Module 4- Important Topics

• Advantages of forging
• Types of Forging (open, closed/impression)
• Forging operations (heading, coining, skew rolling)
• Defects in forging
• Forging Die Design
• Forging Slab Analysis
• Forging Numerical Problems
• Types of extrusion (direct, indirect, hydrostatic, impact)
• Extrusion defects
• Wire drawing
• Tube drawing
• Deep drawing
• Swaging

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 Forging
• Forging is a metal working process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive
forces applied through various dies and tooling
• Pressure is applied intermittently
• Forging operations produce discrete parts
• Forged parts have good strength and toughness, and are very reliable for highly
stressed and critical applications
• Application- Crankshaft of an automobile is manufactured by forging. They are
subjected to very high dynamic loads during engine use and also should have very
high fatigue strength and wear resistance to ensure long service life.

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 Advantages of forging

• Parts manufactured by forging are stronger

• It is more reliable and less costly
• It offers better response to heat treatment
• It offers more consistent and better metallurgical properties
• It offers broad size range of products
• It requires fewer secondary operations
• It has great design flexibility

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Classification(Methods) of forging
• Open die forging
• Impression/closed die forging

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 Open die forging

 Also known as hammer forging, flat die forging

 Workpiece is struck/pressed between two flat surfaces
 Force is applied by a hammer or using a falling weight or ram

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 Impression/closed die forging

 Cavities or impressions are cut in the die block in which metal is forced to take its
final shape and dimensions

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 Precision forging
• In order to reduce the number of additional finishing operations required-hence
the cost-the trend has been toward greater precision in forged products (net-
shape forming).
• It is also known as flashless forging
• Typical Precision-forged products are gears, connecting rods, and turbine blades.
• Precision forging requires special and more complex dies, precise control of the
blank’s volume and shape, accurate positioning of the blank in the die cavity and
higher capacity equipment.
• Aluminum and magnesium alloys are particularly suitable for precision forging
because of the relatively low forging loads and temperatures that they require

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 Precision forging

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Forging Operations

Heading
Coining
Piercing
Skew rolling

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 Heading/upset forging
 Operation usually performed on the end of a round rod or wire in order to increase
the cross section.
 Typical products are nails, bolt heads, screws, rivets, and various other fasteners
 Heading can be carried out cold, warm, or hot
 Important consideration in heading is the tendency for the bar to buckle if its
unsupported length-to-diameter ratio is too high.
 This ratio usually is limited to less than 3:1, but with appropriate dies, it can be higher.

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 Coining
 This is essentially a closed-die forging process that is typically used in the minting of coins,
medallions, and jewellery.
 The blank or slug is coined in a completely closed die cavity.
 In order to produce fine details (for example, the detail on newly minted coins), the pressures
required can be as high as five or six times the strength of the material.
 Lubricants cannot be applied in coining, because they can become entrapped in the die cavities and
(being incompressible) prevent the full reproduction of die surface details and surface finish.

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 Piercing
• This is a process of indenting (but not breaking through)
the surface of a workpiece with a punch in order to
produce a cavity or an impression
• A common example of piercing is the indentation of the
hexagonal cavity in bolt heads
• The piercing force depends on the cross-sectional area and
the tip geometry of the punch, the strength of the material,
and the magnitude of friction at the sliding interfaces

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Skew rolling

• The material is forged by each of the grooves in the rolls and emerges from the
end as a metal ball

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Die design features

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 Die design features
• For most forgings, the parting line is located at the largest cross section of the
part. For simple symmetrical shapes, the parting line is normally a straight line at
the center of the forging, but for more complex shapes, the line may not lie in a
single plane.
• The dies are designed in such a way that they lock during engagement, in order to
avoid side thrust, balance forces, and maintain die alignment during forging.
• After sufficiently constraining lateral flow to ensure proper die filling, the flash
material is allowed to flow into a gutter, so that the extra flash does not increase
the forging load excessively.
• Flash thickness is 3% of the maximum thickness of the forging.
• The length of the land is usually two to five times the flash thickness.

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 Die design features
• Draft angles are necessary in almost all forging dies in order to facilitate removal of the part from
the die.
• Upon cooling, the forging shrinks both radially and longitudinally, so internal draft angles (about
7° to 1O°) are made larger than external ones (about 3° to 5°).

• Small fillet radii generally are undesirable because of their adverse effect on metal flow and their
tendency to wear rapidly (as a result of stress concentration and thermal cycling).
• Small fillet radii also can cause fatigue cracking of the dies.
• As a general rule, these radii should be as large as can be permitted by the design of the forging.

• Machining allowance should be provided at flanges, at holes, and at mating surfaces

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Forging Defects
• Defects may arise due to: forging process, poor quality of stock, improper
heating, incorrect die design, uneven cooling of stock, etc.,
• Mismatch
• Scale pits
• Cold shuts or laps
• Unfilled section
• Burnt and over heated metal
• Cracks
• Internal cracks

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• Mismatch
• Due to misalignment between top and bottom forging dies
• Scale pits
• Shallow depressions caused by not removing scales from the dies
• Scale pits are seen as irregular deputations on the surface of the forging that is caused primarily due to
improper cleaning of the stock used for forging
• Cold shuts or laps
• Short cracks occuring at corners and right angles to the surface
• Caused by metal surface folding against itself during forging
• Unfilled section
• Metal does not fill the die cavity
• Due to insufficient metal or insufficient heating of metal
• Burnt and over heated metal
• Due to improper heating conditions and soaking the metal too long time
• Cracks
• Due to bad quality of ingot, improper heating and forging at low temperatures
• Internal cracks
• Due to too fast rate of forging
• Dirt, Slag and sand may be present on surface due to their presence in the ingot

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• a) laps formed by web buckling
• b) internal defectManufacturing
by oversized billet
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Slab analysis of plain strain forging of a rectangular billet

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 Extrusion
• Process of forcing a metal/billet inside a chamber through a small opening
called die under high pressure
• Materials that can be extrudes are aluminum, copper, steel, magnesium,
and plastics.

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Extrusion Methods
• Direct (Forward) Extrussion
• Indirect (Backward) Extrussion
• Hydrostatic Extrussion
• Impact Extrussion

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Direct (Forward) Extrussion
• Flow of metal through the die is in
the same direction as the
movement of ram
• High extrussion forces required but
mechanically simple

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Indirect (Backward) Extrussion
• The metal flows in the opposite
direction to the movement of ram
• Less extruding force required as
compared to direct extrusion. But
hollow ram required limited
application

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 Hydrostatic Extrussion
• Billet is surrounded by a
working fluid which is
pressurized by ram to provide
the extrussion process.
• Brittle materials can be
extruded successfully by this
method, because the
hydrostatic pressure (along with
low friction and the use of small
die angles and high extrusion
ratios) increases the ductility of
the material

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 Impact Extrussion
• Here cold billet is used and
the process is carried out at a
higher velocity
• The punch descends rapidly
on the blank (slug), which is
extruded backwards
• Collapsible medical tubes
and Toothpaste tubes are
made in this way

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Types of Extrussion

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 Hot Extrusion Cold Extrusion

Heated billet is used (carried out at Unheated billet is used

elevated temperatures)

For metals or alloys that do not have Ductile metals only can be extruded
sufficient ductility at room temperature
Less surface finish Good surface finish

Low production rate Higher production rate

More scrap Less scrap

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Extrusion Defects
• Surface Cracking
• Piping
• Internal Cracks

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 Surface Cracking
If extrussion temperature, friction or speed is too high, it
may cause surface cracking and tearing.
These cracks are inter-granular (along grain boundaries)
Can also occur at low temperature due to sticking of
extruded product along die land. Such defects are known
as Bamboo defect
Prevention: lowering the billet temperature and extrusion
speed

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 Piping
Pipe defect occurs when the metal flow pattern draws
surface oxides and impurities towards the centre of the
billet, like a funnel
Caused due to high friction or cooling of outer
regions of the billet
One-third of the length of the extruded product may
contain this type of defect and has to be cut off as scrap
It can be prevented by controlling friction, minimizing
temperature gradients

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 Internal Cracking (Centre Burst)
• The centre of extruded product can develop cracks
• It is due to excessive tensile stress at the centre possibly
because of high die angle, low extrusion ratio
• Its also known as Centre burst

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 DRAWING
• In this process the cross section of a
round rod or wire is typically
reduced or changed by pulling it
through a die

• Die angle has great influence on the

drawing force and the quality of the
drawn product

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Wire Drawing

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 Tube drawing
• Tube drawing is also similar to wire drawing, except that a mandrel of
appropriate diameter is required to form the internal hole.
• The process reduces the diameter and thickness of the tube.

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Tube drawing

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Tube Drawing

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Deep Drawing

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 Deep Drawing
• In the basic deep-drawing process, a round sheet-metal blank is placed
over a circular die opening and is held in place with a blank holder, or
bold-down ring
• The punch travels downward and forces the blank into the die cavity,
forming a cup
• The important variables in deep drawing are:
• properties of the sheet metal,
• ratio of blank diameter, Do;
• punch diameter, Dp;
• clearance, c, between punch and die;
• punch corner radius, Rp;
• die-corner radius, Rd;
• blank holder force;
• friction and lubrication between all contacting surfaces.
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Deep drawability generally is expressed
by the limiting drawing ratio (LDR) as

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Swaging
• Operation of reducing and finishing work to the desired
shape and size
• Rotary Swaging: Operation of reducing or changing the
cross section area of diameters by revolving the stock
under fast impact blows
• Swaging is a type of rotary forging in which a solid rod or
a tube is reduced in diameter by the reciprocating radial
movement of a set of two or four dies.
• The process is suitable for producing short or long lengths
of bar or tubing with various internal or external profiles.

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