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Chapter 4: Individual differences in adult learners 87
Introduction 88
Ethnocentricity 88
Celebrating individual differences 89
The characteristics of adult learners 90
The impact on the HR developer 106
Globalisation 110
Diversity and the organisation 113
References 114
Chapter 5: HRD needs investigation - An overview 118
The importance of HRDNI 119
HRDNI defined 120
The purpose of HRDNI 121
Organisational awareness 122
The investigation plan 132
Selecting a HRDNI method 133
Face value? 136
The HRDNI report 137
The need for HRDNI 139
References 140
Chapter 6: Performance appraisal and career development 142
The importance of performance appraisal 143
Performance appraisal within performance management 143
A natural process 144
A unique process 145
Impact on the HR developer 146
Types of performance appraisal 147
Job analysis – constructing the predetermined standard 148
Observing the performance 153
The comparison 155
Feedback 160
Action plans 162
Input into the developmental system 163
Surveillance system 163
Legal issues 164
Career management 164
Knowledge creation and maintenance 172
References 173
Chapter 7: Interviewing and focus groups 176
Qualitative research 177
 Interviewing 181
Structured and unstructured interviews 195
The focus group 198
Analysing qualitative data 205
The beginning of learning 209
References 209
Chapter 8: Design - The two main considerations 212
Defining the role of the HR developer 213
Constructive alignment 214
The hierarchy of learning outcomes 215
The learners 229
A designer’s checklist 243
References 244
Chapter 9: Other design considerations 247
The indirect factors 248
An overview of the design process 255
Some basics for design 257
The product 259
The HR developer as a designer 264
References 266
Chapter 10: Implementing the structured learning strategies 268
The role of the HR developer 269
Managing and coordinating the program 270
Micro skills 270
The structured learning strategies 274
The semi-structured learning strategies 276
The challenge to the HR developer 287
References 288
Chapter 11: Implementing the unstructured learning strategies 290
The role of the HR developer 291
The assumptions 294
Problem-based learning 294
Contract learning 298
Action learning 303
Change interventions 307
Mentoring 311
E-learning 314
Blended learning 321
The implementing stage 323
References 324
Chapter 12: Evaluation 329
Misconceptions about evaluation 330
Assessment of learning 332
Kirkpatrick’s four levels 346
The presage factors 352
Timeout 357
The scientific models 357
Cost-benefit analysis 360
The evaluation plan 362
The evaluation report 363
Whose responsibility? 364
The need for dialectic thinking 364
References 366
Chapter 13: Workplace learning 368
Moving into the shadow system 369
The workplace as a site for learning 369
Challenges to workplace learning 371
The supervisor as the HR developer 371
Learning spaces 372
Managing workplace learning 373
Individual change 382
Individual adult learning 384
The challenge of workplace learning 390
References 391
Chapter 14: Creating and embedding new knowledge 393
From maintaining to creating 394
An overview of the shadow system 394
The guiding principles of the shadow system 398
The three roles of the shadow system 399
Extraordinary management processes 401
Summary 412
Exporting to the legitimate system 412
Control – to be or not to be? 417
The nexus of work and learning 418
References 419
Chapter 15: Organisational culture, leadership and knowledge management 422
Knowledge as an asset 423
A systems approach 425
The legitimate system 427
Workplace learning 433
 The shadow system 433
Bounded instability 437
Organisational culture 439
Summary 446
Leadership 446
The role of the HR developer 448
References 451
Glossary 455
Index 471
Acknowledgements
For Brian:

In many ways, this book is a history of my professional life. I commenced as a trainer in

the then PMG Department nearly 40 years ago and was so fortunate to be influenced by
older, and much wiser, trainers who had been adult teachers during the 1930s,
instructors in the Second World War in the various defence forces and then technical
instructors in the 1950s and 1960s. Their words of wisdom still resound in my mind –
“Teach a little, test a little”, “Teach a little well”, “If in doubt, go into an activity” and
my favourite “If anything will stuff up your session, it will be this new-fangled
technology” – the fact that they were referring to the overhead projector adding a
piquant reminder to review all aspects of session preparation. Even in the present
modern times, these words are not only astute but also so relevant. I was fortunate to
meet and interact on a personal basis with such key adult educators as Malcolm
Knowles and Reg Revans. In addition, my development was strongly enhanced by
Australian movers-and-shakers in organisational development and self-directed
learning such as Bob Dick, Charles Margerison and Geoff Prideaux. If I can see further,
it is because I stand on the shoulders of these giants.
On a personal basis, to my children – the original four, the newer four, the ‘adopted’
ones and now the ones of the grandchild variety – I appreciate so much your constant
love and steadfast respect. Finally and always, to my life partner, wife and soul mate,
Yvonne, your love and enduring support continue to be the wind beneath my wings.

For Sarojni:

I first came across the first edition of this book as a student when the seeds of my
interest in adult learning theories and their applications were just beginning to
germinate. This interest was nurtured under supervision and guidance from Brian
Delahaye and I commenced my contributions to the development of workplace trainers
and workers. He remains an inspiration and a role model as I continue to advance my
career in vocational, professional and continuing education and training. I was
honoured when asked to be a co-author.

For both of us:

Undoubtedly though, the group of people who have had the most impact on our
professional lives has been our students. Facilitating the learning of others is a
privilege and, indeed, is often a humbling process. To be a witness as adult learners
struggle with new concepts, challenge the very values of their being and overcome, at
times, overwhelming personal obstacles as they doggedly continue to learn and become
empowered, is one of life’s more inspiring experiences. Certainly by their questions
and interactions, they still enrich, enhance, enrage, engage, energise and/or entrance
and, in the course of events, have added immeasurably to our personal development and
learning. We thank you all.

Our thanks to our research assistant Julie-Anne Jackson – finding relevant new readings
and providing insightful suggestions have certainly added to the quality of this edition.
Many thanks to our publishers, Tilde University Press, who have proven to be a highly
professional and most helpful group of people – all authors need the wise and
sagacious oversight of a publisher such as Rick Ryan and the caring support of the
editing staff. We are indebted to you all.

Brian Delahaye
Sarojni Choy
April 2016
Prologue
One of the main goals in preparing the Student’s Resource Guide for Human Resource
Development: Learning, Knowing and Growing was to provide a valuable and
pragmatic support system that busy students would find efficient and useful.
Accordingly, the Student Resource Guide now consists of two books.
This textbook Human Resource Development: Learning, Knowing and Growing (4th
edition) is the companion book to the workbook Human Resource Development:
Workbook (4th edition). The textbook covers the theoretical foundations for good
human resource development practice, while the workbook allows you to test and
refine your knowledge on the application of these theories. Together these two
publications provide a unique Student Resource Guide to help you learn the complex
processes of managing human resources.

An introduction to the textbook

Trainers, instructors, adult teachers, human resource developers, workplace educators,
community educators, learning consultants and knowledge managers are just some of
the titles given to the people who are given the responsibility to develop individual and
organisational learning. People who undertake this role are faced with a number of
conflicting yet ever present pressures. Among these pressures are:
demands to decrease the dollar and time investment in staff development,
the increasing complexity of technology,
the enhanced expectations of adult learners that they be treated as adults,
the need to ensure that learning is relevant and has a commercial value, and
the exponential growth of theories of adult learning and the management of
knowledge.

Developing people in this role - whether they are called human resource developers or
workplace educators or any of the other titles - has become a distinctive challenge.
Further, this challenge has occurred at a time when decision makers have realised the
critical importance of the knowledge asset to the future viability of an organisation.
The text Human Resource Development: Learning, Knowing and Growing has been
designed and written to meet the needs of undergraduate and postgraduate students who
wish to fulfil such roles and meet such challenges. The text offers a comprehensive
theoretical and practical coverage of human resource development. The book offers a
number of features to enhance learning and to provide praxis - the conversion of theory
into practice:
Learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter highlight the expected
learning outcomes.
Main headings, sub-headings and sub-sub-headings furnish an easily recognised
structure to each chapter.
A closer look feature which highlights a practical example or a more in-depth
discussion.
Glossary of key words at the end of each chapter provide a quick reference to
important concepts.

Each of the four stages of human resource development - needs investigation, design,
implementation and evaluation - are discussed in turn throughout the book with
important theoretical principles being described and with models, recommendations
and check lists presented as professional guides for actions and decisions. These
discussions and descriptions are embedded within an overall understanding of the
concepts of the management of knowledge capital.
The material presented in the text consists of 15 chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the
importance of human resource development and locates human resource development in
the theories, concepts and practices of human resource management. The chapter
introduces the concept of complexity theory – the theoretical basis of the textbook and a
most useful theory when examining the management of knowledge capital and the
underpinning adult learning processes. Chapter 2 then introduces continuing education
and training, analysing the different models and their implementation.
The next two chapters present issues that have a direct influence, and provide a deeper
understanding of human resource development. Chapter 3 examines the theories and
practices of adult learning. Chapter 4 emphasises the importance of, and the critical
nature of, individual differences in adult learners. Chapter 5 begins the discussion on
human resource development needs investigation (HRDNI) and the next two chapters
explore specific methods of HRDNI - performance appraisal and career development
(Chapter 6) and interviewing and focus groups (Chapter 7). Chapter 8 examines the
role of two important considerations in the design of adult learning programs - the topic
content and the learner - which provide an initial indication of the type of learning
strategies that are most beneficial. Other considerations of the design process, and the
type of program plans required, are discussed in Chapter 9. The structured learning
strategies of the skill session, theory session and lecture and the semi-structured
approaches of the discussion, case study, role play and experiential learning are
described in Chapter 10. Chapter 11 examines the unstructured learning strategies of
problem-based learning, contract learning, action learning, change interventions and
mentoring and also has a discussion on e-learning. Chapter 12 explains and examines
evaluation. Chapter 13 presents a discussion on workplace learning and suggests that
learning in the workplace needs a workplace learning curriculum. Accordingly a model
of a workplace curriculum is presented as is a new model discussing the steps used by
an individual adult learner. Chapter 14 examines the creation of knowledge by
examining, in depth, the role of the shadow system and the critical importance of self
organising groups. The chapter also explores the process of developing a state of
bounded instability in an organisation. Chapter 15 reviews the concepts examined in the
previous chapters by expanding the complexity theory model introduced in Chapter 1.
This model can be used as a means of understanding the management of knowledge or
as a template to audit an organisation’s knowledge management processes. The chapter
then shows how these concepts combine with organisational culture and leadership to
manage the knowledge capital of an organisation. The chapter, and the textbook, end
with a suggested career development path for HR developers.
In addition, this fourth edition again features a large case study on an organisation
called Pacific Lifestyle Publishing. Pacific Lifestyle Publishing is a real organisation
located on the east coast of Australia. It was exciting to find an organisation that valued
its staff so highly and which managed its knowledge capital so effectively and so
naturally. The case study, located in the companion workbook, is used in a number of
ways throughout the text. There are nearly 50 boxed notes in the main body of the text
that link the theoretical concepts being discussed to the real life experiences in Pacific
Lifestyle Publishing. There are also several references to Pacific Lifestyle Publishing
in the theoretical discussions in the text itself.
 Chapter 1

Introduction to HRD

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
1. Describe the negative effects of management re-engineering on organisations.
2. Explain why knowledge is a unique resource.
3. Describe how knowledge capital can be managed by complexity theory.
4. Describe the role of the HR developer in knowledge management.
The business environment
Managers now accept that the only certainty is that change will keep occurring at a
rapidly escalating rate. According to Mason (2008), accompanying this rapid change is
increased complexity and turbulence. New flexible work arrangements are now
becoming common – for example, telework as fast broadband technology is eroding the
idea of ‘office’ as central to the generation of work (Goodyear 2013). What is
surprising is that so many organisations appear to be unprepared because such a
challenging situation was predicted several decades ago. For example, McConkey
(1988) suggested that the future would become increasingly more difficult. He
expected:
a dramatic increase in the environment’s complexity;
an increasing number of variables;
an increase in the number of both domestic and world events affecting
organisations; and
a decreasing time span for planning with any certainty.

By and large, despite such warnings, managers have not adjusted successfully to the
modern environment. Indeed, as Davidson, Simon, Woods and Griffin (2009) comment,
with the failure of several corporations, the confusion and demoralisation within
management ranks has become widespread as faith in corporate Australia and New
Zealand has deteriorated.
A common theme in these corporate disasters has been the lack of training and
development of staff. The systemic inadequacy of organisational implementation of
human resource development has been highlighted by a litany of disasters in recent
times in both Australia and New Zealand. Prime amongst these was the Homeowners
Insualtion Plan.

A closer look 1.1

The Homeowners Insulation Plan
One of the most widely reported disasters of recent times involved the Australian
Federal Government’s Homeowners Insulation Plan (HIP). The HIP was part of
an initiative of the Australian Government, released on 03 February 2009 as part
of its response to the global financial crisis. The stated aim for the HIP was to
retrofit insulation into the ceilings of some 2.2 million Australian existing houses
in a period of two and a half years. Given this target, the HIP thus aimed to
achieve an approximately fifteen-fold increase in the number of installations per
year. The substantive commencement date of the HIP was 01 July 2009 – that is,
only five months from its inception.
The HIP resulted in some catastrophic consequence, not the least of which were
the deaths of four young men.
A Royal Commission headed by Ian Hanger AM QC produced a report entitled
Report of the Royal Commission into the Home Insulation Program on 29
August 2014. Reading this report is a very sobering experience. The report
concluded that there were seven significant failings in the design and
implementation of the HIP. One of the prime failings was the decision to relax
training and competency requirements, and to substitute ‘supervision’ for
insulation-specific training. The report noted that the key driver in the design of
the program was the inflexible start date of 01 July 2009.
The report is uncompromising in its criticism. It accused the Federal Government
of conceiving, devising, designing and implementing a program that enabled very
large numbers of inexperienced workers to undertake potentially dangerous work.
The report makes the damning judgment that the government should have done
more to protect them. Despite construction leaders such as the Master Builders
having the unanimous view that training (preferably a three-day course costing
$500 for each participant) was needed, the requirement that all installers have
insulation-specific training was removed. In its place, the untrained installers
were to be supervised. However, the nature of supervision required was not
specified in any of the formal documentation from the HIP. Indeed, the HIP
provided no assurance (and none was sought to be imposed) that the supervisors
would in fact supervise as they ought, especially in cases in which the installer
was particularly young or inexperienced.
There are two telling final comments from Chapter 8 (on training and
competencies) of the report. The first is that the decision not to provide installer
training is an important illustration of a preference being given to the rapid rollout
of the HIP over its careful and safe design and implementation. The second is that
this lack also brought with it an almost inevitable risk that young and
inexperienced installers would be exposed to the real risk of injury.
Chapter 12 of the Royal Commission’s report deals with the deaths of the four
young men. The chapter is harrowing reading. That chapter should be a constant
reminder to trainers and HR developers that we must not tolerate unacceptable
compromises on the quality of our HR programs. The programs that we design
and implement must be of the highest professional standard, and we must uphold
that standard to ensure that appalling outcomes, such as occurred with the
Homeowners Insulation Plan, never occur again.
While the Homeowners Insulation Plan received a lot of publicity, there are many
more such sad events reported in newspapers across the country.

On the 24th of April, 2015 the Brisbane Federal Court fined a construction firm
$110,000 after an employee was struck by a falling metal bridge while working
on the Brisbane Airport Link. The company admitted that it did not conduct a risk
assessment of the bridge before installing and using it, nor did they give the
workers any information or training on how to safely use the structure. (Source:
www.9news.com.au/national/2015/04/24/16/13/com-pany-fined-110k-over-
airport-injury.)
A Queensland employer was fined $135,000 over a teenager’s death – the highest
fine recorded against a company in Queensland under the Electrical Safety Act. In
2009, the teenager was electrocuted while installing insulation under the
Australian Federal Government’s Home Insulation Scheme. The investigation
found that the company gave only minimal training to its employees and did not
produce specific procedures for the installation of insulation. The teenager was
one of four people who died during the roll out of the government’s multi‑billion
dollar home insulation program. A spokesperson for Master Electricians
Australia was reported as commenting that the lack of training for installers was
leading to a range of problems, from electrocution to house fires, because of
insulation packed too close to down-lights. (Sources: The Courier-Mail
18/11/09; 7/5/10; 15/9/10; 18-19/9/10; The Weekend Australian 18-19/9/10.)
A Cable Beach resort in Broome, Western Australia, was fined $60,000 over a
workplace accident that left a young worker permanently paralysed when a cherry
picker tipped over. The case exposed a serious lack of training and maintenance
at the resort. (Source: ABC Regional News 9/2/10.)
Inadequate training and procedures led to two police officers suffering serious
injuries during a drug audit in Sydney, New South Wales. The police officers
were exposed to the fumes of rotting drugs during an audit of an evidence locker
in March 2009. (Source: AAP Australian National News wire 4/8/09.)
The coroner called for better training for hunting guides after a tourist died on a
hunting trip in the Albert Burn Valley near Makarora, New Zealand. Moments
after alighting from a helicopter, the American tourist slipped on wet grass and
fell 160 meters over a cliff. The coroner found that the hunting guide’s actions
were flawed, demonstrating a lack of training and experience. (Source: The
Southland Times 1/4/09.)
After a fatal industrial accident in north Canberra, the Transport Workers Union
called for compulsory training for waste collectors. The 57-year-old man was
 crushed to death while using a crane to lift a rubbish hopper onto the back of a
truck. (Source: ABC Premium News 14/1/09.)
The death of a baby at the Mareeba Maternity Unit in Queensland was blamed on
a lack of training, a culture of fear, and a breakdown in procedures by staff.
(Source: The Cairns Post 27/12/07.)
A District Court judge in Sydney, New South Wales, found that the death of a
patient undergoing a dental procedure while under sedation was largely caused
by a deficiency in the training and accreditation of the dentist. (Source: The
Sydney Morning Herald 24/6/08.)

Organisations must take responsibility for developing their staff to the highest level of
competence, or such catastrophic events will continue to occur. Organisations must
recognise that their staff are their most important resource; the knowledge of their staff
is the component most critical for their success. Developing the knowledge of staff is a
complex process that needs high levels of investment in terms of finance, time and
energy. The willingness to make such a high investment, though, will depend on
organisations changing their basic values concerning efficiency and effectiveness.

Management re-engineering
The initial reaction of organisations and managers to the turbulent business environment
of the 1990s has been to re-focus on the most familiar, easily observed and crucial
resource – finance. This focus on finance has generated a number of solutions based on
rational economics – usually discussed under terms like re-engineering, outsmarting,
downsizing, business process re-engineering (BPR), creating flatter structures, and cost
cutting. The goal of these options was the elimination of wastage and time delays that
were rampant within many organisations in the late l980s. Quite rightly, organisations
examined and reassessed core business efforts, staffing levels, and organisational
practices and procedures to ensure that resources were harnessed efficiently.
Organisations had to be ‘lean, mean fighting machines’ to meet and surmount the
challenges of the new millennium.
Unfortunately, the focus on dollar savings often became the sole justification for actions
in many organisations. Simplistic interpretations of management theory led to untold
damage in many organisations. The error was based on the assumption that costs can be
removed. In fact, costs cannot be eliminated; they can only be transferred.
Organisations are made up of a number of subsystems; they are but a subsystem within
the global system. Any costs saved in one part of the system re-surface either in another
internal subsystem or in the external system.
A favourite strategy of re-engineering advocates is to close down a small section (or
several positions) in the central office and to move the work to the strategic business
units (SBUs) or operational sections without transferring extra resources to these units
or sections to carry out the work. This is a cunning artifice; each section or unit has
only to do a small part of the original work. The strategy can be successful provided
that not too much is transferred. Similar strategies can be used to transfer the costs to
the external system – for example to customers (e.g. longer waiting periods; automated
telephone messages directing customers to select a number to be put through to a
desired contact point; fees for a variety of services) and to suppliers (e.g. charging for
display areas).
There are two schemes that are even more insidious. The first is the ‘flatter structures’
option – i.e. to eliminate middle management in favour of teams. The assumption is that
the energy generated by team work will offset the loss of the coordinating role of the
middle managers. Unfortunately, this assumption is true only in situations where the
work is dependent on the group interacting and operating as a single entity – that is, as a
team.
The second scheme involves the re-emergence of ‘management by objectives’ – often
under the new name of ‘strategic management performance’ (SMP). The general
strategy is to give a manager full responsibility for an operational section, increase the
performance objectives, and decrease the resources available to run the unit or section.
This forces the manager of the unit or section to make the necessary re-engineering
decisions without sullying the face of upper management. These performance
management strategies suffer from the same manipulative misuses that killed
management by objectives. Management by objectives was designed originally to
motivate and enrich management jobs. It was based on the assumptions that the manager
would be fully involved in the setting of the objectives and would have significant
power over the resources needed. Only when these two assumptions are applied will
SMP survive. Both the elimination of middle management and SMP, however, suffer
from the same illness – they are simplistic interpretations of management theory and can
be successful only in specific situations.
For example, this cost cutting has had a severe detrimental effect in many of our higher
education institutions. Nankervis (2013) sees the inevitability of cutting corners in such
institutions – huge numbers of students in cramped lecture theatres, minimal or non-
existant tutorials, online learning materials that render lecture attendances superfluous,
and invalid lecturer evaluation processes.
Provided the cost does not rebound, cost transference can turn into cost savings. A cost
saving, therefore, can be defined as a cost that is permanently transferred to another
subsystem. Unfortunately, if a cost does rebound, it will do so with a multiplier effect,
growing to many times the original supposed savings.
Some negative effects of the ‘cost-saving syndrome’ include:
1. Loss of knowledge. Loss of knowledge occurs when staff are retrenched. This is
especially evident when the ‘flatter structures’ option is employed. The retrenched
staff’s knowledge walks out the door with them. While some of their knowledge
can be documented, the problem is the loss of tacit knowledge. As we will see
later, tacit knowledge is the unarticulated information that forms the base for a
large variety of critical decisions.

2. Ignoring traditional but critical processes and standards. Re-engineering

favours the new. Unfortunately, the old is often discarded without due thought.
Some processes and standards have an essential, timeless quality. No matter what
the changes, these critical processes and standards remain true. Machinery, for
example, wears out in direct relationship to usage time. Many ‘renewed’
organisations, however, ignore maintenance schedules to save costs. The fact that
an event may have a low probability of occurring is immaterial if the cost of that
event is extremely high. Some former government-run electricity generating and
distribution organisations in Australia and New Zealand, now ‘corporatised’, are
facing multi-million dollar layouts because they ignored this fact of risk
management. They have proved that a rebounding cost can have a huge multiplier
effect.
3. Forgetting that loyalty is a two-way street. The re-engineering fad concentrates
almost solely on the money resource. However, another highly valuable resource
is the loyalty of staff, customers and suppliers. Staff are usually very forgiving, but
only up to a point. Once the pain threshold is overstepped, motivation drops very
quickly and individual staff output decreases significantly. To make matters worse,
redressing the situation takes anything from four to ten times the investment of the
original ‘saving’. Loss of loyalty is commonly seen with the transfer-of-tasks and
flatter-structures options.
4. The ‘everything is saved’ mentality. This occurs particularly with the strategy of
outsourcing. For example, when a function (such as catering in a hospital) is
outsourced to an outside organisation, the justification is that the new service
organisation which specialises in the function (catering) can produce the product
or service much more efficiently. This is sometimes true. However, it must be
remembered that it is in the outside organisation’s best interest to provide service
at the lowest possible cost to maximise their own profits.

Outsourcing organisations often err in three areas. First, if they do

not use some of the money saved to institute an auditing process of
the incoming produce or service, they risk increasing the
possibility of substandard or inappropriate incoming resources.
The outside service organisation, often driven by a ‘cost saving’
 mentality, will want to produce as close to the minimum standard
as possible. A basic tenet of management, however, is that
responsibility can never be delegated. The host organisation,
therefore, is still responsible for the quality of incoming resources.
Managers of organisations which outsource functions must accept
that not all the cost reduction is money saved. Some investment
must be made in an auditing system. Even with an auditing system,
the contractor often seeks only to meet the minimum standards of
the contract, invariably leading to a drop in standards.
Second, by retrenching or re-deploying the staff of the original
function outsourced, knowledge is lost. Unfortunately, it is this very
knowledge that is needed to make the proposed auditing system
operational and viable. Worse, as no staff are dedicated to the lost
function, changes and new knowledge in that function are not
imported by the host organisation.
Third, the function no longer has a champion in the organisation.
This means that the attention of the organisation is not drawn to the
importance of the outsourced function. Because of the political
nature of decision-making, absolutely minimal resources are
invested in the outsourced function.
These three losses – loss of current knowledge, no importation of
new knowledge, and the lack of a champion – means that the
decision-making in the organisation often ignores the impact of the
lost function on the other systems in the organisation. Even when
the lost function is considered in the decision-making, the decision
is usually founded on a sadly inadequate knowledge base.
5. The anorexic syndrome. Cost cutting, taken to the extreme, leaves no fat in the
system – and all living organisms need some fat. In complexity theory, this fat is
called ‘redundancy’ or ‘exploratory energy’. The system makes two uses of this
exploratory resource. Most obviously, the excess energy can be used in times of
deficiency or stress – when new but temporary demands are placed on the
organisation (for example, new government legislation requires additional
reporting), or when resources are depleted for a short period (for example, when
influenza sweeps the human resource).

The second use of the exploratory energy is more subtle, yet much
more crucial. The additional resources allow the organisation to
search the future for opportunities or threats, and to experiment
with possible solutions. As we see later in the book, this is the
 important role of the shadow system. The closer to uncertainty the
organisation operates, the more reliant on the shadow system (and
hence on the exploratory resources) the organisation is for its
strategic planning.
6. Focus on money. Excess emphasis on cost reduction sends an unremitting message
– save money at all costs. All staff should be efficiency conscious, but when
attention to this theme becomes extreme, the entire focus of the staff shifts from the
core business to cost reduction. Such a shift is as disastrous as it is insidious.
Long-term solutions based on the future needs of the core business are sacrificed
for the short-term benefits of cost saving. Staff interest, motivation and curiosity
are no longer being stimulated by the core business. Staff satisfaction wanes as a
focus on the satisfaction of a job well done comes a poor second to cold dollars.

In times of external environment complexity and rapid change, this first reaction of
focusing on saving costs is natural – especially in light of the recent global financial
crisis. If conducted in a reasoned, systemic and strategic manner, it is a vital first step.
However, the cost saving strategy is good only for trimming excess fat. To survive in an
environment that is convoluted and changes rapidly, a much more complex, creative and
impulsive resource must be brought to bear – the human resource.
The issue of not developing the people of the organisation was highlighted succinctly
by a recent report from Drake International (2010), who found that 72 percent of
organisations expect to face a skills shortage this year at the same time as staff turnover
accelerates. As McNally (2003) comments, rather than the usual management processes
of branding, economies of scale or even capital, talented people at all levels will
ultimately become the key strength of an organisation. While clamouring for clarity
beyond daily stock reports, headcount reductions and restructuring, executives and
managers should not lose sight of the key essential to surviving and thriving: talented,
skilled, knowledgeable and agile people (Tarrant 2009). The best organisations
continue to pay attention to talent management and employee engagement, even when
they are required to downsize (Schweyer 2009).
There are, however, indications that some management representatives are becoming
aware of the importance of people and of the value of the asset called knowledge. The
Chief Executive of the National Australia Bank, John Stewart, has emphatically
commented that the employee is paramount, and he believes that the sequence of events
that make things happen is happy staff, happy customers and then happy shareholders
(Charles 2004). Sexton (2003) reports that the Dow Jones Sustainability Index and the
Human Capital Index are showing that companies with sophisticated human capital
practices are outperforming other companies by a factor of nearly three. Both Sexton
(2003), Stone (2008) and Tarrant (2009) cite research which shows that a firm’s human
resource development investment was the single most important statistical predictor of
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 INDEX.

Ablution of a child, 1120.

of an infant, 1016.
of a youth, 1318.
thorough of boy and girl, 1318.
Accidents of children, 1297.
Acne, symptoms and treatment of, 1390.
Advice to a mother if her infant be poorly, 1148.
to Mr. Paterfamilias, 1087.
Ailments, the distinction between serious and slight, 1087.
of infants, 1085.
Air and exercise for youth, 1337.
the importance of good, 1152.
the necessity of fresh and changing the, 1151.
American ladies, 1398.
Amusements for a child, 1177.
for a girl, 1344.
for a boy, 1341.
Ankles, weak, 1116.
Antipathies of a child, 1149.
Aperients for a child, 1255.
for an infant, 1091.
for a new-born babe, 1086.
for a youth, 1385.
danger of frequent, 1385.
Appeal to mothers, 1389.
Appetite, on a child losing his, 1146.
Applications, hot, 1295.
Apron, washing, 1022.
Archery, 1344.
Arnold, Doctor, on corporal punishment, 1349.
Arrow-root for an infant, 1040.
Artificial food for an infant at breast, 1036.
Asses’ milk, 1046.

Babes should kick on floor, 1076.

Baby-slaughter, 1045.
Baked crumb of bread for an infant, 1037.
flour for an infant, 1038.
Bakers’ and home-made bread, 1148.
Bathing after full meal, 1324.
Baths, cold, tepid, and warm, 1325.
Baths, warm, as a remedy for flatulence, 1099.
Beard best respirator, 1380.
Bed, on placing child in, 1189.
Beds, feather, 1188.
purification of, 1238.
Bed-rooms, the ventilation of, 1359.
cool, 1190.
a plan to ventilate, 1359.
Bee, the sting of, 1312.
Beef, salted or boiled, 1141.
Belladonna, poisoning by, 1314.
Belly-band, when to discontinue, 1028.
Beverage for a child, 1143.
“Black eye,” remedies for, 1298.
Bladder and bowels of an infant, 1084.
Bleeding from navel, how to restrain, 1024.
 of nose, 1381.
Blood, spitting of, 1374.
Blows and bruises, 1298.
Boarding-schools for females, 1351.
on cheap (note), 1352.
Boiled bread for infants, 1036.
flour for infants’ food, 1037.
Boils, the treatment of, 1252.
Boots and shoes, 1127, 1394.
Bottles, the best nursing, 1041.
Boulogne sore-throat, 1217.
Bow legs, 1277.
Bowels, large, of children, 1255.
looseness of, 1100.
protrusion of lower, 1258.
Boys should be made strong, 1343.
Brain, water on the, 1199.
Bran to soften water, 1280.
Bran poultices, 1296.
Breakfast of a child, 1135.
of a youth, 1332.
Breast, on early putting an infant to, 1032.
Breathing exercise, 1344.
Brimstone and treacle, 1261.
Brown and Polson’s Corn Flour, 1039.
Bronchitis, the treatment of, 1213.
Broth for infants, 1116.
for a new-born infant, 1041.
and soup, 1335.
Brothers and sisters, 1351.
Bruises, remedies for, 1298.
Burns and scalds, 1303.
Burning of women, 1152.
Bullying a child, 1166.
Butter, wholesome, 1135.

Calomel, the danger of a mother prescribing, 1095.

the ill effects of, 1385.
Camphor makes teeth brittle, 1365.
Caning a boy, 1347.
Caps, flannel, 1028.
Carpets in nurseries, 1171.
Carriage exercise, 1341.
Carron oil in burns, 1305.
Castor oil “to heal the bowels,” 1096.
Cat, bites and scratches of a, 1311.
“Chafings” of infants, the treatment of, 1088.
Chairs, straight-backed, 1354.
Change of air, 1263.
linen in sickness, 1267.
Chapped hands, legs, etc., 1280.
lips, 1281.
Chest, keeping warm the upper part of the, 1328.
“Chicken-breasted” and narrow-breasted children, 1274.
Chicken-pox, 1239.
Chilblains, 1279.
Child should dine with parents, 1150.
“Child-crowing,” 1206.
the treatment of a paroxysm, 1207.
Children’s hour, 1162.
parties, 1182.
Chimneys, on the stopping of, 1171, 1266.
Chiropodists (note), 1394.
Chlorosis or green sickness, 1396, 1397.
rare in rural districts, 1399.
“Choking,” what to be done in a case of, 1308.
Cisterns, best kind of, 1143.
Clothes, on airing an infant’s, 1030.
the ill effects of tight, 1124.
Clothing of children, 1123.
of infants, 1028.
during winter, 1031.
of youths, 1327.
Coffee as an aperient, 1285, 1333.
and tea, 1332.
Coin, on the swallowing of a, 1317.
Cold bedroom healthy, 1191.
a feverish, 1296.
on child always catching, 1264.
feet, method to warm, 1161.
Concluding remarks on infancy, 1119.
Constipation, prevention and cure of, 1385.
Consumption attacks the upper part of the lungs, 1329.
the age at which it usually appears, 1374.
causes of, 1377.
death-rate, 1373.
importance of early consulting a medical man in, 1372.
spitting of blood in, 1372.
symptoms of, 1374.
Consumptive patient, the treatment of a, 1377.
Convulsions of children, 1066, 1089.
from hooping-cough, 1090.
Cooked fruit for child, 1134.
Coroners’ inquests on infants, 1082.
Corporal punishment at schools, 1347.
Corns, 1392, 1394.
Costiveness of infants, the means to prevent, 1096.
remedies for, 1091.
Costiveness, the reason why so prevalent, 1388.
Cough, the danger of stopping a, 1074.
Cow, the importance of having the milk from ONE, 1042, 1046.
Cream and egg, 1135.
and water for babe, 1135.
Crinoline and burning of ladies, 1152.
Croquet for girls, 1344.
Crossness in a sick child, 1268.
Croup, 1200.
the treatment of, 1202.
Cry of infant, 1115.
Cure, artificial and natural, 1277.
“Curious phenomenon” in scarlet fever, 1228.
Cut finger, the application for, 1297.

Dancing and skipping, 1344.

Danger of constantly giving physic, 1119.
Delicate child, plan to strengthen a, 1262.
Dentition, 1062.
 lancing of gums, 1064.
second, 1094.
symptoms and treatment of painful, 1071.
Diarrhœa of infants, 1100.
treatment of, 1103.
Diet of a child who has cut his teeth, 1135.
of children, 1132.
of a dry-nursed child, 1046.
of infants, 1032.
on a mother being particular in attending to, 1142.
of youth, 1332.
Dietary, an infant’s, 1036.
Dinner for a child, 1133.
youth, 1333.
Diphtheria, symptoms, causes, and treatment of, 1217–223.
Dirty child, a, 1085.
Diseased nature and strange eruptions, 1291.
Diseases of children, 1195.
girls, 1396.
infants, 1085.
obscure, 1283.
the prevention of, 1366.
produced by tight lacing, 1330.
symptoms of serious, 1088.
Doctor, on early calling in, 1293.
Dog, the bite of a, 1309.
Doleful child, 1157.
Drainage, 1153, 1238.
Dress, female, 1331.
of a child while asleep, 1080.
Drinking fountains, 1043.
Dropping child, danger of, 1299.
Dry-nursed children, the best food for, 1046.
“Dusting-powder” for infants, 1020.
Dysentery, symptoms, and treatment of, 1104–108.

Ear, discharges from, 1254.

removal of a pea or bead from, 1316.
Earache, treatment of, 1253.
Earwig in ear, 1316.
Early rising, 1192, 1362.
Education of children, 1084.
Education in infant schools, 1083.
home, the best for girls, 1351.
modern, 1351.
for youth, 1347.
Eggs for children, 1042.
Enema apparatus (note), 1262.
Engravings in nurseries, 1055.
Eruptions about the mouth, 1289.
Excoriations, applications for, 1021.
best remedy for, 1021.
Exercise, 1075, 1172, 1337.
best composing medicine, 1092.
for children, 1072.
in wet weather, 1175.
on violently tossing infants, 1077.
horse and pony, 1339.
an infant himself taking, 1076.
in wet weather, 1075.
for youth, 1338.

Fecal matter in pump-water, 1238.

Fainting, 1383.
from constipation, 1384.
from debility, 1384.
from disordered stomach, 1384.
Falling off of hair, 1327.
Falls on the head, 1299.
Fashion, dangerous effects of strictly attending to, 1331.
the present, of dressing children, 1131.
Fashionable desiderata for complexion, 1397.
Favoritism, 1067.
Feeding infants, proper times for, at breast, 1043.
Feet, smelling, 1395.
sweating, 1395.
tender, 1395.
Female dress, 1331.
Fire, on a child playing with, 1302.
danger of back to, 1153.
in night nursery, 1190.
the manner of extinguishing, if clothes be on, 1302.
guards, 1152, 1302.
Fire-proof, making dresses, 1303.
Flannel night-gowns, 1126.
shirts for a delicate child, 1126.
waistcoats, 1328.
Flatulence, remedies for, 1097, 1294.
Fleas, to drive away, 1272.
Flute, bugle, and other wind instruments, 1344.
Fly-pole, 1345.
Fog, on sending child out in, 1175.
Folly of giving physic after vaccination, 1061.
Food, artificial, during suckling, 1043.
 care in preparing infants’, 1041.
for dry-nursed infants, 1036, 1046.
for infants who are sucking, 1036.
Frightening a child, 1159.
Fruit, as an aperient, 1258.

Garters impede circulation, 1128.

Gin or peppermint in infants’ food, 1055.
Giving joy to a child, 1162.
Glass, a child swallowing broken, 1316.
Gluttony, 1337.
Glycerin soap, 1281.
Goat’s milk, 1046.
Godfrey’s Cordial, 1098.
poisoning by, treatment, 1313.
Grazed skin, 1312.
Green dresses poisonous, 1155, 1332.
paper-hangings for nurseries, 1155.
“Gripings” of infants, 1098.
“Gross superstition,” 1230.
Gums, the lancing of the, 1064.
Gum-boil, cause and treatment, 1391.
Gum-sticks, the best, 1067.
Gymnasium, value of, 1343.

Hair, the best application for the, 1326.

falling off, 1327.
making tidy, 1327.
Half-washed and half-starved child, 1177.
Hand-swing, 1345.
Happiness to a child, 1162.
Happy child, 1163.
Hard’s Farinaceous Food, 1038.
Hardening of children’s constitutions, 1126.
of infants, 1078.
Hats for a child, the best kind, 1124.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, on American ladies, 1398.
Head, fall upon, 1299.
Heat, external application of, 1295.
Hiccoughs of infants, 1100.
Hints conducive to the well-doing of a child, 1157.
Home of childhood—the nursery, 1157.
Hooping-cough, 1243.
obstinate, 1248.
treatment of, 1245.
Horse exercise for boys or girls, 1339.
and pony exercise, 1339.
Hot-water bag or bottle, 1295.
Household work for girls, 1355.
Hydrophobia, 1309.
Hysterics, 1400, 1402.

India-rubber hot-water bottle, 1295.

Infants should be encouraged to use exertion, 1076.
Infant schools, 1183.
Ipecacuanha wine, preservation of, 1205.
Ladies “affecting the saddle,” 1344.
Laudanum, poisoning by, 1313.
Law, physic, and divinity, 1356.
Leaden cisterns, 1143.
Learning without health, 1275.
Leech-bites, the way to restrain bleeding from, 1117.
Lessons for child, 1180.
Lice in head after illness, 1271.
Light, best artificial, for nursery, 1156.
the importance of, to health, 1156.
Lime in the eye, 1307.
to harden the bones, 1288.
Lime-water and milk, 1140.
“Looseness of the bowels,” the treatment of, 1101.
Love of children, 1164.
Lucifer matches, the poisonous effects of, 1156, 1301.
Luncheon for a child, 1140.
Lungs, inflammation of, 1126, 1209.
precautions to prevent, 1273.
symptoms of, 1209.
treatment of, 1209.
Lying lips of a child, 1167.

Mad dog, the bite of, 1309.

description of, 1310.
Magnesia to cool a child, 1096.
Massacre of innocents, 1045.
Mattresses, horse-hair, best for child, 1188.
Meals, a child’s, 1144.
Measles, 1223.
and scarlet fever, 1227.
treatment of, 1224.
Meat, daily, on giving, 1333.
raw, in long-standing diarrhœa, 1262.
in exhaustive diseases, 1262.
when a child should commence taking, 1132.
Meddlesome treatment, 1291.
Medical man, a mother’s treatment toward, 1291.
Medicine, the best way of administering, 1264.
on giving new-born infants, 1085.
on making palatable (note), 1265.
Menstruating female during suckling, 1048.
Mercury, on the danger of parents giving, 1094, 1385.
Milk, on the importance of having it from ONE cow, 1036, 1046.
bad, very nasty, 1138.
for babe indispensable, 1048.
or meat, or both, 1139.
a plan to make a child take, 1139.
the value of, for children, 1136.
a way to prevent, turning sour, 1140.
crust, 1289.
Mismanaged baby, 1014.
Modified small-pox and chicken-pox, 1242.
Mother, fretting, injurious to infant, 1053.
a foolish, 1083.
of many diseases, 1377.
Mother’s and cow’s milk, on mixing, 1036.
Motions, healthy, of babe, 1100.
Mumps, 1251.

Napkins, when to dispense with, 1084.

Nature’s physic, 1118.
Navel, management of the, 1024.
rupture of, 1025.
Nervous and unhappy young ladies, 1395.
Nettle-rash, 1108.
New-born infants and aperients, 1085.
Night-terrors, 1159.
Nose, removal of foreign substances from, 1315.
bleeding from, means to restrain, 1381.
Nurse, on the choice of a, 1158.
a lazy, 1161.
strong and active, 1158.
young, not desirable, 1158.
for the sick, 1269.
Nursery-basin, 1017.
Nursery a child’s own domain, 1157, 1179.
selection, warming, ventilation, arrangements of, 1150.
Nursery of a sick child, 1266.
on the light of a, 1156.
must be airy, 1151.
observations, further, 1151.
windows to be often opened, 1156.

Opium, a case of poisoning by, 1074.

the danger of administering, to infants, 1098.
the treatment of poisoning by, 1313.
Over-education, 1184.

Paint-boxes dangerous as toys, 1180.

Peevishness of a child, the plan to allay, 1164.
Perambulators, 1173.
Physicking a child, on the frequent, 1118.
Pies and puddings, 1133.
Pimples of the face, treatment of, 1390.
Pin, on a child’s swallowing, 1317.
Play, a course of education in, 1185.
Play-grounds for children, 1182.
and play, 1182.
Pleasant words to a child, 1166.
Poisoning, accidental, 1313.
by the breath, 1189.
Poppy-syrup, 1098.
Pork, an improper meat for children, 1141.
Position of a sleeping child, 1190.
Potatoes for children, 1142.
Poultice, a white-bread, 1297.
Powder, “dusting,” 1020.
Precocity of intellect, 1366.
Precocious youths, the health of, 1367.
Princess of Wales and her baby (note), 1022.
Professions and trades, 1355.
Proper person to wash an infant, 1022.
Prunes, the best way of stewing, 1258.
Profession or trade, choice of, for delicate youth, 1355.
delicate youths should be brought up to, 1357.
Puddings for children, 1133.

Quack medicines, 1098.

Quacking an infant, 1096.
Quicklime in eye, 1307.

Red-gum, 1109.
Respiration, products of, poisonous, 1359.
Rest, the best time for a child to retire to, 1189.
Revaccination, importance of, 1057.
every seven years, 1057.
Rheumatic fever, flannel vest and drawers, 1328.
Ribs, bulging out of, 1371.
Rice, prepared as an infant’s food, 1039.
Richardson, Dr., ether spray, 1382.
Rickets, 1285.
various degrees of, 1286.
Rocking-chairs, and rockers to cradle, 1079.
Rocking infants to sleep, 1078.
Rooms, ill effects of dark, 1156.
Round shoulders, 1275, 1370.
Round-worm, 1282.
Running scall, 1289.
Rupture, 1026, 1027.
Rusks, 1039.

Sallowness, cause of, in young girls, 1338.

Salt water and fresh water, 1324.
Salt should be added to an infant’s food, 1042.
bag of hot, 1295.
necessary to human life, 1284.
meats for children, 1141.
Salt and water ablutions for a delicate child, 1123.
 for teeth and gums, 1364.
Scalds and burns, 1303.
of mouth, 1304.
Scarlatina, 1226.
Scarlet fever, 1226.
the contagion of, 1237.
the danger of giving aperients in, 1227.
the dropsy of, 1227, 1237.
management of child after, 1236.
and measles, the importance of distinguishing between, 1229.
the principal danger of, 1227.
purification of house after, 1238.
treatment of, 1229.
Schools, female boarding, 1351.
public, 1350.
Screaming in sleep, 1250.
Scrofula, 1367.
prevention of, 1368.
Scurfy head, 1122.
Sea bathing and fresh water bathing, 1324.
for a young child, 1264.
Secrets, talking, before child, 1187.
Senna as an aperient, 1255.
Shivering fit, importance of attending to a, 1249.
treatment of, 1250.
Shoes, plan to waterproof, 1329.
preferable to boots, 1128.
and stockings for children and youths, 1127, 1329.
the ill effects of tight, 1128.
“Shortening” an infant, 1032.
Shoulder-blades “growing out,” 1275.
Sick child, the nursing of a, 1265.
 not to be stuffed with food, 1269.
Sick-room, management of, 1265.
Sickness of infants, 1110.
Singing and reading aloud, 1346.
beneficial to a child, 1187.
Single-stick, 1342.
Sitting with back to fire, 1153.
Sitz-bath, for protrusion of bowels, 1260.
Skating for boys and girls, 1345.
Skin, grazed, 1312.
Sleeping-rooms, importance of well ventilating, 1359.
Sleep of children, 1188.
infants, 1077.
in middle of day beneficial, 1188.
much, necessary for infants, 1080.
temperature of infant’s bedroom during, 1077.
right time of putting a child to, 1189.
rocking infants to, 1077.
Sleep of youth, 1362.
Slippers, the best for sick-room (note), 1269.
Small-pox, 1056.
a pest and disgrace, 1057.
modified, 1240.
when in neighborhood, 1059.
to prevent pitting of, 1279.
Smothering of infants, the cause, 1082.
Socks and stockings for a child, 1127.
Soda, ill effects of washing clothes with, 1021.
Sounds, joyful, 1163.
Soups and broths, 1254.
Speak gently to a child, 1165.
Spencer, a knitted worsted, 1371.
Spines, distorted, 1188, 1371.
injury to, 1299.
curvature of, 1031.
twisted, 1275.
Spirits, deadly effects of, to the young, 1335.
Spitting of blood, 1372, 1374.
precautions, 1377.
Spurious croup, 1206.
Stammering, cause of, 1169.
cure of, 1170.
Stays, the ill effects of, 1330.
Stillness of sick-room, 1269.
Sting of bee or wasp, 1312.
Stir-about and milk, 1136.
Stockings and shoes, 1127, 1329.
Stooping in a girl, 1370.
Stopping of chimneys, 1171, 1266.
Stuffing a sick child with food, 1269.
“Stuffing of the nose,” of infants, 1110.
“Sty,” treatment of, 1255.
Suckling, the proper times of, 1035.
Suet-pudding, 1133.
Sugar for infants, 1042, 1055.
confectionery, 1148.
raw, as an aperient, 1056.
Sunstroke, 1125.
Sunday, 1181.
Supper for a child and for a youth, 1144, 1336.
Surfeit water and saffron tea, 1224.
Sweetmeats and cakes, 1148.
Swimming, on boys and girls, 1322.
Symptoms of serious diseases, 1195.

Tape-worm, 1282.
Taste for things refined, 1156.
Tea, on giving a child, 1147.
green, the ill effects of, 1147, 1336.
Teeth, attention to, importance of, 1364.
child should not have meat until he have cut several, 1132.
the diet of a child who has cut all his, 1132.
and gums, 1364.
right way of brushing, 1365.
appearance and number of first set of, 1063.
appearance and number of second set of, 1194.
second crop of, 1194.
Teething, 1062.
Teething, eruptions from, 1074.
frequent cause of sickness, 1111.
fruitful source of disease, 1070.
purging during, 1073.
restlessness from, 1294.
second, 1194.
symptoms and treatment of painful, 1071.
in town and country, 1073.
Temperature and ventilation of a nursery, 1150.
of a warm bath, 1294.
Thread-worm, 1282.
Throats, sore, precautions to prevent, 1370.
Thrush, cause, symptoms, prevention, and cure of, 1112.