University of Edinburgh

School of Engineering

Civil and Environmental Engineering

Soil Mechanics Databook

J.Y. Ooi, M.S.A. Hardy, G.S. Wood

September 2017
Version 2.3
Contents
1. Common Notation .......................................................................................................1
2. Definitions and Terminology ........................................................................................2
3. Units and Conversions .................................................................................................3
4. Soil Description and Classification ...............................................................................3
5. Permeability and Seepage.............................................................................................7
6. Stresses in an Elastic Half-Space ..................................................................................8
7. Immediate Settlement...................................................................................................12
8. One-Dimensional Compression/Settlement ...................................................................17
9. One-Dimensional Consolidation ...................................................................................17
10. Shear Strength of Soils.................................................................................................19
11. Earth Pressures ............................................................................................................19
12. Bearing Capacity..........................................................................................................20
13. Pile Design...................................................................................................................22
14. Stress and Strain in Soils ..............................................................................................23
15. Critical State Model .....................................................................................................24

16. Pavement Design .........................................................................................................24

17. Slope Stability Analysis ................................................................................................26
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the data contained herein is correct, the
producers cannot be held responsible for the consequences of any errors that appear.
1 Common Notation
A, B Skempton's pore pressure parameters
A air content; cross-sectional area of specimen
a standpipe cross-sectional area; radius of footing
av coefficient of compressibility
B, B0 least dimension of actual and test footing respectively
b width of footing
CBR California bearing ratio
Cc compression index
Cri cone resistance of layer i
Cs swelling index
Cu uniformity coefficient
Cz curvature coefficient
c, c', cu apparent, effective, and undrained cohesion
cv coefficient of consolidation
Dr relative density
D10, D30, D60 partical diameter at which 10, 30 and 60% of the material is retained
d drainage height; vane diameter
E Young's modulus
e, emax, emin void ratio, void ratio in loosest and densest state respectively
G shear modulus
Gs specific gravity of solid
g acceleration due to gravity (≈ 9.80665 ms-2)
Hi height of layer i
h head loss; vane height
hc capillary head
h 0, h1 heights
IC, IL, IQ, IR, IW influence factors
I1, Iz, ID influence factors
i hydraulic gradient
ic , iq slope factors
K bulk modulus
Ka, Kp coefficient of active and passive earth pressures respectively
k coefficient of permeability
LL liquid limit
l distance; length of footing
M, Ms, Mw total mass, mass of solids and mass of water in the soil respectively
mv coefficient of volume compressibility
N Standard Penetration Test N value
Nc, Nq, Nφ bearing capacity factors
n number of layers; porosity
OCR overconsolidation ratio
PI plasticity index
PL plastic limit
Q total volume of flow, point load
q volumetric flow rate; deviator stress (= σ1 - σ3); loading intensity
qi stress at the centre of layer i
qu ultimate bearing capacity
r radial distance from load
r1, r2 radii from test well
1
 sc, sq, sφ shape factors
Sr degree of saturation
SL shrinkage limit
T vane shear strength
Tv time factor in consolidation equation
t time
U, Uz,t average degree of consolidation, local degree of consolidation
u pore water pressure
V total volume
Vs, Vw, Vv, Va volume of solids, water, voids and air in the soil respectively
w water content
z depth
α, β angles
γ bulk or total unit weight (c.f. ρ)
γ shear strains
γ' bouyant or effective unit weight
γd dry unit weight (c.f. ρd)
γw unit weight of water, ≈ 9790 Nm-3(c.f. ρw)
γs unit weight of solids (c.f. ρs)
ε direct strain
µm, µ0 influence factors
ν Poisson's ratio
ρ bulk or total mass density
ρd, ρs, ρsat dry density, density of solids and saturated density respectively
ρw density of water ≈ 998 kgm-3
ρi, ρ0 immediate settlement and settlement of test footing respectively
σ, σ' normal stress, effective normal stress
σ1, σ2, σ3 major, intermediate and minor principal stresses
σv, σr, σθ vertical, radial and circumferential stress
τ shear stress

2 Definitions and Terminology

emax − e Ms
Relative density: Dr = Solids density: ρs =
emax − emin Vs
V wG s M
Degree of saturation: Sr = w = Water content: w= w
Vv e Ms
V M
Air content: A = a = n(1 − Sr ) Water density: ρw = w
V Vw
Vv n Vv e
Void ratio: e= = Porosity: n= =
Vs 1 − n V 1+ e
M + Mw ρ
Saturated density: ρ sat = s Specific Gravity of Solids: Gs = s
V ρw
Submerged , buoyant or W
effective unit weight γ ' = γ sat − γ w Unit Weight γ = = ρg
V
M ρ G (1 − A)
Dry density: ρd = s = = s ρw
V 1+ w 1 + wGs
M Gs + S r e Gs ( 1 + w )
Total or bulk density: ρ= = ρw = 1 + e ρw
V 1+ e

2
3 Units and Conversions
Quantity Non-SI unit Conversion SI unit
Length 1" (inch) = 2.54 cm
1' (foot) = 0.3048 m
1 mile ≈ 1.61 km
Mass 1oz (ounce) ≈ 28.35 g
1lb (pound) ≈ 0.4536 kg
1cwt (hundredweight) ≈ 50.8 kg
1 ton ≈ 1016 kg
Force 1pdl (poundal) ≈ 0.1383 N
1ozf (ounce force) ≈ 0.278 N
1lbf (pound force) ≈ 4.45 N
1tonf (ton force) ≈ 9.96 kN
Volume 1 UK gallon ≈ 4 546 cm3
1l (litre) = 1000 cm3
Specific weight 1lbf/in3 ≈ 271.4 kN/m3
1lbf/ft3 ≈157.1 N/m3
Stress, pressure 1psi (lbf/in2) ≈ 6.895 kPa (kNm-2)
1inHg (inch of mercury) ≈ 3.39 kPa
1inH2O (inch of water) ≈ 0.249 kPa
Density 1lb/ft3 ≈ 16.02 kg/m3

4 Soil Description and Classification

2
D D30
Uniformity coefficient: Cu = 60 Curvature coefficient: Cz =
D10 D60 D10
w − PL
Plasticity index: PI = LL - PL Liquidity index: LI =
PI
Plasticity Index
Activity of a clay =
percent clay sizes

Fig.1: Plasticity Chart

3
 Particle Size Particle Nature Composite Soil Types
Basic Soil Types Visual Identification
/mm and Plasticity (mixture of basic soil types)

Scale of secondary constituents with coarse soils

BOULDERS 200 Only seen complete in pits or exposures Particle shape:

% of clay or
Term
COBBLES 60 Often difficult to recover from boreholes Angular silt
GRAVEL

}
Subangular slightly clayey
Coarse Easily visible to the naked eye, particle shape can be described, Subrounded or
20 grading can be described slightly silty under 5
Rounded Flat SAND
GRAVEL

}
Elongated clayey
GRAVELS Medium Well graded range of grain sizes, well distributed. Poorly graded:
silty
or
6 not well graded. (May be uniform; size of most particles lies SAND 5 to 15
between narrow limits; or gap graded: an intermediate size of GRAVEL

}
very clayey very
Fine particle is markedly under-represented)
silty
or
2 SAND 15 to 35
Sand or gravel and important
Coarse
0.6
Visible to the naked eye; very little or no cohesion when dry;
grading can be described Texture:
Sandy GRAVEL
Gravelly SAND } second constituent of the
coarse fraction

SANDS Medium Well graded range of grain sizes, well distributed. Poorly graded:
Rough
0.2 not well graded. (May be uniform; size of most particles lies See BS 5930:1981, 41.3.2.2
Smoothe
between narrow limits; or gap graded: an intermediate size of for composite types as described as:
Polished
Fine particle is markedly under-represented) Clayey: fines are plastic cohesive
0.06 silty: fines are non-plastic or low plasticity

Coarse Scale of secondary constituents with fine soils

0.02 Only coarse silt barely visible to the naked eye: exhibits little
plasticity and marked dilatency; slightly granular or silky to the
Non-plastic or
SILTS Medium touch
low plasticity Term % of sand
0.006 Disintegrates in water; lumps dry quickly: posess cohesion but or gravel
lumps can be powdered easily between fingers CLAY

}
sandy or
Fine gravelly
0.002 SILT 36 to 35

CLAY SILT
Dry lumps can be broken but not powdered between the fingers; Intermediate under 35
they also disintegrate under water but more slowly than silt; plasticity (lean
smooth to the touch; exhibits plasticity but no dilatency;sticks to clay)
CLAYS the fingers and dries slowly; shrinks appreciably on drying,
usually showing cracks. Intermediate and high plasticity clays Examples of composite types
show these properties to a moderate or high degree respectively.
High Plasticity (indicating preferred order of description)
(fat clay)
Loose, brown, subangular very sandy, fine to
ORGANIC coarse GRAVEL with small pockets of soft grey
CLAY, SILT Varies Contains substantial amounts of organic vegetable matter
clay
OR SAND
Medium dense, light brown, cleyey, fine and
medium SAND

Predominantly plant remains, usually dark brown or black in Stiff, orange brown, fissured sandy CLAY
PEATS Varies colour, often with distinctive smell, low bulk density Firm, brown, thinly laminated SILT and CLAY
Plastic, brown, amorphous PEAT

Table 1: Description of Soils and Field Identification

4
5
Soil Groups (see note 1) Subgroups and laboratory identification

Group Fines (%
Liquid
GRAVEL and SAND may be qualified Sandy Symbol Subgroup less than Limit /%
Name
GRAVEL and Gravelly SAND, etc. where (see notes 2 Symbol (see 0.06mm)
appropriate:see BS5930, 1981, 41.3.2.2 & 3) Note 2)

More than 50% of the coarse material is of sand More than 50% of coarse material is of gravel size GW 0
Slightly silty or clayey
G GW to Well graded GRAVEL
GRAVEL
5
GP
Gpu GPg Poorly graded/Uniform/Gap graded GRAVEL

Silty GRAVEL 5
G-M GWM GPM Well graded/poorly graded silty GRAVEL
G-F to
Clayey GRAVEL G-C 15
GWC GPC Well graded/poorly graded clayey GRAVEL
less than 35% of the material is less than

Very Silty GRAVEL

(coarser than 2mm)

GM GML, etc. Very silty GRAVEL; subdivides as GC

Very Clayey GRAVEL GCL 15
GF to Very clayey GRAVEL, clay of low
GCI
intermediate
GRAVELS

GCH 35
GC high
GCV
very high
GCE
extremely high plasticity
COARSE SOILS

0
Slightly silty or clayey SAND SW SW Well graded SAND
S to
0.06mm

5
SP
Spu SPg Poorly graded/Uniform/Gap graded SAND
Silty SAND S-M SWM SPM 5 Well graded/poorly graded silty SAND
S-F to
Clayey SAND S-C 15
SWC SPC Well graded/poorly graded clayey SAND
size (less than 2mm)

Very Silty SAND SM SML etc. Very silty SAND; subdivides as SC

Very Clayey SAND SCL 15

SF SCI to Very clayey SAND, clay of low intermediate
SC SCH 35 high
SANDS

SCV very high

SCE extremely high plasticity
Gravelly SILT MG MLG etc. Gravelly SILT; subdivides as CG
35% to 65% fines
Gravelly or sandy
SILTS an CLAYS
more than 35% of the material is

CLG <35
Gravelly CLAY
FG CIG 35 to 50 Gravelly CLAY of low intermediate
CG CHG 50 to 70 high
CVG 70 to 90 very high
CEG >90 extremely high plasticity
less than 0.06mm

Sandy SILT
65% to

MS MLS etc. Sandy SILT; subdivides as CG

FINE SOILS

FS
Sandy CLAY CS
CLS etc. Sandy CLAY; subdivides as CG
SILTS and CLAYS

SILT (M-soil) M ML etc. Silt; subdivides as C

<35 Clay of low

F
100% fines

CL CI 35 to 50 intermediate
CLAY
C CH 50 to 70 high
(See notes 5 & 6)
CV 70 to 90 very high
CE >90 extremely high plasticity
Descriptive letter 'O' suffixed to any group or Organic matter suspected to be a significant constituent.
ORGANIC SOIL sub-group symbol Example MHO: Organic SILT of high plasticity
PEAT Pt Peat soils consist predominantly of plant remains which may be fibrous or amorphous
NOTE 1 The name of+the soil group should always be given when describing soils, supplemented, if required, by the group symbol, although for some additional applications (e.g.
longitudinal sections) it may be convenient to use the group symbol alone.

Note 2 The group symbol or subgroup symbol should be placed in brackets if laboratory methods have not been used for identification

Note 3 The designation FINE SOIL or FINES, F, may be used in place of SILT, M, or CLAY, C, when it is not possible or not required to distinguish between them.

Note 4 GRAVELLY if more than 50% of coarse material is of gravel size. SANDY if more than 50% of coarse material is of sand size.

Note 5 SILT (M-soil) is material plotting below the A-line, and has a restricted plastic range in relation to its liquid limit, and relatively low cohesion.Fine soils of this type include clean
silt-sized materials and rock flour, micaceous and diatomaceous soils, pumice, volcanic soils and soils containing nalloysite. The alternative term M-soil avoids confusion with
materials of predominantly silt size, which form only part of this group.
Organic soils also usually plot below the A-line on the plasticity chart, when they are designated ORGANIC SILT, MO.

Note 6 CLAY, C, is a material plotting above the A-line, and is fully plastic in relation to it's liquid limit.

Table 2: British Soil Classification System

6
 Fig.2: Samples of Grading Curves

5 Permeability and Seepage

Darcy's law: v = ki
where v = approach (superficial) velocity = q/A
k = coefficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient = head loss / distance
2
u v
Bernoulli's equation h=z+ +
γ w 2g

Fig.3:Typical Coefficient of Permeability Values

2
For sands (empirical): k ≈ 0. 01D10 m/s (D10 in mm)
ql
Constant head permeability test: k =
Ah
al h
Falling head permeability test: k = 2. 3 log10 o
AT h1
2.3 q log10 (r2 r1)
Well pumping test: k=
(
π h22 − h12 )
7
5.1 2-D Seepage, flow nets
∂2h ∂2h
Differential equation for 2-D steady state flow: kx + ky =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Nf
Flow Nets: q = kh
Nd
where k = coefficient of permeability
h = total head loss
Nf = number of flow channels
Nd = number of equipotential drops
When the soil is anisotropic so that kx ≠ ky :
ky
Laplace equation applies if x is replaced by x ' = x
kx
Nf
and then q = h kx ky
Nd
γ −γw
Piping due to vertical upward flow occurs when i =
γw

6 Stresses in an Elastic Half-Space

Loading on the surface of a homogeneous isotropic semi-infinite mass
6.1 Point Load Q

   

Vertical stress: 5
2


3Q 1 Q
σv = = 2 IQ
2 πz 2 1 + ( r z ) 2 z
Radial stress:

σr =
Q
( 3r 2 z
−
1 − 2ν

 
5 1
2π
) ( )2

r2 + z2 2 r2 + z2 + z r2 + z2

) 
Circumferential
stress:

  
Q z 1
σθ = (1 − 2 ν) 3
− 1
2π
(r 2
+z 2
) 2 2 2
r +z +z r +z ( 2 2 2

 ( )  
Shear stress
3Q rz 2
τ rv = 5
2π
r2 + z2 2

6.2 Line Load q (per unit length)

Vertical stress: σv =
2q 1
   2
=
q
IL
πz 1 + (r z ) 2 z

8
 Fig.4: Influence Factors for Point and Strip Load, IQ and IL

6.3 Circular Area with Uniform Load q

Beneath the centre of the loaded area (r = 0),

Vertical stress:   
3/ 2

  1  
 v  q 1   
 1  a
 
 
z
2 





In general, vertical stress: σv = qIC

Fig.5: Influence Factor for Circular Load, IC

9
6.4 Rectangular Area with Uniform Load q

022 *,+
The expression for the vertical stress at any depth beneath the corner of a loaded rectangle with
side lengths l and b is given by:
-. / 3 55
σv =
q
4π 21 ( ( 2 2
2 mn m + n + 2

)
)
m2 + n2 + m2n2 + 1 m2 + n2 + 1
+ tan −1
2
2 mn m + n + 12

m2 + n2 + 1 − m2 n2 45
b l
where: m = , n=
z z

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0.1 1 10

Fig.6: Influence Factors for Rectangular Load, IR

10
6.5 General shape with Uniform Load q

Fig.7: Newmark's Influence Chart

11
6.6 Rectangular Area with Uniform Load q (Westergaard Solution)

Fig.8: Influence Factors for Rectangular Load, Westergaard Theory

7 Immediate Settlement
7.1
a)
Cohesionless Soils
Plate bearing test:

ρi = ρ0
678 9: ; 678
B
2 9: ;
3.28 B0 + 1 2
B0 3.28 B + 1
where B0 and ρ0 are the least dimension and the settlement of the test footing
ρi is the immediate settlement
B is the least dimension of the actual footing.

12
b) Standard penetration test (SPT) as proposed by Meyerhof:

<=>@?A B <=> ?A B
1. 9
ρi = q for B < 1.25m
N
2
2.84 B
ρi = q for B > 1.25m
N B + 0.33
where q is the applied pressure and N is the SPT value corrected for depth from Fig. 9.

Fig.9: Correction Factor for Influence of Effective

OverburdenPressure on SPT 'N' Value

I CDE FG H CED FG H
c) Cone penetration test:

de Beer method: n
p + qi

Q JKLNMO P KLJ OM P
p0 Hi
ρi = 1535
. log10 0
Cri p0
i =1
modified by Meyerhof to: n
p0Hi p + qi
ρi = 1.212 log10 0
Cri p0
i =1
where p0 is the initial effective overburden,
Cr is the cone resistance and
n is the number of layers
Hi is the depth of layer i
qi is the stress due to the foundation at the centre of layer i.

13
d) Cone penetration test (Schmertmann method):

ρ i = C1C2 q
n

i =1
Y RSTVUW X
Iz
E i
Hi

where Iz is a strain influence factor given in Fig. 10

p
C1 = 1 − 0
2q

C2 = 1.2 + 0.2 log10 ( t ) (t in years)

E i = 2C r for circular footings

Ei = 2.5C r for square footings
Ei = 3.5C r for strip footings

Fig.10: Assumed Distribution Strain Beneath the Centre of

a Uniformly Loaded Circular Footing

14
7.2 Cohesive Soils
Z[\ ]^ _
From elastic theory the settlement of a foundation is given by:

ρi = qB
1 − ν2
I1 I D
E
With ν = 0.5, the expression reduces to;
qB
ρi = 0. 75 I1 I D
E
For estimating the average settlement:
qB
ρi = µ1µ 0
E
The values µ1 and µ0 are given in Fig. 11
I1, ID are the influence factors given in Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6 for values of H, thickness of
layer, and D, the embedment depth of footing, expressed as a ratio of the plan dimension
of the foundation.

Fig.11: Diagrams for the Factors µ0 and µ1

15
 Rectangle B x L
Circle Diam. B Infinite Strip
H/B L/B=1 L/B =1.5 L/B =2 L/B =3 L/B =5 L/B =10 L/B=∞
0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.1 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
0.25 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
0.5 0.50 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51
1.0 0.72 0.77 0.85 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88
1.5 0.81 0.88 1.00 1.07 1.12 1.13 1.13 1.13
2.5 0.89 0.98 1.14 1.24 1.36 1.44 1.45 1.45
3.5 0.92 1.02 1.20 1.32 1.47 1.60 1.64 1.65
5.0 0.94 1.05 1.25 1.39 1.56 1.75 1.87 1.88
∞ 1.00 1.12 1.36 1.52 1.78 2.10 2.53 ∞

Table 3: Influence Factor I1, for Settlement of Flexible Circular,

Square, Rectangular and Strip Foundations.
[Uniformly loaded, finite layer with smooth base, smooth foundation interface,
values given for settlement at centre of loaded area]

Rectangle B x L
Circle Diam. B Infinite Strip
H/B L/B=1 L/B =1.5 L/B =2 L/B =3 L/B =5 L/B =10 L/B=∞
0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.1 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
0.25 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
0.5 0.23 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
1.0 0.38 0.48 0.49 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51
1.5 0.45 0.53 0.62 0.67 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72
2.5 0.52 0.62 0.75 0.83 0.94 1.01 1.02 1.02
3.5 0.56 0.66 0.81 0.92 1.05 1.17 1.22 1.22
5.0 0.58 0.69 0.86 0.97 1.14 1.31 1.44 1.44
∞ 0.64 0.77 0.97 1.12 1.36 1.67 2.11 ∞

Table 4: Influence Factor I1, for Settlement of Flexible Circular,

Square, Rectangular and Strip Foundations.
[Uniformly loaded, finite layer with smooth base, smooth foundation interface,
values given for settlement at mid point of longer side]

Rectangle B x L
Circle Diam. B Infinite Strip
H/B L/B=1 L/B =1.5 L/B =2 L/B =3 L/B =5 L/B =10 L/B=∞
0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.1 0.096 0.096 0.098 0.098 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.100
0.25 0.225 0.226 0.231 0.233 0.236 0.237 0.238 0.239
0.5 0.396 0.403 0.427 0.435 0.441 0.444 0.446 0.452
1.0 0.578 0.609 0.698 0.727 0.748 0.757 0.764 0.784
1.5 0.661 0.711 0.856 0.910 0.952 0.964 0.982 1.018
2.5 0.740 0.800 1.010 1.119 1.201 1.238 1.256 1.323
3.5 0.776 0.842 1.094 1.223 1.346 1.402 1.442 1.532
5.0 0.818 0.873 1.155 1.309 1.475 1.556 1.619 1.758
∞ 0.849 0.946 1.300 1.527 1.826 2.028 2.246 ∞

Table 5: Influence Factor I1, for Settlement of Rigid Circular,

Square, Rectangular and Strip Foundations.
[Uniformly loaded, finite layer with smooth base, smooth foundation interface]

Value of L/B
D/B 1 2 5 10 20 50 100
0.1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.5 0.85 0.90 0.94 0.95 0.97 0.98 0.98
1 0.73 0.78 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93
5 0.55 0.58 0.64 0.67 0.73 0.78 0.81
10 0.52 0.53 0.58 0.60 0.65 0.72 0.74

Table 6: Correction Factor for Depth, ID

16
8 One-Dimensional Compression/Settlement
de
Coefficient of compressibility: av = −
dσ v '
dV / V 1 de
Coefficient of volume compressibility: mv = − =−
dσ v ' 1 + e0 dσ '

`
de
For normally consolidated soils, compression index: Cc = −
d (log 10 σ v ')
∆e
Settlement: dh = δz sum for all compressible soil layers

abcedf g
1 + e0

∑ mv ∆σvδz
dh =

dh =
h Cc
1 + e0
δz log10
σ'1
σ'0
sum for all compressible soil layers
sum for all compressible soil layers

where e0 = initial void ratio

∆e = change in void ratio
∆σv = change in vertical stress
δz = layer thickness
σ'0 = initial effective stress
σ'1 = final effective stress
NB: The soil property will change depending on whether the soil is normally or over-
consolidated.
For remoulded clays (empirical), Cc ≈ 0.007 (LL − 10%)
For normally consolidated clays (empirical), Cc ≈ 0.009 (LL − 10%)

9 One-Dimensional Consolidation
du d 2 u dσ v
Basic equation: = cv +
dt dz 2 dt
where u = excess pore water pressure
σv = total vertical stress
k
cv = coefficient of consolidation =
mv γ w
k = coefficient of permeability
mv = coefficient of volume compressibility
γw = unit weight of water

17
9.1 Average degree of consolidation U
δt ∆u e −e σ '− σ 0 '
U= = 1− t = o =
δ∞ ∆u0 eo − e1 σ 1 '− σ 0 '
cv t
Dimensional time factor: Tv =
d2

Empirical solutions to consolidation equation:

π
U < 0.60 Tv = U 2
4
U > 0.60 Tv = −0.933 log10(1 - U) − 0.085

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1
0.01 0.1 1 10

Fig.12: Average Degree of Consolidation

9.2 Local degree of consolidation Uz,t

∆u z , t
U z ,t = 1 −
∆u0

Fig.13: Local Degree of Consolidation

18
10 Shear Strength of Soils
For soils obeying the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, the shear strength is given by:
τf = c + σ tan φ
where c = cohesion
φ = angle of internal friction
σ = normal stress
For undrained condition:
c = cu (undrained cohesion),
φ = φu (undrained friction angle) and
σ = total normal stress.
For drained condition:
c = c'(drained cohesion),
φ = φ'(drained friction angle) and
σ = σ'(effective normal stress).

where Nφ =
σ1 = σ 3 N φ + 2 c N φ
1 + sin φ
1 − sin φ
= tan 2 45 o +
φ
2
ijk lm n
In terms of principal stresses, the Mohr-Coulomb equation can be written as:

opq rs t
For normally consolidated soils (empirical):
cu
≈ 0.11 + 0. 0037 PI
σ' v
d 2h d 3
Vane shear test: T = π cu +
2 6
Skempton pore water pressure equation:
∆u = B[∆σ3 + A(∆σ1 - ∆σ3)]

11 Earth Pressures
11.1 Rankine's theory with horizontal soil surface
Active failure: pa = σ v K a − 2c K a
1 − sin φ 1
where Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure = =
1 + sin φ N φ
Passive failure: p p = σ v K p + 2c K p
1
where Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure = = Nφ
Ka

u x
11.2 Rankine's theory with sloping soil surface

vww{ y~ zz
For cohesionless soils (c=0) and a soil surface at an angle β above the horizontal:
Active failure:
cos β − (cos 2 β − cos 2 φ)
p a = σ v cos β
cos β + (cos 2 β − cos 2 φ)

Passive failure: p p = σ v cos β |}} cos β + (cos 2 β − cos 2 φ)

cos β − (cos 2 β − cos 2 φ)
 €€
19
11.3 Coulomb's theory (c=0)
Pa = 1 Ka γH 2

ƒƒ „ ††
Active thrust
2
β
Passive thrust Pp = 1 K p γH 2

ƒƒ‚ ††
2
2
δ
sin(α − φ) / sin α
where K a =

ƒƒ „ ††
sin(φ + δ )sin(φ − β) P α
sin(α + δ ) +
sin(α − β)

ƒƒ‚ ††
2

sin(α + φ) / sin α
Kp =
sin(φ + δ ) sin(φ + β)
sin(α − δ) −
sin(α − β )

12 Bearing Capacity
The ultimate bearing capacity qu can be expressed as:
For a strip footing: qu = c N c + γ D N q + 0.5γBN γ
For a square footing: qu = 1. 2 c N c + γ D N q + 0. 4 γBN γ
For a circular footing: qu = 1. 2 c N c + γ D N q + 0. 3γBN γ

For a strip footing, the gross safe bearing capacity (total foundation pressure) is:
cN c + γD ( N q − 1) + 0. 5γBN γ
q gs = +γ D
F
q − γD
or F= u

‡ˆ‰ ‹Š Œ
q gs − γD
For rectangular footing, use the following shape factors on the infinite strip equation:
B

Ž ‘ ’
sc = 1 + 0.2
L
sq = 1. 0
B

“”• –— ˜
s γ = 1 − 0.2
L
For loading inclined at an angle α to the vertical, the inclination factors are:

™š›œž Ÿ
α 2
ic = i q = 1 −
90°
2
α
iγ = 1 −
φ
For eccentric loading, effective foundation width B'= B − 2e

20
 Table 7 Bearing Capacity Factors for Shallow Strip Foundations (φ in degrees)
φ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Nc 5.14 5.4 5.6 5.9 6.2 6.5 6.8 7.2 7.5 7.9 8.4 8.8 9.3 9.8 10.4 11.0 11.6 12.3 13.1
Nq 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.3 4.8 5.3
Nγ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.1

φ 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Nc 13.9 14.8 15.8 16.9 18.1 19.3 20.7 22.3 23.9 25.8 27.9 30.1 32.7 35.5 38.6 42.2 46.1
Nq 5.8 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.7 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.2 14.7 16.4 18.4 20.6 23.2 26.1 29.4 33.3
Nγ 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.1 4.9 5.7 6.8 7.9 9.3 10.9 12.8 15.1 17.7 20.8 24.4 28.8 33.9

φ 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Nc 50.6 55.6 61.4 67.9 75.3 83.9 93.7 105.1 118.4 133.9 152.1 173.6 199.3 229.9 266.9
Nq 37.8 42.9 48.9 56.0 64.2 73.9 85.4 99.0 115.3 134.9 158.5 187.2 222.3 265.5 319.1
Nγ 40.0 47.4 46.2 66.8 79.5 95.1 114.0 137.1 165.6 200.8 244.7 299.5 368.7 456.4 568.5

Fig.15: Values of NC for φ = 0

21
13 Pile Design

Fig.16: Relationship Between Adhesion Factor for Driven

Piles and Undrained Shear Strenth of Clay
(after Tomlinson, 1969)

Fig.17: Relationship Between Adhesion Factor for Driven Piles

and Undrained Shear Strength of Clay
(after Flaate, 1968)

Fig.18: Relationship Between NQ and φ'

22
14 Stress and Strain in Soils
14.1 Effective Stress Law
For a saturated soil: σ'= σ - u
For an unsaturated soil: σ'= (σ - ua) + χ(ua - u)
σ'
Lateral stress coefficient K= h
σ'v
For normally consolidated soils under no lateral strain condition
K0 = 1 −€sin φ (empirical)
14.2 Stress and Strain Paths
For plane strain condition (ε2 = 0):
(σ' 1 − σ ')
3 (σ' 1 + σ ')
3
Stress parameters: t '= and s '=
2 2
Strain parameters: ε γ = ( ε1 − ε 3 ) and ε v = ( ε1 + ε 3 )
1 = σ'
For axisymmetric condition (σ' 3, ε2 = ε3):
(σ'
1 +2 σ ')
3
Stress parameters: q '= σ '
1 −σ'
3 and p '=
3
2 ( ε1 − ε 3 )
Strain parameters: εs = and ε v = ( ε1 + 2 ε 3 )
3
14.3 Isotropic Elastic Soil
General equations for isotropic elasticity:
These expressions are valid for total or effective stress, but appropriate moduli and Poisson'
s
ratio must be used.
Eε x = σ x − νσ y − νσ z
Eε y = σ y − νσ x − νσ z
Eε z = σ z − νσ x − νσ y
τ xy
γ xy =
G
τ xz
γ xz =
G
τ yz
γ yz =
G
E
Bulk Modulus K=
3( 1 − 2 ν )
E
Shear Modulus G =
2(1+ ν)
Under plane strain condition:
2 (1 + ν )
δε v = δs
3K
1
δε γ = δt
G
Under axisymmetric condition
1
δε v = δp
K
1
δε s = δq
3G

23
15 Critical state model
Isotropic consolidation line: v = N − λ ln p'
Swelling line: v = vκ − κ ln p'
Critical state line: q' = Μ p'
Critical state line: v = Γ − λ ln p'
N = Γ+λ−κ
M p'
Stable state boundary surface: q' = ( Γ + λ − κ − v − λ ln p' )
(λ − κ)
6 sin φ'crit
For triaxial compression M =
3 − sin φ'crit
6 sin φ'crit
For triaxial extension M =
3 + sin φ'crit

16 Pavement Design

Fig.19: Van de Poel Nomograph for Bitumen Stiffness

24
 Fig.20: Foundations for Flexible Pavements

Fig.21: Bonnaure Nomograph for Asphalt Mix Stiffness

25
 180

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360

380

400

420

440
100 1000 10000

Fig.22: Thickness of Asphalt for Flexible Pavements

17 Slope Stability

17.1 Translational sliding

The factor of safety for translational sliding on a plane parallel to the ground level is given by

τf c′ + tanφ′ cos2β ( γ z − zw γw )
F = =
τ γ z sinβ cosβ

where β = ground slope angle to the horizontal plane

γ = unit weight of soil
γw = unit weight of water
z = depth from ground level to the slip surface
zw = depth of the water table above the slip surface

tan φ′
For a dry sandy slope ( c′=0 ) F =
tan β

γ′ tan φ′
For a fully water logged sandy slope ( c′=0 ) F =
γ tan β

26
17.2 Taylor's Curves
c
Stability Number =
FγH
where c = apparent cohesion
F = factor of safety
H = height of slope
γ = bulk unit weight

(Slope angle)

Fig.23: Chart of Stability Numbers for the Case of Zero Friction Angle
and Limited Depth

27
Fig.24: Chart of Stability Numbers

28