LAB REPORT 2

1
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ANDMANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY:
2021-IM-08
2021-IM-32
2021-IM-36
SUBMITTED TO:
SIR BILAL ARSHAD
DATE OF SUBMISSION:
17-01-22
 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

LAB REPORT 2

SUBMITTED TO:

SIR BILAL ARSHAD

SUBMITTED BY:

REGISTRATION # 2021-IM-08

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

17th January 2022

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 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

LAB REPORT 2

SUBMITTED TO:

SIR BILAL ARSHAD

SUBMITTED BY:

REGISTRATION # 2021-IM-32

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

17th January 2022

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 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

LAB REPORT 2

SUBMITTED TO:

SIR BILAL ARSHAD

SUBMITTED BY:

REGISTRATION # 2021-IM-36

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

17th January 2022

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 EXPERIMENT NO 3

TITLE:

“To determine the reactions on a simply supported beam subjected to multiple loads”

• To learn skills of practically applying law of

moments for solving equilibrium problems.
• To calculate the magnitude of reactions force in a
simply supported beam subjected to multiple loads.

APPARATUS:

 Wooden beam
 Two spring balances
 Meter rod
 Hanger
 Different weights
 Sprit level

APPARATUS DIAGRAM:

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THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:

BEAM: A beam is a structural element that primarily resist loads applied laterally to the
beam’s axis. The load applied to the beam results in reaction forces at the beam’s support points.
It can be defined as “along sturdy piece of timber or metal used to support the roof or floor of a
building”

TYPES OF BEAMS:

The different types of Beams are classified based according to following conditions:

1. Based on support conditions

2. Based on construction material

3. Based on cross section shapes

4. Based on geometry

5. Based on equilibrium condition

6. Based on methods of construction

The Beams based on support conditions:

It includes:

 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM:

It is one of the simplest structural elements that both ends rest on supports but is free to
rotate. It has a pinned support at one end and the other end have a roller support. It
sustains shearing and bending that is based on assigned load.

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 FIXED BEAM:
As cleared through its name, it is supported at both ends and fixed to resist rotation it is
also known as built in beam. As it is unable to rotate being fixed. The fixed ends produce
moments other than the reactions.

 CANTILEVER BEAM:
The beam that is fixed at one end and said to be free at other end is called cantilever
beam. This beam distributes the load back to support where it is forced against a moment
and shear stress. Due to its behavior, it is used in some bridges and balconies.

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 CONTINUES BEAM:
A continues beam has more than two supports distributed along its entire length.

BASED ON CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

It includes:

 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS:

As it is clears through its name that it is constructed from concrete end and
reinforcement. Sometimes it is concealed in reinforced concrete slabs and it is called
hidden beam or concealed beam.

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 STEEL BEAMS:
Steel beams are generally made up of steel due to this it has several uses.

 TIMBER BEAMS:
It is constructed from timber was used in the past. Its use is significantly decreasing now
due to updated and better beams.

 COMPOSITE BEAMS:
Composite beams are constructed from two or more kinds of materials.
For example: steel and concrete.

BASED ON CROSS SECTION SHAPES:

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It includes:

 T SECTION BEAMS:
This type of beam is mostly constructed moralistically with a reinforced
concrete slab. Sometimes isolated T beam is built for increasing the compression
strength of concrete.
Some other beams of this category are C beam and L beam. Each cross-sectional shape
offers superior advantages in a given condition as compared with other shapes.

BASED ON COMBINATION OF TWO BEAMS:

It includes:

 OVERHANGING BEAMS:
It is basically a combination of simply supported and cantilever beam. One or both ends
overhang of a overhanging beam. It contains a roller support in between the two ends.
We can say that this kind of beam has heritage properties of cantilever and simply
supported beam.

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SUPPORT:

A thing that bears all or part of weight of something or keeps it upright.

TYPES OF SUPPORT:

Basically, there are three types of support that includes:

 Roller support
 Pinned support
 Fixed support
 Simple support

1) ROLLER SUPPORT:
It is a support which is free to rotate and is able to translate along the surface or which
they rest. The surfaces which roller support are installed may be horizontal, vertical and
inclined to any angle.

 It has only one reaction

 It is unable to resist lateral loads
 Example of roller support is roller skates

2) PINNED SUPPORT:
It resists the horizontal and vertical loads but unable to resist the moment.

 It has two reactions. It allows the structural member to rotate but doesn’t allow
translating in any direction.
 They are also known as hinge support
 Example of pinned support is doors and windows of our houses

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 3) Fixed Support:
It is a support which has the ability to resist all types of loads. It doesn’t allow rotation
and translational motion to structural members.

 It is also known as rigid support

 The stability provided to structure by fixed support is better than other supports.
 Example of fixed support is flag pole fixed in concrete box.

4) Simple Support:
It is used where structural member needs to rest on external structure. It is not used in
daily life. Moreover, it is similar to that of roller support.

 It only resists vertical forces

 Example of simple support is pan of wood resting on two concrete blocks.

PROCEDURE:

 Set the apparatus as per the defined guidelines

 Then place the beam on the hooks with spring balance on both the ends.
 Check the zero error from the scales.
 Measure the length of beam with measuring scale.
 Adds weights on beam with hangers such that the beam is exactly in horizontal position
by using spirit level.
 Note the distance of weight jaws in Inches (inch) from the support by using meter rod.
 Also Note the value of reaction forces Ra and Rb in pound (lbs.) on the spring balance.
This is experimental value.
 Also calculate the theoretical value of reaction forces by using the following formula

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 FORMULA:
Ra + Rb – W1 – W2 – W3 = 0

Ra = W1 + W2 + W3 - R

∑Ma = 0

Rb L -W3L3 – W2L2 – W1L1 = 0

Rb = (W1L1 + W2 L2 + W3 L3) / L

 At the end calculate the percent error between calculated and theoretical value repeat the
experiment by changing the weights and distance.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Exp Loads(lbs.) Length(in.) Reactions(lbs.) %Error %Error

#

W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 L Experimental Theoretical Ra Rb

Ra Rb Ra Rb

1 0.75 0.75 0.75 4 11 20 24 2 2

2 1.25 0.75 1.25 4 11 20 24 2 6

3 1.25 1.25 1.25 4 11 20 24 2 2

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4 1.75 1.75 1.75 4 11 20 24 2 2

5 1.75 1.25 1.75 4 11 20 24 3 3

SAMPLE CALCULATION:

W1 = 0.75lb L1 = 4(in)
W2 = 0.75lb L2 = 11(in)
W3 = 0.75lb L3 = 20(in)

Ra = W1 + W2 + W3 - R
Ra = 0.75+ 0.75 + 0.75 – 4 = -1.75

Rb = (W1L1 + W2 L2 + W3 L3) / L
Rb = (0.75(4) + 0.75(11) + 0.75(20)) / 24 = 1.09

COMMENTS:

 Apply the loads without any jerk.

 Perform the experiment at a location which is away from any external
disturbance.
 Ensure that the supports are rigid.
 The load applied should be within the allowed limits of the apparatus.
 To reduce the error in support beam is by decreasing the length of beam it can
also be removed by moving one or both supports inward from end of beam.

CONCLUSION:

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It is concluded that the reactions Ra and Rb on beam can be find when multiple loads are applied
on beam. The error in both reactions can be find by formula and it can be reduced by different
methods that are discussed above.

EXPERIMENT NO 4

TITLE:

“To determine the coefficient of friction of a flat belt in contact with cast iron pulley”

 To calculate the value of µ for the flat belt by

changing the angles.
 To determine the tension in spring balance when
loads are applied.

APPARATUS:

 Flat belt apparatus

 Weights
 Hangers
 Spring balance
 Flat belt

APPARATUS DIAGRAM:

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THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:

FRICTION:

It is defined as:

“Force that resists the sliding or rolling of one solid object over another”

FORMULA:

The formula for frictional force is given by

“ F = μn ”

where, f = frictional force

μ = coefficient of friction

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N = normal force

TYPES OF FRICTION:

There are basically four types of friction:

 Static Friction.
 Sliding Friction.
 Rolling Friction.
 Fluid Friction.
1. STATIC FRICTION:
Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not
moving relative to each other.

2. SLIDING FRICTION:
Sliding friction refers to the force that resists the movement of two surfaces
that slide against one another.

3. ROLLING FRICTION:

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 Rolling friction occurs when a wheel, ball, or cylinder rolls freely over a surface,as
in ball and roller bearings.

4. FLUID FRICTION:
Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are
moving relative to each other.

BELTS:

A belt is a loop of flexible

material used to link two or
more rotating shafts
mechanically,

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most often parallel. Belts may
be used as a source of motion,
to transmit power efficiently
or
to track relative movement.
Belts are looped over pulleys
and may have a twist between
the
pulleys, and the shafts need not
be parallel.
A belt is a loop of flexible
material used to link two or
more rotating shafts
mechanically,

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most often parallel. Belts may
be used as a source of motion,
to transmit power efficiently
or
to track relative movement.
Belts are looped over pulleys
and may have a twist between
the
pulleys, and the shafts need not
be parallel.
A belt is a loop of flexible
material used to link two or
more rotating shafts
mechanically,

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most often parallel. Belts may
be used as a source of motion,
to transmit power efficiently
or
to track relative movement.
Belts are looped over pulleys
and may have a twist between
the
pulleys, and the shafts need not
be parallel.
A belt is a loop of flexible
material used to link two or
more rotating shafts
mechanically,

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most often parallel. Belts may
be used as a source of motion,
to transmit power efficiently
or
to track relative movement.
Belts are looped over pulleys
and may have a twist between
the
pulleys, and the shafts need not
be parallel.
“A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts
mechanically, most often in parallel”

 They are most often used as a source of motion, to transmit power

efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may
have a twist between the pulleys.

TYPES OF BELTS:

There are two types of belts: V-Belts & Flat belts.

V-BELTS:

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A V-belt is a rubber belt used for driving mechanisms in an engine such as the fans or
water pump.
It must be the right size, extending slightly out of the pulley groove.

Fig. A mechanical V-belt

FLAT BELTS:

These belts are designed for light duty power transmission and high performance.

They are best suited for applications with smaller pulleys and large central distances. They
have high power transmission efficiency and are cost effective.

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 Fig. A mechanical flat belt

ADVANTAGES:

The advantages of flat belts are listed as:

 They are very flexible.

 They result in negligible energy loss
 Include energy savings, long service life of belt pulleys, high productivity
 Flat belts can be installed simply and securely.

DISADVANTAGES:

The disadvantages are listed as:

 They require high belt tension to produce frictional grip over pulleys

 Large power transmission is not possible.

 To maintain the correct velocity ratio is difficult.
 This belt drive is not suitable for short-distance and occupies large space

APPLICATIONS:

It has following applications:

 Countless farming
 Mining
 Separators
 Grinders
 Roller conveyers

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BELT DRIVES:

These are classified into three groups:

 LIGHT DRIVES:

Used to transmit small powers up to 10ms-1

 MEDIUM DRIVES:

Used to transmit medium powers from 10ms-1 to 22ms-1

 HEAVY DRIVES:

Used to transmit large powers at belt speed above 22ms-1

PROCEDURE:

 Before starting the experiment note the reading of spring balance without attaching
weight.
 If there is an error in spring balance then this is called as zero error.
 Place weight on hanger at 30-degree angle. The thing to be noted that T1 will be 0.75lb
due to weight of hanger which is 0.25lb. now rotate the shaft for one complete rotation
and note the value of spring balance.
 Now shift the shaft to an angle of 60-degree and add some weight on hanger. After one
complete rotation note the reading od spring balance.
 Similarly move the shaft to 90-degree and add some weight on hanger again. Complete
one rotation of shaft and note the reading of spring balance.
 After getting suitable data from experiment, we can find coefficient of friction.

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FORMULA:

µ = {ln T1 / T2} /α

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

Weight of hanger is 0.25lb

No Of Angle of T1 = W1 + W2 Tension in ln(T1/T2) µ = {ln T1 /

Observation Contact α in spring balance T2} /α
Radian (Weight of T2 (lb)
hanger W)

1. π 0.75 0.7 0.068 0.129

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1.25 1.1 0.128 0.384
1.75 1.7 0.028 0.628
2. π 0.75 0.5 0.405 0.277
3
1.25 1.0 0.223 0.386
1.75 1.3 0.291 0.212

3. π 0.75 0.4 0.628 0.399

2
1.25 0.8 0.444 0.282
1.75 1.1 0.464 0.295

SAMPLE CALCULATION:

π
α = 6 rad

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T1 = 0.75lb

T2 = 0.7lb

ln(T1/T2) = ln (0.75/0.7) = 0.068

π
µ = {ln T1 / T2} /α = ln (0.75 / 0.7) /
6
= 0.129

COMMENTS:

 Observe zero error of spring balance if the zero error is positive then it will be subtracted
from the measured readings and vice versa.
 Do not touch the apparatus while taking readings.
 Rotate the shaft for one rotation or even more because it reduces stress in the belt so in
this way, we can get better result.
 T1 is not only the weight added on hanger but also hanger weight is included in
calculating T1.
 While calculating coefficient of friction angle must be in radians.

CONCLUSION:

It is concluded from the experiment that the coefficient of friction of a flat belt in contact
with cast iron pulley can be determined by fixing the shaft to different angles and tension in
spring balance is noted when loads are applied. The coefficient of friction can be calculated from
the above formula.

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