH DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

 At present, plant essential nutrients are routinely estimated using automated

______9. Functions of soils that serve as maintenance of ecosystem functions such as

II. DISCUSSION. Explain the following in 3 or more sentences.

2. How would you improve or maintain soil fertility?

3. How do anthropogenic factors affect soil productivity?

4. How do internal factors affect crop productivity?

5. Why is there a need to study soil fertility?

LESSON II. SOIL-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS

2.1. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN SOILS AND THEIR FORMS

Table 1. Beneficial elements with their specific functions

C. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR AVAILABLE FORMS

Table 2. Essential Elements and their available forms.

Element Available Forms

2.2. PROFILE DISTRIBUTION OF ELEMENTS

2.3. ROLE OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN PLANT NUTRIENTS

Table 3. List of essential elements, its available forms, and functions in

Element Available Functions in Plants

3 Oxygen (O) O2 A constituent of carbohydrates,

9 Sulfur (S) SO42- (sulfate) An important component of plant

14 Zinc (Zn) Zn2+ Involved with enzyme systems that

16 Chlorine (Cl) Cl- (chloride) Involved with oxygen production in

Table 4. List of essential elements, its sources, deficiency symptoms, and

Element Source Deficiency Symptoms Mobility

Name: ______________________ Score

Name: ______________________ Score