Environmental Hydrology (GeES 1013)

Unit One

1.1 Defining Hydrology

The word Hydrology is derived from two Greek words: logia (logy) mean water and hudor
(hydro) and also study. So hydrology is the science or study of water. However, contemporary
hydrology does not study all the properties of water. Modern hydrology is concerned with the
distribution of water on the surface of the earth and its movement over and beneath the surface
and through the atmosphere.

This wide-ranging definition suggests that all water comes under the remit of a hydrologist,
while in reality it is the study of fresh water that is of primary concern. The study of the saline
water on earth is carried out in oceanography.
Environment is the totality of all resources whether in their natural state or as modified by man
as well as the external conditions and impacts which affect the quality and quantity of resources
and welfare of human beings.
Environmental hydrology is a developing area within the science of hydrology which seeks to
apply the knowledge, skills and techniques of scientific and engineering hydrology to the
understanding environmental problems and solutions.

Hydrology is the branch of physical science which deals with the origin, circulation, distribution
and physical and chemical properties of water and also interaction with the physical and
biological environment including their effect on the activities of man and the hydrological cycle
lies at the heart of hydrological science.
Thus, environmental hydrology is a science dealing with the space-time variability of water
quality and its evolution in the hydrosphere, in streams, in lakes, in soil, as well as in the
lithosphere. Thus, it includes occurrence, distribution, and variability of water quality in surface
water and ground water.

1.2. Branches of Hydrology

A. Ground Water Hydrology

Ground Water is subsurface water that occurs beneath the water table in porous geologic
formations that are fully saturated. That portion of subsurface water that can be collected with
wells, drainage pipes etc.

Ground water hydrology studies about the origin, distribution, movement and physical or
chemical properties of ground water. A subset of hydrology is the study of all terrestrial waters.

B. Surface Water Hydrology: the study of sub aerial or above ground water (in contact with the
atmosphere), excluding oceans. Civil engineers usually mean lakes and bays", geologists usually
mean rivers and streams" when using this term.

C. Hydrogeology: emphasizes the hydrologic aspects of geology.

D. Geohydrology: emphasizing geologic aspects of hydrology particularly the effects of the

porous medium through which groundwater flows.

E. Eco Hydrology: It is inter disciplinary fields of studying that deal with the interaction
between water and eco systems. These interactions may takes places with in water bodies such as
rivers and lakes or on land in forests, deserts and other terrestrial eco systems. Area of research
in eco hydrology include transpiration and plant water use adaption of organisms to their water
environment influence of vegetation , streams flow and function and feed backs between
ecological process and the hydrological cycle.

F. Hydro Informatics: Is a breach of informatics’ which concentrates on the application of

information and communication technologies (ICTs) in addressing the increasing serious
problems of the equitable and efficient purpose. Growing out of the earlier disciple of the
computation hydraulics the numerical simulation of water flows and related process remains as a
mainstay of hydro informatics’ which focus not only on the technology but on its application in
a social context

1.3. Scope of Hydrology

The study of hydrology helps us to know:
 A. The water yields from the basin – its occurrence, quantity, and frequency etc., this is
necessary for the design of dams, municipal water supply, water power, river navigation etc.
B. The maximum probable flood that may occur at a given site and its frequency: this is
required for the safe design of drains and culverts dams and reservoirs, channels, and other
flood control structures.
C. The ground water development for which a knowledge of the hydrology of the area ,i.e. Of
the formation soils ,recharge facilities like streams and reservoirs rain fall pattern, climatic
conditions, cropping patterns are required.
D. The maximum intensity of storm and its frequency for the design of a project

1.4. Hydrological Data

For the analysis and design of any hydrological projects an adequate data and length of records
are necessary. A hydrologist is often posed with lack of adequate data. The basic hydrological
data required are:
i. Climatologically data
ii. Hydro meteorological data like temperatures, wind velocity, humidity, etc.
iii. Precipitation records
iv. Stream –flow records
v. Seasonal fluctuation of ground water tables
vi. Evaporation data
vii. Cropping pattern ,crops and their consumptive use
viii. Water quality data of surfaces streams and ground water
ix. Geomorphologic studies of the basin like area, shape and slope of the basin ,mean and,
median elevation, mean temperature, other physiographical characteristics of the
basin ,stream density and drainage density and reservoirs
x. Hydrometer logical characteristics of basin
a) Long term precipitation spaces average over the basin using isohytal
b) Depth-area-duration (dad)for storms(station equipped with self-recording rain gauges
c) Isyohyetal maps ,isohyetal maps may be drown for long term average ,annual and monthly
precipitation for individual years and months
d) Cropping pattern :crops and their seasons
 e) Daily, monthly and annual evaporation from water surfaces in the basin
f) Water balance studies of the basin
g) Chronic problems in the basin due to a flood threatening river
h) Soil conservation and methods of flood control

1.6 Global Water Resources

Water plays a vital role in sustaining the existence of all living things. It has been estimated that
approximately 300 million cubic miles of water exist on the Earth at different locations and in
different phases. It can be seen that the ocean forms about 97% of the earth’s water as saline
water. The remaining 3% is fresh waters; this freshwater supply would be quickly depleted if it
were not for its endless interaction and exchange with the ocean. This movement of the earth’s
waters known as the hydrologic cycle. Here, the freshwater is found in the atmosphere as water
vapor; on the land as water, dew, snow and ice; and in the ground usually in the form of water.
Therefore, the budget equation for freshwater can be expressed as: Total precipitation=
Evaporation + Transpiration

On a global scale, the important reservoirs in the hydrologic cycle are the ocean, atmosphere,
polar ice, groundwater, and moisture from land surfaces.

Water moves from one reservoir to another by way of processes like evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration, sublimation, transpiration, melting, and groundwater flow.
The oceans supply most of the evaporated water found in the atmosphere. Of this evaporated water, only
91 % of it is returned to the ocean basins by way of precipitation. The remaining 9% is transported to
areas over land masses where climatological factors induce the formation of precipitation. The resulting
imbalance between rates of evaporation and precipitation over land and ocean is corrected by runoff and
groundwater flow to the oceans.
The planetary water supply is dominated by the oceans (see Table 1). Approximately 97 % of all
the water on the Earth is in the oceans. The other 3 % is held as freshwater in glaciers and
icecaps, groundwater, lakes, soil, the atmosphere, and within life.
Table 1: Inventory of water at the Earth's surface
Reservoirs Volume (103 km3) Percentage of Global Reserves
(%)
 Ocean 1370 97.25
Ice caps and Glaciers 29 2.05
Ground water 9.5 0.68
Lakes 0.125 0.01
Soil Moistures 0.065 0.005
Atmosphere 0.013 0.001
Streams and Rivers 0.0017 0.0001
Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004

1.7. Hydrological Cycle

The fundamental concept of hydrology is the hydrologic cycle: the global scale, endless re-
circulatory process linking water in the atmosphere, on the continents and in the oceans. This
cyclical process is usually thought of in terms of reservoirs (i.e., oceans, atmosphere, etc.) and
the volumetric flows of water between them. Within the hydrologic cycle, the dynamic processes
of water vapor formation and transport of vapor and liquid in the atmosphere are driven by solar
energy. The hydrologic cycle is a conceptual model that describes the storage and movement of
water between the biospheres; atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydrosphere (see Figure 1).

The constant movement of water and its change in physical state on this planet is called the water
cycle. This also known as nature’s water wheel or the hydrologic cycle: This implies that water
originates from the oceans and returns to the oceans. On its way, water changes from vapor
(gas), to liquid (water), to solid (ice and snow state.

In this cycle the two fundamental factors are precipitation and evaporation. Evaporation is
change in the state of moisture entering to the atmosphere condensed and falls down that result in
precipitation. It is precipitation which is available especially in the continental surface, where
human activity is heavily concentrated.

A description of the hydrologic cycle can begin at any point and return to that same point. Water
in the ocean evaporates and becomes atmospheric water vapor. Some of this moisture in the
atmosphere falls as precipitation, which sometimes evaporates before it can reach the land
surface. Water that reaches the land surface by precipitation, some may evaporate where it falls,
some may infiltrate the soil and some may run off overland to evaporate or infiltrate elsewhere or
to enter streams.
 The water that infiltrates the ground may evaporate, be absorbed by plant roots and then
transpired by the Plants or percolate downward to ground water reservoirs. Water that enters
ground water reservoirs may either move laterally until it is close enough to the surface to be
subject to evaporation or transpiration; reach the land surface and form springs, seeps or lakes; or
flow directly into streams or in to the ocean. Stream water can accumulate in lakes and surface
reservoirs, evaporate or are transpired by riparian vegetation, seep downward into ground water
reservoirs, or flow back into the ocean, where the cycle begins again.

Each phase of the hydrologic cycle provides opportunities for temporary accumulation and
storage of water, such as snow and ice on the land surface; moisture in the soil and ground water
reservoirs; water in ponds, lakes, and surface reservoirs, and vapor in the atmosphere. Without
replenishment from precipitation, the water stored on all of the continents would gradually be
dissipated by évapotranspiration processes or by movement toward the oceans.

All the water that falls as precipitation has evaporated from the land and the oceans. Rivers
transport some of the precipitated water across the land surface, to be evaporated elsewhere -
from the sea or a lake, for example - and much is transported from one place to another as water
vapor in the atmosphere. Water is being continuously recycled through the oceans, atmosphere,
lithosphere, cryosphere (ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost) and biosphere (vegetation) (See
figure 1).
Hydrological cycle has 3 sub-systems. These are:
The atmospheric water system: Processes of precipitation, evaporation, transpiration,
interception this occurs in the atmospheric arc of the globe.
The surface water system: A process of overland flow and surface runoff .This is also occur s
in the hydrosphere.
The subsurface water system: infiltration, seepage, ground water recharge and ground water
flow mainly occur in the lithosphere.
Figure1: Hydrologic Cycle

Water has different residence times at major reservoirs. On average water is renewed in rivers
once every 16 days. Water in the atmosphere is completely replaced once every 8 days. Slower
rates of replacement occur in large lakes, glaciers, ocean and groundwater. Replacement in these
reservoirs can take from hundreds to thousands of years. Some of these resources (especially
groundwater) are being used by humans at rates that far exceed their renewal times. This type of
resource use is making this type of water effectively nonrenewable.

Table 2 Approximate residence time of water found in various reservoirs

Reservoirs Approximate Residence Time (years )

Glaciers 40 years

Seasonal Snow Cover 0.4

Soil Moisture 0.2

Ground water: shallow 200

Ground water : deep 10,000
Lakes 100
Rivers 0.04
1.7.1. Components of the Hydrological Cycles
The U.S. geological survey (USGS) has identified 16 components of the water cycles
 Water storage in the oceans
Evaporation
 Sublimation
 Evapotranspiration
 Water in the atmosphere
 Condensation
 Precipitation
 Water storage in ice & snow
 Snow melt run off to streams
 Surfaces run off
 Stream flow
 fresh water storage
 Infiltration ground water storage
 Ground water discharge
 Spring

Unit Two
2. Components of the Water Balance
2.1. The Water Balance Equation
Water balance or water budget or hydrologic budget indicates the mass balance in water input
and output for a system over a certain period time of or Water balance is defined as the change in
volume of the permanent pool resulting from the total Inflow, minus the total outflow. This can
be expressed as
ΔV = Σ Inflow - Σ Outflow
Where:
ΔV = change in the permanent pool
Σ Inflow = sum of all inflows over a period of time
Σ Outflow = sum of all outflow over a period time, including losses to infiltration and
evaporation.
A hydrologic balance equation provides a quantitative means of evaluating the hydrologic cycle.
This conservation equation states that the time rate of change of the mass of a conservative
quantity stored is equal to the difference between the inflow rate and the outflow rate. Water is a
conservative quantity, and given that the density of water can be taken as approximately
constant.
The inflows consist of rainfall (P), runoff (Q), and base-flow (Bf) into the pond
The outflows consist of infiltration (I), evaporation (E), evapotranspiration (Et), and surface
overflow (O) out of the pond or wetland
Therefore, the changes in inflow and outflow can be expressed as:
ΔV = [P + Q + Bf] – [I + E + ET + O]
A general water balance equation is:
ΔS = P – Q – E (1.2)

Q = P – E –ΔS

Where,

ΔS = change in storage
P = precipitation
E = evapotranspiration and
Q = runoff

2.1.1 Impacts on Water Balance

 There are different factors which challenge the world water balance and they can be
categorized as: Natural and anthropogenic
Anthropogenic factors are of a particular importance under conditions of ever-increasing
human impacts on the global climate. This is likely to lead to evident change in the global water
balance during the coming decades. Natural factors such as volcanic eruption, earthquake,
natural fire, flooding and landslide For instance, Climatic factors, such as temperature, humidity,
and wind, affect the water balance by influencing evaporation and transpiration. Similarly,
Changes in soil moisture and evapotranspiration are likely to have large impacts on water and
forest resources, since the distribution and abundance of these resources are controlled to a large
extent by the volume and seasonality of available moisture.

2.2 Precipitation and Its Concepts

Precipitation is defined as the condensation of water vapor into liquid water droplets and ice
particles that fall to the earth’s surface. It is the result of atmospheric cooling of moisture and
subsequent condensation and the fall of the condensed moisture. So Precipitation is the release
of water from the atmosphere to reach the surface of the earth.

Precipitation is the primary source of the earth's water supplies. It includes all water that falls
from the atmosphere to the earth's surface. Thus, precipitation or atmospheric water is the first
form of water above the earth’s surface, the second form being surface water on the earth and the
third is subsurface water or percolation.
Precipitation occurs in two forms that are of interest to hydrologists, liquid (rain and drizzle) and
solid (snow, hail, and sleet). The amount and distribution of precipitation is governed by
atmospheric circulation. In certain environment there may be little or no precipitation.

2.2.1 Precipitation Formation

 The ability of air to hold water vapor is temperature dependent: the cooler the air the less
water vapor is retained.
 If a body of warm, moist air is cooled then it will become saturated with water vapor and
eventually the water vapor will condense into liquid or solid water (i.e. water or ice
droplets).
  The water will not condense spontaneously. However, there need to be minute particles
present in the atmosphere, called condensation nuclei, upon which the water or ice
droplets form.
 The water or ice droplets that form on condensation nuclei are normally too small to fall
to the surface as precipitation; they need to grow in order to have enough mass to
overcome uplifting forces within a cloud.

Generally, there are three conditions that need to be met prior to precipitation formation i.e.
Cooling of the atmosphere, condensation onto nuclei and growth of the water/ice droplets.

1. Cooling of the atmosphere

 Cooling of the atmosphere may take place through several different mechanisms occurring
independently or simultaneously.

The most common form of cooling is from the uplift of air through the atmosphere.

This will lead to a corresponding cooling in temperature. The cooler temperature leads to less
water vapor being retained by the air and conditions becoming favorable for condensation.

Other mechanisms whereby the atmosphere cools include a warm air mass meeting a cooler air
mass, and the warm air meeting a cooler object such as the sea or land.

2. Condensation onto nuclei

Condensation nuclei are minute particles floating in the atmosphere which provide a surface for
the water vapour to condense into liquid water upon.

They are commonly less than a micron (i.e. one millionth of a meter) in diameter.

There are many different substances that make condensation nuclei, including small dust
particles, sea salts and smoke particles.

3. Water droplet growth

• Water or ice droplets formed around condensation nuclei are normally too small to fall directly
to the ground; that is, the forces from the upward draught within a cloud are greater than the
gravitational forces pulling the microscopic droplet downwards.

• In order to overcome the upward draughts it is necessary for the droplets to grow from an
initial size of 1 micron to around 3,000 microns (3 mm).
• The vapors pressure difference between a droplet and the surrounding air will cause it to grow
through condensation, albeit rather slowly.

• When the water droplet is ice the vapor pressure difference with the surrounding air becomes
greater and the water vapor sublimates onto the ice droplet.

• This will create a precipitation droplet faster than condensation onto a water droplet, but is
still a slow process.

The main mechanism by which raindrops grow within a cloud is through collision and
coalescence.

Two raindrops collide and join together (coalesce) to form a larger droplet that may then collide
with many more before falling towards the surface as rainfall or another form of precipitation.

 Another mechanism leading to increased water droplet size is the so-called Bergeron
process.
 The pressure exerted within the parcel of air, by having the water vapor present within it,
is called the vapor pressure.
 The more water vapor presents the greater the vapor pressure. Because there is a
maximum amount of water vapor that can be held by the parcel of air there is also a
maximum vapor pressure, the so-called saturation vapor pressure.
 The saturation vapor pressure is greater over a water droplet than an ice droplet because it
is easier for water molecules to escape from the surface of a liquid than a solid.
 This creates a water vapor gradient between water droplets and ice crystals so that water
vapor moves from the water droplets to the ice crystals, thereby increasing the size of the ice
crystals.
Because clouds are usually a mixture of water vapor, water droplets and ice crystals, the
Bergeron process may be a significant factor in making water droplets large enough to become
rain drops (or ice/snow crystals) that overcome gravity and fall out of the clouds.

The mechanisms of droplet formation within a cloud are not completely understood. The relative
proportion of condensation-formed, collision formed, and Bergeron-process-formed droplets
depends very much on the individual cloud circumstances and can vary considerably.
As a droplet is moved around a cloud it may freeze and thaw several times, leading to different
types of precipitation.
2.2.2. Forms of Precipitation
Precipitation mainly occurs in two forms. These are:
 Liquid precipitation (rain, drizzle)
 Solid precipitation (snow, sleet, hail stone)

 Rain: Consisting of droplets of liquid water, is by far the most common form of
precipitation. Precipitation that is formed by water vapor condensing at temperatures above
freezing or by ice crystals thawing before they reach the ground. Rain is typically a name
reserved for drops with diameters larger than 0.5 mm.
 Drizzle: For drops with diameters smaller than 0.5 mm, the common name is drizzle, which
has a much lower fall speed, or terminal velocity, than larger raindrops.

As ice crystals fall, they may collide and stick to one another, creating snowflakes or snow is
formed when ice crystals do not thaw. Snow grains are the type of solid precipitation. These
particles are smaller (less than 1 mm), are opaque and fall from stratus clouds. As such, they
seldom accumulate to great depths at the land surface. In certain situations, snow grains can fall
for long time periods. Rain and snow are the most important types of precipitation in
hydrological terms.
 Sleet, or ice pellets, usually has diameters around 5 mm, are transparent, and bounce as they
hit the ground (frozen rain drops while falling through air at subfreezing temperature (a
mixture of rain and snow). It occurs most often during the spring and summer months and is
the result of thunderstorm activity .it is small lumps of ice (>5 mm in diameter).

 Other types of precipitation include dew, where water vapor condenses directly onto a cold
surface, and fog-drip (or occult precipitation), where water is “harvested” directly from fog
or low-lying clouds by vegetation. Dew is important for some plants but not significant
hydrologically, but fog-drip can introduce water into the soil and may, under some
circumstances, generate stream flow.
2.2.3. Types of Precipitation
Precipitation includes rainfall, snowfall, and other processes by which water falls to the land
surface, such as hail and sleet. The formation of precipitation requires the lifting of an air mass in
the atmosphere so that it cools and some of its moisture condenses.
Precipitation is often classified as:
 Convective precipitation
 Orographic precipitation
 Cyclonic precipitation
A. Convective precipitation: Precipitation resulting from the upward movement of the air that
is warmer than its surroundings is termed as convective precipitation. When unsaturated air
near the surface is heated by solar radiation, it expands and rises to the atmosphere by
convection. As it rises, it cools at the dry adiabatic rate of about 50C/100m.
This cooling is continued until the dew point temperature is reached. Convective precipitation is
spotty and its intensity varies widely from light showers to cloud bursts depending on the
temperature and moisture conditions.
Convectional precipitation is most common in the humid equatorial and tropical areas that
receive much of the sun’s energy and in summer in the middle latitudes. Though differential
heating of land surfaces plays an important role in convectional precipitation, it is not the sole
factor. Other factors, such as surface topography and atmospheric dynamics associated with the
upper air winds, may provide the initial upward lift for air that is potentially unstable. Once
condensation begins in a convectional column, additional energy is available from the latent
heat of condensation for further lifting.
B. Orographic Precipitation
Orographic precipitation results when a moving air mass encounters a land barrier, usually a
mountain, and must rise above it in order to pass. When land barrier such as mountain ranges,
hilly regions, or even the escarpments (steep edges) of plateaus or tablelands lie in the path of
prevailing winds, large portions of the atmosphere are forced to rise above these barriers. This
fills the one main criterion for significant precipitation, which large masses of air are cooled by
ascent and expansion until large-scale condensation takes place. The resultant precipitation is
termed orographic (from Greek: oros, mountains).As long as the air parcel rising up the
mountain side remains stable (cooling at a greater rate than the environmental lapse rate), any
resulting cloud cover will be a type of stratus cloud.
C. Cyclonic Precipitation)
Cyclonic precipitation occurs when air is lifted up into a low pressure system.
  This type of precipitation is due to lifting of moist air converging into a low pressure belt,
i.e., due to pressure differences created by the unequal heating of the earth’s surface.
 Here the winds blow spirally inward counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
 There are two main types of cyclones—tropical cyclone (also called hurricane or typhoon) of
comparatively small diameter of 300-1500 km causing high wind velocity and heavy
precipitation, and the extra-tropical cyclone of large diameter up to 3000 km causing wide
spread frontal type precipitation.
2.2.4 Measurement of precipitation
For hydrological analysis it is important to know how much precipitation has fallen and when
this occurred. The usual expression of precipitation is as a vertical depth of liquid water. Of all
the components of the hydrological cycle, the elements of precipitation, particularly rain and
snow are the most commonly measured.

Rainfall is measured by millimeters or inches depth, rather than by volume such as liters or cubic
meters. The measurement is the depth of water that would accumulate on the surface if all the
rain remained where it had fallen. Snowfall may also be expressed as a depth, although for
hydrological purposes it is most usefully described in water equivalent depth (i.e. the depth of
water that would be present if the snow melted).

The most common method of measuring precipitation is by using rain gauge .The purpose of the
rain gauge is to measure the depth and intensity of rain falling on flat surface .Rain gauge may be
classified as recording and non-recording.

The four main sources of error in measuring rainfall that need consideration in designing a
method for the accurate measurement of rainfall are:
 Losses due to evaporation
 Losses due to wetting of the gauge
 Over-measurement due to splash from the surrounding area
 Under-measurement due to turbulence around the gauge.
The amount of water collected is then measure and expressed in unit of depth such as mm. the
rain gauge is assure to be representative of the surround area.
There are two main objectives in using precipitation gauges for hydrological purposes:
I. The first is to obtain an accurate measure of precipitation at a given point,
ii. The second is to obtain accurate estimate of precipitation over an area.
Types of Rain Gauge:
A. Non-recording rain gauge
B. The self-recording rain gauge
A. Non-recording rain gauge
 It consists of a funnel with a circular rim of 12.7 cm diameter and a glass bottle as a receiver.
 The rain falling into the funnel is collected in the receiver and is measured in a special
measuring glass graduated in mm of rainfall; when full it can measure 1.25 cm of rain.
 The non-recording rain gauge gives only the total depth of rainfall for the previous 24 hours
(i.e., daily rainfall) and does not give the intensity and duration of rainfall during different
time intervals of the day.
 Non-recording gages generally consist of open receptacles with vertical sides, in which the
depth of precipitation is measured by a graduated measuring cylinder or dipstick.
 The two types of non-recording gages are standard gages and storage gages.
 Standard gages are ordinarily used for daily rainfall readings and consist of a collector
above a funnel leading into a receiver. Rain gages for locations where only weekly or
monthly readings are used are similar in design to the daily type but have a larger capacity
receiver.
 Storage gages are used to measure rainfall over an entire season, usually in remote, sparsely
inhabited areas. These rain gages consist of a collector above a funnel that leads into a
storage area large enough for the season rainfall volume.
 Standard gages are the most widespread rainfall data measurement devices used in
hydrology.
B. Recording rain gauges
 automatically measure rainfall at temporal resolutions of 1 minute or even shorter.
 This is also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain gauge.
 This type of rain gauge has an automatic mechanical arrangement consisting of
clockwork, a drum with a graph paper fixed around it and a pencil point, which draws the
mass curve of rainfall.
  From this mass curve, the depth of rainfall in a given time, the rate or intensity of rainfall
at any instant during a storm, time of onset and cessation of rainfall, can be determined.
There are three main types of recording gauge: the weighing type, the float type, and the
tipping bucket type.

A. The weighing type rain gage continuously records the weight of the receiving can plus the
accumulated rainfall by means of a spring mechanism or a system of balance weights. These
gauges are designed to prevent excessive evaporation losses by the addition of oil or other
evaporation-suppressing material to form a film over the surface. Weighing rain gages are
useful in recording snow, hail, and mixtures of snow and rain.

B. Float type rain gauge has a chamber containing a float that rises vertically as the water
level in the chamber rises. Vertical movement of the float is translated into movement of a
pen on a chart. A device for siphoning the water out of the gauge is used so that the total
amount of rainfall falling can be collected.
C. Tipping bucket type rain gage operates by means of a pair of buckets. The rainfall first
fills one bucket, which overbalances, directing the flow of water into the second bucket. The
flip-flop motion of the tipping buckets is transmitted to the recording device and provides a
measure of the rainfall intensity.

Radar

 Is an acronym (radio detection and ranging).

 The difficulties in calculation of a spatially distributed precipitation value from point
measurements make the direct estimation of areal precipitation an attractive proposition.
 There are two techniques that make some claim to achieving this: radar, and satellite
remote sensing. These approaches have many similarities, but they differ fundamentally
in the direction of measurement.
 Radar looks from the earth up into the atmosphere and tries to estimate the amount of
precipitation falling over an area.
 Satellite remote sensing looks from space down towards the earth surface and attempts to
estimate the amount of precipitation falling over an area.
  Radar can, in principle, provide estimates of rainfall at time resolutions as low as 5
minutes and spatial resolutions as fine as 1 km2, up to 10 000 km2. Radar can be used to
observe the location and movement of areas of precipitation. Certain types of radar
equipment can provide estimates of rainfall rates over areas within the range of the radar.
Radar is sometimes used to get a visual image of the pattern of rainfall-producing
thunderstorms and is particularly useful for tracking the movement of tornadoes.
 Like radar, satellites do not directly measure precipitation. However, precipitation rates
can be inferred from two indicators, namely cloud top brightness (measured by visible
light sensors) and cloud top temperature (measured by thermal infrared (TIR) sensors).
The brighter the top of the cloud, or the lower the temperature is the greater the
likelihood that precipitation is falling. Geostationary satellites such as Meteosat are most
useful as they provide imagery at high temporal and spatial resolution of a few
kilometers.
Gauge Networks
The World Metrological Organization established guidelines for the minimum density of
precipitation networks in various geographical regions as follows:
i. Small mountainous Islands with irregular precipitation, 25 km2 per gauge;
ii. Temperate, Mediterranean, and tropical mountainous regions, 100-250 km2 per gauge;
iii. Flat areas in temperate, Mediterranean, and tropical regions, 600-900 km2 per gauge
iv. Arid and polar regions, 1500-10,000 km2 per gauge
 More recent work at varying scales has indicated that the density of the gauge network alone
may not be all-important and that an improvement in accuracy may be affected by
incorporating a selective spatial and directional component into the network.
 Because of the spatial variability of precipitation, even the densest existing rain gauge
network can give only an approximate value of areal precipitation.
 This problem can be alleviated by the use of radar in combination with gauge network.
 Radar can show the areal variation of rainfall, variation with time, i.e. intensity
characteristics, and the movement of individual storm cells.
 Recent improvements in the output of Earth satellite data have established their usefulness in
supplementing existing networks by verifying the areal extent, direction of movement, and
character of rain storms.
 A number of lines of approach have been followed in the hope of achieving a World
Meteorological Organization objective of estimating 12 hourly rainfall intensity from
weather satellite data.
 Thus use has been made of the fact that precipitating clouds may be distinguished from non-
precipitating clouds through differences in emitted radiation, or differences in reflection
characteristics.
 Satellite evidence has also been used to detect previous rainfall through the relatively lower
reflectivity of wetted terrain. The most promising approach is to estimate monthly and daily
rainfall on the basis of statistical relationships between satellite and conventional weather
data.
2.2.4.1 Computation of Average Rainfall over a Basin
The gauge measurement recorded at a rain gauge station is converted into aerial averages as
knowledge of the average depth of rainfall over a river basin is essentially required in hydrologic
problems. Of the various methods of determining the average depth of precipitation over an area,
where one rain gauge is used, the recorded rainfall is applied for the entire area. Whereas, if we
use more than one rain gauge in a certain area the following methods are used to compute the
average rainfall over a basin:

1 .Arithmetic Mean Method

2. Thiessen polygon Method
3. Isohyetal Method

1. Arithmetic Mean Method

This is the simplest objective method of calculating the average rainfall over an area. The
simultaneous measurements for a selected duration at all gauges are summed and the total
divided by the number of gauges. The rainfall stations used in the calculation are usually those
inside the catchment area, but neighboring gauges outside the boundary may be included if it is
considered that the measurements are representative of the nearby parts of the catchment. The
arithmetic mean gives a very satisfactory measure of the areal rainfall under the following
conditions:

(a) The catchment area is sampled by many uniformly spaced rain gauges.
(b) The area has no marked diversity in topography, so that the range in altitude is small and
hence variation in rainfall amounts is minimal. The arithmetic mean is readily used when short-
duration rainfall events spread over the whole area under study and for monthly and annual
rainfall totals. This can be done by using the following equation

∑ P1
Pave= N

Where
Pave = average depth of rainfall over the area
P1 = sum of rainfall amounts at individual rain-gauge stations
N= number of rain-gauge stations in the area
This method is fast and simple and yields good estimates in flat country if the gauges are
uniformly distributed and the rainfall at different stations do not vary widely from the mean.
These limitations can be partially overcome if topographic influences and aerial representatively
are considered in the selection of gauge sites.
2. Thiessen Polygon Method
This method is also called weighted mean method. The method gives weight to the aerial
distribution of rain gauge stations in order to make allowance for the irregularities in gauge
spacing by weighting the rainfall of each gauges in proportion to the area that the gauge is
assumed to represent. This method assumes that, there is linear variation of rainfall between
stations and that the gauge at any one station can be used for the portion of the drainage area
nearest to that particular station.

Procedures of Thiessen polygon method

i. The location of the rain gauge is plotted on a map of watershed. Straight lines are then
drawn between the rain gauges to connect each of the stations each other.
ii. Perpendicular bisectors are then constructed on these connecting lines in such a way that
the bisectors enclose areas referred as Thiessen polygon ( All points within one polygon
will be closer to its rain gauge than to any of the others and The rain recorded is then
considered to represent the precipitation within the appropriate areas).
iii. Multiply the area of each Thiessen polygon with the rain gauge value of the station
enclosed.
iv. Find the total area (A) of the watershed
v. Determine the average precipitation over the watershed by using the following equation
P1 A1 P2 A2 P3 A3 ∑ P1 A 1
P= A + A + A +…….. ∑A

Where
 A= total basin area
 P = represents average depth of precipitation over the watershed of an area A

 P1+ P2+…….+Pn = represents the depth of precipitation in the polygon having area

 The results obtained are usually more accurate than those obtained by simple arithmetic
averaging.
 The gauges should be properly located over the catchment to get regular shaped polygons.
However, one of the serious limitations of the Thiessen method is its non-flexibility since a new
Thiessen diagram has to be constructed every time if there is a change in the rain gauge network.
3 .The Isohyetal Method
 This is a 3rd method of estimating the areal precipitation. Isohyet is referring to the line
connecting equal precipitation areas. This method is done by experienced meteorologists
especially with prepared isohytal method by meteorologists who know the nature of the
topography, wind direction, exposure etc.
 This is considered one of the most accurate methods, but it is subjective and dependent on
skilled, experienced analysts having a good knowledge of the rainfall characteristics of the
region containing the catchment area.

Procedures of Isohytal method

a. From the rainfall recorded at various rain gauge stations, prepare the isohyetal map of
the area (watershed/basin/catchment)
b. Measure the areas enclosed between successive Isohyets by means of planimeter or
graph papers.

c. Multiply each of these areas by the average rainfall intensity between the successive
Isohytes.
 n
riai
d. R=∑
i=1 A
Where

ai the area between each isohyet

ri the average rainfall between the isohyets and
A is the total catchment area.
2.2.4.2 Factors Affecting the Distribution of Precipitation

(a) Effects of Latitude

The global variation in the thermal environment in turn determines the pressure distribution.

At the high latitudes, e.g. poles, the low temperatures result in the contraction of air and hence
the development of high pressure.

At the low latitudes, e.g. TRF, the high temperatures along the equator result in the expansion of
air and hence the development of low pressure.

The spatial variation in the distribution of pressure results in the motion of air (winds) which
plays an important role in determines the amount and seasonal distribution of precipitation.

(b) Pressure System

The global distribution of precipitation is considered to be basically correlated with the planetary
pressure systems. Near to the Horse Latitude and the Polar regions where the pressure is high,
precipitation is scarce due to the subsiding air stream. However, near to the equatorial low
pressure belt and sub-polar low pressure belt, precipitation is abundant due to the strong updraft.

(c) Prevailing Wind

In general, the rainfall will be abundant and evenly distributed if the regions are of prevailing
onshore wind all the year. The rainfall will be little or scarce when the regions are of prevailing
offshore wind all the year. When regions, usually monsoon regions, lie in the path of rain-
bearing onshore wind for one season and in the path of non-bearing offshore wind in other
season, the distribution of rainfall will vary seasonally.

(d) Air Masses and Fronts

Our climate is affected by the nature and movements of air masses, fronts and cyclonic storms. Air
mass temperature decreases pole ward and the amount of precipitation produced by an air mass is
related to its available sources of moisture.
(e) Mountain barriers: In temperate latitudes, rainfall increases with elevation (wind slope)
because air expands and cools as it rise, probably resulting in orographic rainfall. However, in
tropical areas, precipitation may decrease with increasing altitude since much of the tropical
rainfall is of convective type.

As altitude increases, there will be a corresponding decrease in convection, The amount being
received will be smaller.

(f) Effect of Continentality

Under the influence of prevailing onshore wind, coastal areas will generally receive more
precipitation than that of continental regions. The amount of precipitation will steadily decrease
moving inland. Some coastal areas receive scarce precipitation when there are offshore winds.
The effect of continentality should be considered together with the direction of prevailing winds.

(g) Ocean Current

It is regarded as local factor as it operates over small area. A wind blowing over a cold current
becomes cooled and may lose most or all of its water vapor through condensation. When the
wind crosses over the land, it is not likely to produce rain. This happens off the coasts of
southern California. A wind blowing over a warm current is warmed and the rate of evaporation
increases. The wind becomes moist and when it crosses over the land, it will yield rain if it is
made to rise.

e.g. if it crosses a mountain range, westerly winds crossing the warm North Atlantic Drift
bring heavy rainfall to north western Europe.

2.3. Interception: Processes and Measurement

Interception is the term that covers a variety of processes that results from the temporary store of
precipitation by vegetation or manmade cover.

Vegetation often modifies the intensity and distribution of precipitation falling on and through its
leaves and woody structures. The most obvious effect plants have on falling precipitation is
interception. Vegetation can intercept up to 50 % of the rain that falls on its leaves. The leaves of
deciduous trees commonly intercept anywhere from 20 to 30 % of the falling rain. Water
dripping off leaves to the ground surface is technically called leaf drip.
Interception can be technically defined as the capture of precipitation by the plant canopy and
its subsequent return to the atmosphere through evaporation or sublimation. This refers to
precipitation that does not reach the soil, but is instead intercepted by the leaves and branches of
plants and the forest floor.

It occurs in the canopy (i.e. canopy interception), and in the forest floor or litter layer (i.e. forest
floor interception).Interception loss plays an important role in controlling the water balance of a
watershed, reduces runoff and increases rainfall intensity of an area.

The amount of precipitation intercepted by plants varies with leaf type, canopy architecture,
wind speed, available radiation, temperature, and the humidity of the atmosphere.

The main components of interception by vegetation are through fall, stem flow, and
interception loss. Through fall occurs either when precipitation falls through spaces in the
vegetation canopy or when precipitation drips from leaves and twigs. Stem flow designates
water that flows along twigs and branches with its ultimate delivery to the ground surface at the
main stem or trunk. Interception loss accounts for precipitation that is retained by plant surfaces
and later evaporated or absorbed by the plant.

Thus, the intercepted precipitation may follow one of the three possible ways:
1. It may retain by the vegetation as surface storage and returned to the atmosphere by
evaporation; a process called interception loss.
2. It can drop off the plant leaves to join the ground surface or the surface flow, called
Through fall, and
3. The rainwater may run along the leaves and branches and down the stem to reach the
ground surface, called stem flow.
Furthermore, vegetation can “harvest” water from the atmosphere directly through the
interception of fog or cloud water (known as horizontal or occult interception).
Interception loss is solely due to evaporation and does not include transpiration, through fall or
stem flow. Factors on which interception depends are:

(a) intensity and duration of storm, (b) density of trees, (c) types of trees and other obstructions,
(d) season of the year and (e) wind velocity at the time of precipitation.
2.3.1 Measurement of Interception
Interception on a single plant may be described in terms of the canopy storage (C) i.e. the
volume of water that can be held. The water drops that passes through the canopy to reach the
ground directly through the gaps in the canopy without striking the plant are known as through
fall (Tf). The volume of water lost by evaporation from the wetted canopy during some period
of time is known as the canopy interception loss (I).

The canopy storage (C) has often been estimated by using measurements of the weight gained by
a specimen (sample) canopy that is exposed to simulated rain. The volume of I has been
measured by measuring
1. The above canopy rainfall (P): The measurement of the incoming precipitation, i.e. the gross
precipitation measured using standard rain gauge. Rain gauge may be placed in areas where
interception is there (upper canopy) or on the ground where the forest is cleared.
2. The below canopy through fall (T) : Rain gauge placed under trees to measure the through fall
after falling through the canopy or the one falling after dipping from one leave to another and reach
rain gauge.
3. The stem flow (S): amount of precipitation which is flowing down the stem and collecting and
leading it to a collecting tank.
I = P-T-S
Measuring instruments:
a. Use of separate precipitation gauge (above the canopy)
b. Use of separate through fall gauges and
c. Stem flow collars (the collector tray technique)
2.4. Evapotranspiration: Processes and Measurement

Water is removed from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere by two distinct mechanisms:
evaporation and transpiration.
Evaporation
Can be defined as the process where liquid water is transformed into a gaseous state. Evaporation
can only occur when water is available. It also requires that the humidity of the atmosphere be
less than the evaporating surface (at 100 % relative humidity there is no more evaporation). The
evaporation process requires large amounts of energy. For example, the evaporation of one gram
of water requires 600 calories of heat energy. Solar energy drives evaporation of water from
oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources of water.
Evaporation as a process
It has already been said that evaporation requires an energy source and an available water supply
to transform liquid water into water vapor. There is one more precondition: that the atmosphere
be dry enough to receive any water vapor produced. These are the three fundamental parts to an
understanding of the evaporation process. This was first understood by Dalton (1766–1844), an
English physicist who linked wind speed and the dryness of the air to the evaporation rate.
i. Available energy
The main source of energy for evaporation is from the sun. This is not necessarily in the form of
direct radiation; it is often absorbed by a surface and then re-radiated at a different wavelength.
The normal term used to describe the amount of energy received at a surface is net radiation
(Q*), measured using a net radiometer. Net radiation is a sum of all the different heat fluxes
found at a surface and can be described by
Q* = Qs ± Ql ± Qg
Where
 (Q*),Net Radiation
 Qs, is the sensible heat flux;
 Ql, is the latent heat flux and
 Qg,is the soil heat flux.
 Sensible heat is that which can be sensed by instruments.
 This is most easily understood as the heat we feel as warmth. The sensible heat flux is the
rate of flow of that sensible heat.
 Latent heat is the heat either absorbed or released during a phase change from ice to liquid
water, or liquid water to water vapor.
 When water moves from liquid to gas this is a negative flux (i.e. Energy is absorbed) whereas
the opposite phase change (gas to liquid) produces a positive heat flux.
 The soil heat flux is heat released from the soil having been previously stored within the soil.
 This is frequently ignored as it tends to zero over a 24- hour period and is a relatively minor
contributor to net radiation.
 Incoming solar radiation is filtered by the atmosphere so that not all the wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum are received at the earth’s surface.
 Incoming radiation that reaches the surface is often referred to as short-wave radiation:
visible light plus some bands of the infrared.
 This is not strictly true as clouds and water vapor in the atmosphere, plus trees and tall
buildings above the surface, emit longer-wave radiation this also reaches the surface.
 Outgoing radiation can be either reflected shortwave radiation or energy radiated back by the
earth’s surface.
 In the latter case this is normally in the infrared band and longer wavelengths and is referred
to as long-wave radiation. This is a major source of energy for evaporation.
There are two other forms of available energy that under certain circumstances may be important
sources in the evaporation process.
The first is heat stored in buildings from an anthropogenic source (e.g. Domestic heating). This
energy source is often fuelled from organic sources and may be a significant addition to the heat
budget in an urban environment, particularly in the winter months.
The second additional source is advective energy. This is energy that originates from elsewhere
(another region that may be hundreds or thousands of kilometers away) and has been transported
to the evaporative surface (frequently in the form of latent heat) where it becomes available
energy in the form of sensible heat.
ii. Available water supply
 Available water supply can be from water directly on the surface in a lake, river or pond.
 In this case it is open water evaporation (eo). When the water is lying within soil the
water supply becomes more complex. Soil water may evaporate directly, although it is
normally only from the near surface.
 As the water is removed from the surface it sets up a soil moisture gradient that will draw
water from deeper in the soil towards the surface, but it must overcome the force of
gravity and the withholding force exerted by soil capillaries.
 In addition to this the water may be brought to the surface by plants using osmosis in
their rooting system.
The way that soil moisture controls the transformation from potential evaporation to actual
evaporation is complex.

iii. Receiving atmosphere

  Once the available water has been transformed into water vapor, using whatever energy
source is available, it then must be absorbed into the atmosphere surrounding the surface.
 This process of diffusion requires that the atmosphere is not already saturated with water
vapor and that there is enough buoyancy to move the water vapor away from the surface.
 These two elements can be assessed in terms of the vapor pressure deficit and
atmospheric mixing.
 We use this relationship to describe the relative humidity of the atmosphere (i.e. How
close to fully saturated the atmosphere is).
 Another method of looking at the amount of water vapor in a parcel of air is to describe
the vapor pressure and hence the saturation vapor pressure.
 The difference between the actual vapor pressure and the saturation vapor pressure is the
vapor pressure deficit (vpd).
 The vapor pressure deficit (vpd) is a measure of how much extra water vapor the
atmosphere could hold assuming a constant temperature and pressure.
 The higher the vpd the more water can be absorbed from an evaporative surface.
 Atmospheric mixing is a general term meaning how well a parcel of air is able to diffuse into
the atmosphere surrounding it.
 The best indicator of atmospheric mixing is the wind speed at different heights above an
evaporating surface.
 If the wind speed is zero the parcel of air will not move away from the evaporative surface
and will ‘fill’ with water vapor.
 As the wind speed increases, the parcel of air will be moved quickly on to be replaced by
another, possibly drier, parcel ready to absorb more water vapor.
 If the evaporative surface is large (e.g. A lake) it is important that the parcel of air moves Up
into the atmosphere, rather than directly along at the same level, so that there is drier air
replacing it.
 This occurs through turbulent diffusion of the air. There is a greater turbulence associated
with air passing over a rough surface than a smooth one, something that will be returned to in
the discussion of evaporation estimation.
2.4.1. Measurement of Evaporation
Evaporation can be measured directly or indirectly. The choice of methods used to
determine evaporation depends on the required accuracy of results and the type of
instrumentation available.
1. Direct micro-meteorological measurement
There are three main methods used to measure evaporation directly:
 The Eddy Fluctuation (Or Correlation),
 Aerodynamic Profile, and
 Bowen Ratio Methods.
An important point to remember about them all is that they are attempting to measure how much
water is being evaporated above a surface, a very difficult task.
The Eddy Fluctuation Method:
 This method measures the water vapor above a surface in conjunction with a vertical
wind speed and temperature profiles.
 It has to be measured at extremely short timescales (e.g. microseconds) to account for
eddies in vertical wind motion.
 Consequently, extremely detailed micrometeorological instrumentation is required with
all instruments having a rapid response time. In recent years this has become possible
with hot wire anemometers and extremely fine thermostat heads for thermometers.
One difficulty is that you are necessarily measuring over a very small surface area and it may be
difficult to scale up to something of interest to catchment-scale hydrology.
The Aerodynamic Profile (Or Turbulent Transfer) Method:
 This method is based on a detailed knowledge of the energy balance over a surface.
 The fundamental idea is that by calculating the amount of energy available for
evaporation the actual evaporation rate can be determined.
 The measurements required are changes in temperature and humidity giving vertical
humidity gradients.
 To use this method it must be assumed that the atmosphere is neutral and stable, two
conditions that are not always applicable.
The Bowen ratio method:
It is similar to the aerodynamic profile method but does not assume as much about the
atmospheric conditions.
The Bowen ratio is the ratio of sensible heat to latent heat and requires detailed measurement of
net radiation, soil heat flux, temperature and humidity gradient above a surface.
These measurements need to be averaged over a 30-minute period to allow the inherent
assumptions to apply.
All of these micro-meteorological approaches to measuring evaporation use sophisticated
instruments that are difficult to leave in the open for long periods of time. In addition to this they
are restricted in their spatial scope (i.e. they only measure over a small area). With these
difficulties it is not surprising that they tend to be used at the very small scale, mostly to calibrate
estimation techniques.
2. Indirect measurement (water balance techniques)
A. Evaporation pans

The most common method for the measurement of evaporation is using evaporation pans. This is
a large pan of water with a water depth measuring instrument or weighing device underneath that
allows you to record how much water is lost through evaporation over a time period.

This technique is actually a manipulation of the water balance equation, hence the terminology
used here of a water balance technique. An evaporation pan is constructed from impervious
material and the water level is maintained below the top so that no seepage or leakage occurs.
This eliminates runoff (Q term) from the water balance. Therefore it can be assumed that any
change in storage is related to either evaporative loss or precipitation gain. This means that the
water balance equation

E=∆S-P

If there is a precipitation gauge immediately adjacent to the evaporation pan the P term can be
accounted for, leaving only the change in storage (ΔS) to be measured as either a weight loss or a
drop in water depth. At a standard meteorological station the evaporation is measured daily as
the change in water depth. For a finer temporal resolution (e.g.) there are load cell instruments
available which measure and record the weight at regular intervals.
  An evaporation pan is filled with water; hence you are measuring Eo, the open water
evaporation. Although this is useful, there are severe problems with using this value as an
indicator of actual evaporation (Et) in a catchment.

 The first problem is that Eo will normally be considerably higher than Et because the
majority of evaporation in a catchment will be occurring over a land surface where the
available water is contained within soil and may be limited.
 This will lead to a large overestimation of the actual evaporation. This factor is well
known and consequently evaporation pans are rarely used in catchment water balance
studies, although they are useful for estimating water losses from lakes and reservoirs.
Floating Pans, Land Pan and Colorado Sunken Pans are the most common example
of evaporation pans.

B. Pan Coefficient

 Evaporation pan data cannot be applied to free water surfaces directly but most be
adjusted for the differences in physical and climatological factors.
 For example the small volume of water in the metallic pan is greatly affected by the air
Or by the solar radiation in contrast with large bodies of water in the reservoir with little
temperature fluxion .
Thus the simple ways of pan evaporation data have to be corrected to obtain the actual
evaporation from water surfaces of lake and reservoirs i.e. by multiplying by a
coefficient called pan coefficient.
Lake evaporation
Pan coefficient =
Pan evaporation

o the experimental volume for pan coefficients range from 0.67 to 0.82 with an average of
0.7

C. Lysimeters
A lysimeter takes the same approach to measurement as the evaporation pan, the fundamental
difference being that a lysimeter is filled with soil and vegetation as opposed to water. This
difference is important, as Et rather than Eo is being indirectly measured. A lysimeter can also be
made to blend in with the surrounding land cover, lessening the edge effect described for an
evaporation pan.
There are many versions of lysimeters in use, but all use some variation of the water balance
equation to estimate what the evaporation loss has been. One major difference from an
evaporation pan is that a lysimeter allows percolation through the bottom, although the amount is
measured.
 Percolation is necessary so that the lysimeter mimics as closely as possible the soil
surrounding it; without any it would fill up with water.
 In the same manner as an evaporation pan it is necessary to measure the precipitation
input immediately adjacent to the lysimeter. Assuming that the only runoff (Q) is
through percolation, the water balance equation for a lysimeter
E=∆ S−P−Q
 A lysimeter faces similar problems to a rain gauge in that it is attempting to measure the
evaporation that would be lost from a surface if the lysimeter were not there.
 The difference from a rain gauge is that what is contained in the lysimeter should closely
match the surrounding plants and soil.
 Although it is never possible to recreate the soil and plants within a lysimeter perfectly, a
close approximation can be made and this represents the best efforts possible to measure
evaporation.
 Although lysimeters potentially suffer from the same edge effect as evaporation pans, the
ability to match the Surrounding vegetation means there is much less of an edge effect.
2.4.2. Estimation of Evaporation
The difficulties in measuring evaporation using either micro-meteorological instruments
(problematic when used over long time periods and at the catchment scale) or water balance
techniques (accumulated errors and small scale) has led to much effort being placed on
estimating evaporation rather than trying to actually measure it. Some of the Techniques
outlined below are complicated and this sometimes leads hydrologists to believe that they are
measuring, rather than estimating, evaporation. What they are actually doing is taking
climatologically variables that are known to influence evaporation and simulating
evaporation rates from these: an estimation technique. The majority of research effort in this
 field has been to produce models to estimate evaporation; however, more recently, satellite
remote sensing has provided another method of estimating the evaporation flux.

The techniques described here represent a range of sophistication and they are certainly not
all universally applicable. Almost all of these are concerned with estimating the potential
evaporation over a land surface. As with most estimation techniques the hydrologist is
required to choose the best techniques for the study situation.

There are two major approaches to calculating evaporation from open water, Eo. The mass
transfer method, sometimes called the vapour flux method, calculates the upward flux of water
vapour from the evaporating surface. The second or energy budget method considers the heat
sources and sinks of the water body and air and isolates the energy required for the evaporating
process.

The Hydrological Budget and Water Balances

 A water budget comprised of the components of the hydrological cycles can be

formulated
 It is an accounting of the inflow, out flow and storage of water in a designated
hydrological system.
 The development of an equation for the water budget of a hydrological region is straight
for word.
 For a designated time period it provides for balancing the gains and losses of water in the
region with the quantities of water stored in the region.
2.4.3. Factors Affecting Evaporation from Free Water Surface
1. Meteorological factors
 Temperature: it is the major source of heat energy for natural evaporation. When the
temperature of the evaporating surface increases, the vapor pressure of the water
molecules increases, resulting in high rate of evaporation.
 Humidity - the amount of water vapor in the air affects the rate of evaporation. When
the air above the evaporating surface is saturated with vapor, the rate
 of evaporation will be lowered. Saturation is the state where the air is full of vapor and
has no more space to hold additional vapor molecules.
 Wind: - incoming fresh wind removes the vapor molecules above the evaporating
surface and makes space free for other vapor molecules. If the incoming fresh air is
warm, blowing over heated ground, it provides extra heat to increase the process of
evaporation. If the incoming fresh air is cold, it reduces evaporation.
 Atmospheric pressure: – When the density of the overlying air decreases, more water
molecules can escape from the water surface very easily.
2. Physical Factors
 Soluble materials – when so much dissolved substance is accumulated in water bodies it
reduces the vapor pressure of the water- this process obviously reduces the rate of
evaporation. Since the rate of evaporation is proportional to the vapor pressure difference
between the water surface and the overlying air, lowering that of the water will reduce
evaporation. Evaporation decreases by about 1% for every 1% increase in salinity.
 Nature of evaporating surface - the amount of evaporation from any surface is
determined by the quantity of the water available to saturate the surface.
 Shape of evaporating surface- here shape has to do with the volume and depth of water
which significantly affects evaporation.
 Soil capillary characteristic- evaporation is greater in coarse textured soils like sand
than in fine textured soils
 Soil color – dark soils absorb more heat than lighter soils and affects evaporation rate.
 Vegetation cover – the presence of vegetation reduces the soil evaporation by shading
the surface from the direct rays of the sun.

2.5. Transpiration

Transpiration is the process of water loss from plants through stomata. Stomata are small
openings found on the underside of leaves that are connected to vascular plant tissues
(photosynthesis and respiration).

 Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of

distinguishing between the two processes.
  Evapotranspiration (ET) is the loss of water (H2O) from vegetation through the combined
processes of soil evaporation and plant transpiration.

 The rooting system of plants absorbs water in varying quantities. Most of this water is
transmitted through the plant and escapes through pores in the leaf systems. This is
known as stomata transpiration.
 Plants also lose water by other mechanisms but usually this negligible compared with that
lost through the microscopic leaf apertures and enters the atmosphere.
 Transpiration is basically a process by which water is evaporative from the air spaces in
plant leaves.
 It is estimated that about 10% of the moisture found in the atmosphere is released by
plant through transpiration.

2.5.1 Factors affecting transpiration

The amount of water that the plant transpires varies greatly geographical and over time. There
are a number of factors that determine transpiration rates.

Relative humidity
 As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the transpiration rates falls.
 It is easier for water to evaporate in to dryer air than in to more saturated air.
Soil moisture availability:
 When moisture is lacking plant can be begin to senesce premature ageing which can
result in leaf loss and transpire less water.
 Soil moisture content when reduced to the point (stage) at which plants to the wilting
point (stages at which plants wilt and do not recover in a humid atmosphere).
 The effects transpiration of decrease soils moistures above the weighting point are not
clearly established and are somewhat controversial. Never the less ,it appears that as long
as soil moistures lies between the limits of the wilting point and field capacity (the
amount of water retained in a soil against gravity offer percolation ceases) .
Solar radiation:
 Evaporation is a process that is taking place almost without interruption during the hours
of daylight and often during the night also.
  Since the change of state of the molecules of water from liquid to gas requires an energy
input (known as the latent heat of vaporization) the process is most active under the direct
radiation of the sun.
 It follows those clouds, which prevent the full spectrum of the sun’s radiation reaching
the earth’s surface, will reduce the energy input and so slow up the process of
evaporation.
Wind:
As the water vaporizes into the atmosphere, the boundary layer between earth and air becomes
saturated and this layer must be removed and continually replaced by dryer air if evaporation is
to proceed. This movement of the air in the bound any layer depends on wind and so the wind
speed is important. Diffusion of water vapor from plant leaves to the atmosphere is proportional
to the vapor pressure gradient at the leaf atmosphere interface upon absorbing solar radiation. A
leaf tends to becomes warmer than the surrounding air often by as much as (5-10 ℉ ). It has also
been demonstrated that transpiration and the rate of plant growth are related. Below a
temperature of about 40℉ the amount of water transpired is considered negligible. Different
species and types of plants offer display considerably different demands on soil moisture even if
the some environmental condition prevails.

2.5.2. Measurements of Transpiration

 Various methods are devised by botanists for the measurement of transpiration and one of
the widely used methods is by phytometer.
 It consists of a closed water tight tank with sufficient soil for plant growth with only the
plant exposed; water is applied artificially till the plant growth is complete.
 The equipment is weighed in the beginning (W1) and at the end of the experiment (W2).
Water applied during the growth (w) is measured and the water consumed by
transpiration (Wt) is obtained as
Wt= (W1 + w) – W2
 The experimental values (from the protected growth of the plant in the laboratory) have
to be multiplied by a coefficient to obtain the possible field results.
  Transpiration ratio is the ratio of the weight of water absorbed (through the root system),
conveyed through and transpired from a plant during the growing season to the weight of
the dry matter produced exclusive of roots.
weight of water transpired
Transpiration ratio = weight of dry matter produced

 For the weight of dry matter produced, sometimes, the useful crops such as grains of
wheat, gram, etc. are weighed.
 The values of transpiration ratio for different crops vary from 300 to 800 and for rice it
varies from 600 to 800 the average being 700.
 Evaporation losses are high in arid regions where water is impounded while transpiration
is the major water loss in humid regions.
2.6. Evapo-transpiration: The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost
from the surface of water bodies and from the soil surface by evaporation and from plants by
transpiration. Evapotranpiration (ET) is a collective term for all processes through which water
in liquid or solid form becomes atmospheric water vapor. It includes evaporation from bare
soil, lakes and rivers and vegetative surfaces. It also includes transpiration, which represents
evaporation from within the leaves of plants through stomata openings. ET is the primary link
in the global hydrologic cycle between the land and the atmosphere. It plays a key role in runoff
and water availability and agriculture.
2.6.1. Measurement of Evapo-Transpiration
The rate of evaporation is defined as the amount of water evaporated from a unit surface area per
unit of time. It can be expressed as the mass or volume of liquid water evaporated per area in unit
of time, usually as the equivalent depth of liquid water evaporated per unit of time from the
whole area. The unit of time is normally a day. The amount of evaporation should be read in
millimeters. Evapotranspiration is measured with evaporimeters, which may be classified as:

a. atmometers
b. pan or tank evaporimeters
c. Evapo-transpirometer (lysimeter)
An atmometer is an instrument that measures the loss of water from a wetted, porous surface.
pan or tank evaporimeters: The rate of evaporation from a pan or tank evaporimeter is
measured by the change in level of its free water surface. Several types of automatic evaporation
pans are in use. The water level in such a pan is kept constant by releasing water into the pan
from a storage tank or by removing water from the pan when precipitation occurs. The amount
of water added to, or removed from, the pan is recorded. Daily evaporation is computed from the
water balance of the pan, which is the difference between the change in storage in the pan and
inputs of precipitation and water added to maintain an adequate supply in the pan for
evaporation. Because of its apparent simplicity, the evaporation pan is probably the instrument
used most widely to estimate evaporation.

Evapotranspirometer (lysimeter) is a vessel or container placed below the ground surface and
filled with soil, which may be planted with vegetation. Lysimeters are continually weighed to
monitor changes in storage. By growing different types of vegetation on the soil block, it is
possible to determine actual evaporation under different conditions, and by ensuring the soil
block is well supplied with water it is possible to measure potential evaporation. Lysimeters,
however, can be very expensive to install and are generally only used as research instruments.

2.7. Infiltration

Infiltration is the process of water entry from surface sources such as rainfall, snowmelt, or
irrigation into the soil. The infiltration process is a component in the overall unsaturated
redistribution process that results in soil moisture availability for use by vegetation transpiration,
exfiltration (or evaporation) processes, chemical transport, and groundwater recharge. It is most
often described as moisture in the unsaturated surface layers (first 1 to 2 m) of soil that can
interact with the atmosphere through evapotranspiration and precipitation.

Some basic principles that govern the movement of water into the soil can be used to predict
infiltration. The infiltration capacity, f (L), is the maximum rate that a soil in a given condition
can absorb water and generally decreases as soil moisture increases. If the rainfall rate is less
than the infiltration capacity, then infiltration proceeds at the capacity rate. However, if the
rainfall rate exceeds the infiltration capacity, then infiltration proceeds at the capacity rate, and
the excess rainfall ponds on the surface or runs off. As the time from the onset of rainfall
increases, infiltration rates decrease due to soil moisture increases, raindrop impact, and the
clogging of soil pores, until a steady-state infiltration rate is reached.

2.7.1. Factors Affecting Infiltration

Surface factor: If a soil surface is bare, the impact of raindrops causes in washing of finer
particles and clogs the surface. This retards infiltration. An area covered by grass and other
bushy plants has better infiltration capacity than a barren land. Furthermore, soil covered with
vegetation has greater infiltration than barren land. Because of growth and decay of roots
and bacterial activities, dense natural forest provides good infiltration than sparsely planted crops
Soil moisture condition: Infiltration depends on the presence of moisture in the soil. For the
second storm in succession, the soil will have lesser rate of infiltration than the first maiden
storm of the season. Except sandy soil most other soils have swelling ingredients, which swells
in presence of water and reduce infiltration rate to the extent of their presence.
Climatic factors: Temperature affects the viscosity of water and the flow being directly related
to viscosity. In summer therefore, less viscous water causes more infiltration than in winter.
Rainfall intensity: Other climatic that influence infiltration rate. During heavy rainfall, the
topsoil is affected by mechanical compaction and by the in wash of finer material. This leads to
faster decrease in the rate of infiltration than with low intensities of rainfall.
Human activities: When crops are grown or grass covers a barren land, the rate of infiltration is
increased. On the other hand construction of roads, houses etc reduce infiltration capacity of an
area considerably.
Quality of water: Water containing silt, salts and other impurities affect the infiltration to the
extent they are present. Salts present affect the viscosity of water and may also react chemically
with soil to form complexes, which obstruct the porosity of soil, thereby affecting infiltration.
Silts clog the pore spaces retarding infiltration rate considerably.
Grain size of soil particle: Other factors remaining the same, infiltration rate is directly
proportional to the grain size diameter. When swelling minerals like illite and montmorillonite
are present in soils, the infiltration rate reduces.

2.7.2 Infiltration Measurement

Infiltration rates can be measured at a point using a variety of methods described here, each
appropriate for certain conditions. However, because of the large temporal and spatial variability
of infiltration processes, catchment average infiltration rates may be desired, which can be
obtained through the water balance analysis of rainfall runoff observations.
Ring Infiltrometer: This simple method is most appropriate for flood irrigation or pond
seepage infiltration. A cylindrical metal ring is sealed at the surface and flooded. Intake
measurements are recorded until steady-state conditions are reached. If the effects of lateral flow
are significant, then a double-ring infiltrometer can be used. Due to ponding conditions within
the ring, observed infiltration rates are often higher than under natural conditions.

Sprinkler Infiltrometer. This method is appropriate for quantifying infiltration from rainfall.
Artificial rainfall simulators are used to deliver a specified rainfall rate to a well-defined plot.
Runoff from the plot is measured, allowing computation of the infiltration rate.
Tension Infiltrometer. The tension or disk infiltrometer employs a soil contact plate and a water
column that is used to control the matric potential of the infiltrating water. By varying the
tension, the effect of different size macropores can be determined.
Furrow Infiltrometer. This method is useful if information on infiltration of flowing water in
irrigation furrows is desired. Either the water added to a small section of blocked off furrow to
maintain a constant depth or the inflow outflow of a furrow segment can be monitored to
determine the infiltration characteristics of the system.

2.7.3 Actual and Potential Evapotranspiration

Often, scientists characterize between two different aspects of evapotranspiration: potential

evapotranspiration and actual evapotranspiration.

Potential evapotranspiration or PE is a measure of the ability of the atmosphere to remove

water from the surface through the processes of evaporation and transpiration assuming no
control on water supply.

Actual evapotranspiration or AE is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a

surface due to the processes of evaporation and transpiration.

Scientists consider these two types of evapotranspiration for the practical purpose of water
resource management. Around the world humans are involved in the production of a variety of
plant crops. Many of these crops grow in environments that are naturally short of water. As a
result, irrigation is used to supplement the crop's water needs. Managers of these crops can
determine how much supplemental water is needed to achieve maximum productivity by
estimating potential and actual evapotranspiration. Estimates of these values are then used in the
following equation:

Crop water need = potential evapotranspiration - actual evapotranspiration

Thus PE is the maximum value of the actual evaporation (Et): PE = E when water supply is
unlimited.

 The rate of ET for a given environment (vegetation) is a function of four critical factors:
 soil moisture - ET simply cannot take place if there is no water in the soil
 plant type,
 stage of plant development, and
 weather : solar radiation (amount of sunshine), wind speed, humidity and temperature

Unit Three
Water Balance and Water Resources

3.1 Soil Water: Type, Movement, and Measurement

Soils are generally made up of different layers or horizons, each with different properties. The
“soil profile” characterizes the variation in soil properties with depth, and varies between soil
types, depending on the characteristics of the bedrock, the time over which the soil has
developed, and the processes three phases operating on the soil profile (which are largely a
function of climate). The soil system is made up of: the solid phase, consisting of mineral and
organic particles, the gaseous phase, consisting of the air stored within the soil, and the liquid
phase, consisting of the water and the associated dissolved matter held within the soil. Water and
air are held in pores in the soil, and the size and distribution of these pore spaces depend on soil
texture and structure. Soil texture is a function of the size distribution of the mineral and
organic particles in the soil. Soil structure is determined by the way in which the soil particles are
aggregated together into peds. Lines of weakness between peds can be important flow pathways,
and soil structure is a function of soil formation, soil stability and, significantly, vegetation and
disturbance. Structural voids can also store water.

Infiltration is the process of water entry in to soil from rainfall, snowmelt, or irrigation. Soil
water movement is the process of water flow from one point to another within the soil. These
processes cannot be separated as the rate of infiltration is controlled by the rate of soil water
movement below the surface and the soil water movement continues after an infiltration event, as
the infiltrated water is redistributed. The soil water movement also controls the supply of water
for plant uptake and for evaporation at the soil surface. Infiltration and soil water movement play
a key role in surface runoff, groundwater recharge, evapotranspiration, soil erosion, and transport
of chemicals in surface and subsurface water.
3.1.2 Properties affecting Soil Water Movement
The soil properties affecting soil water movement are hydraulic conductivity (a measure of the
soil’s ability to transmit water) and water retention characteristics (the ability of the soil to store
and release water. These soil water properties are closely related to soil physical properties.
The water retention characteristics of the soil describes the soil’s ability to store and release
water and is defined as the relationship between soil water content and soil suction or matric
potential.
The hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the ability of the soil to transmit water and depends
up on both the properties of the soil and the fluid.
Total porosity, pore size distribution, pore continuity and the important soil characteristics are
affecting hydraulic conductivity. Fluid properties affecting hydraulic conductivity are viscosity
and density.
Soil physical and chemical properties affecting soil water properties are:
A. Particle size properties: particle size properties are determined from the size distribution of
individual particles in the soil sample. Soil particles smaller than 2mm are divided in to three
soil texture groups (sand, silt, and clay). Thus, the particle size properties which have the
greatest effect on soil water retention are the percentage of sand, silt, and clay.
B. Morphological properties: the morphological properties having the greatest effect on soil
water properties are bulk density, organic matter, and clay type. These properties are closely
related to soil structure and soil surface area. Bulk density is defined as the ratio of the
 weight of dry solids to the bulk volume of the soil. As bulk density increases, water retention
and hydraulic conductivity near saturation decreases. Also, water retention increases as the
amount of soil organic matter increases. In soil containing a large percentage of clay (>10%)
the clay mineralogy or clay type has a significant effect on soil water properties. For
example, expandable clays such as montmorillonite have significantly lower hydraulic
conductivity and higher water retention than nonexpendable clays such as kaolinite.
C. Chemical properties: chemical properties of the soil are also important because they affect
the integrity of soil aggregates (groups of soil particles bound together).
3.1.3 Measurement of Soil Water Properties
Soil water content can be determined by direct and indirect methods. The gravimetric method is
the primary direct method. Indirect methods involve inferring the soil water content from the
measurement of a soil property or property of an object placed in the soil that is affected by soil
water content. Indirect methods include radiological methods, electrical resistance, time-domain
reflectometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, and remote sensing techniques.
3.2 Stream Flow (Stream Hydrology)
Stream flow is defined as the amount of water in a river channel, typically expressed as the
volume of flow passing a defined point over a specific time period: it is usually measured as m3
s_1 (cumecs) or, for smaller streams, in liters s-1, and often termed discharge. Runoff is rather
more loosely defined as the amount of precipitation that is not evaporated. It is usually expressed
as a depth of water (in millimeters) across the area that the precipitation falls on (typically a
catchment). The depth of runoff can be estimated by simply distributing the stream flow
measured at the catchment outlet across the catchment area - but there are circumstances in
which not all the runoff generated in a catchment reaches the catchment outlet. Some of the
runoff generated at the top of a slope may infiltrate into soil further down slope, for example.

Some of the river flow may percolate from the river bed into groundwater, or some may be
evaporated from wetlands or lakes along the river course. Stream flow and runoff are therefore
related - but not necessarily the same.
Stream flow is the flow rate or discharge of water in cubic feet per second ft 3/s) or cubic meter
per second (m3/s), along a defined natural channel. It is the component of the hydrologic cycle
which transfers water, originally falling as rain or snow on to the watershed, from the land
surface to the oceans. Hence stream flow at a particular point on a channel system is contributed
by runoff from the watershed (also known as the catchment or drainage basin) upstream of that
point, and return flow from the groundwater aquifer.

3.2.1 Source of Stream Flow

The watershed, or catchment, is the area of land draining into a stream at a given location. To
describe how the various surface water processes vary through time during a storm, suppose that
precipitation of a constant rate begins and continue indefinitely on a watershed. Precipitation
contributes to various storage and flow processes.
Initially, a large proportion of the precipitation contributes to surface storage', as water infiltrates
into the soil, there is also soil moisture storage. There are two types of storage: retention arid
detention', retention is storage held for a long period of time and depleted by evaporation, and
detention is short-term storage depleted by flow away from the storage location.
Channel flow is the main form of surface water flow, and all the other surface flow processes
contribute to it. Determining flow rates in stream channels is a central task of surface water
hydrology. The precipitation which becomes stream flow may reach the stream by overland
flow, subsurface flow, or both.

3.2.3 Stream Flow Generation

In general terms, it is possible to draw a broad distinction between “quick flow”, which is the
short-term result of an input of precipitation to the catchment and “base flow”, which is the
slower drainage of stored water and which sustains river flows when there is no precipitation,
although in practice there is a graduation between the two.
There are four main ways in which precipitation (rainfall or snowmelt) becomes runoff and
stream flow:
Direct precipitation is precipitation falling directly into the open water of the river network,
lakes and ponds. This tends to be very small, because only a small proportion of a catchment is
typically covered with open water, but it does of course produce an immediate response to
precipitation.
Overland flow is water that runs across the surface of the catchment towards the river channel.
There are three types. Infiltration-excess overland flow (or Hortonian overland flow, named for
the hydrologist who first described it) occurs when the rainfall rate is greater than the infiltration
capacity. Water cannot infiltrate, so runs off the surface in a down slope direction. Saturation
overland flow occurs when the soil profile is saturated. In this case, overland flow occurs—
regardless of the difference between rainfall intensity and infiltration rate—due to the soil's
inability to absorb any more water. Water moves fast as overland flow, so precipitation would
soon reach a river channel.
Return flow occurs when water that is flowing down slope through the soil reaches an
impermeable barrier - such as an area of saturated soil - and emerges at the surface.
Through flow is water that flows through the soil above the groundwater. Again, there are three
broad types.
Unsaturated through flow, rather obviously, is lateral down slope flow in unsaturated soil. This
is very slow because the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soil is low.
Saturated through flow is lateral down slope flow in saturated soil. This is substantially faster
than unsaturated through flow. Both unsaturated and saturated through flow tend to occur in
defined parts of the soil, typically at the boundary between permeable and relatively
impermeable soil layers, at the interface between the soil and the bedrock, and in layers with
high permeability.
Pipe flow is flow in macro pores and soil pipes within the soil. This is faster than saturated
through flow, although the time it takes for water to reach a river depends on the connectivity of
the macro pore network. Rapid through flow through pipes, macrospores, highly-permeable
layers or at the boundary between permeable and impermeable layers is frequently termed
preferential flow.
Groundwater discharge is drainage from water stored as groundwater. This usually provides
river base flow, with the amount of discharge related to the volume of water stored in the aquifer.
Groundwater discharge tends to be slow, although it can be very rapid where the water table is
shallow, as it usually is close to the river channel. Generally, the relative importance of these
four different pathways varies between catchments, depending on catchment physical properties,
climate and time.

Stream flow may be perennial, in a channel which never dies up, intermittent, in which at drier
times of year may have some reaches with flowing water interspersed with other reaches in
which the water flows below the surface, and ephemeral, in a channel which flows only after
rainfall. For perennial stream flow to occur requires that the groundwater table intersect the
stream bed; otherwise seepage will cause the channel to dry up.

3.2.4 Controls of Stream flow

Stream flow, as both a process and storage component of hydrologic cycle reflects the volume of
water supplied to a watershed as and other forms of precipitation, the rate of operation of other
hydrologic processes (interception, infiltration, and evapotranspiration), and change in the
volume of other storages (lakes, aquifers, snowpack, soil moisture).
The stream flow rate at a particular point in time, at a particular point on a drainage system,
integrates all the hydrologic processes and storages upstream of that point. The rate depends up
on such factors as:
A the sequence and size of rainfall event
B the seasonal distribution of and nature of precipitation
C the extent, type, and transpiration of the vegetation cover
D the infiltration capacity of the soil mantle
E the topography of the watershed.
In many watersheds, stream flow is also strongly modified by human activity such as
withdrawals for irrigation, inter-basin water transfers, and discharges of waste water.
3.2.5 Stream Networks
In hydrology, the geomorphology of the watershed, or quantitative study of the surface landform,
is used to arrive at measures of geometric similarity among watersheds, especially among their
stream networks.
The quantitative study of stream networks was originated by Horton (1945). He developed a
system for ordering stream networks and derived laws relating the number and length of streams
of different order. Horton's stream ordering system, as slightly modified by Strahler (1964), is as
follows:
The smallest recognizable channels are designated order 1; these channels normally flow only
during wet weather. Where two channels of order 1 join, a channel of order 2 results
downstream; in general, where two channels of order i join, a channel of order i + 1 results.
Where a channel of lower order joins a channel of higher order, the channel downstream retains
the higher of the two orders. The order of the drainage basin is designated as the order of the
stream draining its outlet, the highest stream order in the basin, I.

Horton (1945) found empirically that the bifurcation ratio RB, or ratio of the number Ni, of
channels of order i to the number Ni +1 of channels of order i + 1 is relatively constant from one
order to another. This is Horton's Law of Stream Numbers:

Ni/Ni+1= RB i= 1, 2, …..

The theoretical minimum value of the bifurcation ratio is 2, and values typically lie in the range
3-5 (Strahler, 1964). By measuring the length of each stream, the average length of streams of
each order, Li, can be found. Horton proposed a Law of Stream Lengths in which the average
lengths of streams of successive orders are related by a length ratio
RL:
Li +1/Li =RL

3.3 Groundwater Hydrology

Is water located in beneath the ground surface in the soil pore spaces and in the fracture of
lithologic formation. The central / umbrella disciplines of ground water are hydrogeology. This
means geology of water and that studies the movement of water though rock; the branch of
geology that studies the movement of sub surface water through rocks and their effects on
moving water. Hydrogeology may be defined as the science of those processes and phenomena
resulting from the interaction between ground water and rock i.e it studies ground water and
rock. Groundwater includes all subsurface water including that contained within the soil, within
the loose regolith, and in bedrock. Under conditions of modest precipitation and good drainage,
water infiltrating into the ground first passes through a level where both air and water fill pore
spaces within soil and rock. This level is called the zone of aeration because the soil and rocks
contain air.

Further downward movement brings the water to a second level, called the zone of saturation,
where all the openings are completely filled with water. The water table is a surface that marks
the upper limit of the zone of saturation. Water tables do not remain at a fixed depth below the
land surface. The water table in a particular area fluctuates with the quantity of recent
precipitation, loss by outflow to the surface, and the amount of removal by pumping. After heavy
precipitation or snowmelt, a water table will rise. Because the depth to a water table generally
reflects the precipitation amount for a given location (minus evaporation and other losses), they
generally lie closer to the surface in humid regions and tend to be deep underground in arid
regions.

The earth’s crust can be divided into two regions .the saturated zone in which all available
spaces are filled with water and unsaturated zone where there are still pockets of air with some
water that can be replaced by water. This is an area above the water table.

Characteristics of Ground water

Porosity and permeability

In the upper few kilometers of the earth, bed rocks and soil contain small cracks and voids that
are filled with air or ground water. The proportional volume of these open space is called the
porosity of the rock or soil. Porosity indicates the amount of water that the rock or the soil can
hold.

Ground water comprises the subsurface water that occurs within the saturated zone of the earth's
surface, or within the part of the earth's crust where all openings are filled with water. It is
distinguished from water on and above the earth's crust, and from water occurring below the
ground surface but above the saturated zone (or occurring within the unsaturated zone).

Nearly all rocks are porous and can hold water within them. The depth at which a soil or rock is
fully saturated (all the pore spaces are full of water) is called the water table .If we dig a hole into
the ground (such as a well) then water will flow from saturated rock into the well.

The groundwater store is important because in some areas it is the only source of water for
humans and it represents virtually all (97%) of the Earth’s non-saline and non-frozen water
resources.
Groundwater includes all subsurface water including that contained within the soil, within the
loose regolith, and in bedrock. Under conditions of modest precipitation and good drainage,
water infiltrating into the ground first passes through a level where both air and water fill pore
spaces within soil and rock. This level is called the zone of aeration because the soil and rocks
contain air.

Further downward movement brings the water to a second level, called the zone of saturation,
where all the openings are completely filled with water. The water table is a surface that marks
the upper limit of the zone of saturation. Water tables do not remain at a fixed depth below the
land surface. The water table in a particular area fluctuates with the quantity of recent
precipitation, loss by outflow to the surface, and the amount of removal by pumping. After heavy
precipitation or snowmelt, a water table will rise. Because the depth to a water table generally
reflects the precipitation amount for a given location (minus evaporation and other losses), they
generally lie closer to the surface in humid regions and tend to be deep underground in arid
regions.

Based on their water bearing capacity rocks can be grouped in to four hydrological
units.
Aquifer: a rock unit that can store and transmit water easily and it said to have high
permeability.
Aquitard: one that can store and transmit water slowly. It has low permeability.
Aquiclude: it can store but cannot transmit water.
Aquifuge: it can neither store nor transmit water and is therefore absolutely impermeable.
Based on the nature of the bordering hydrological units, aquifers can be of two types: unconfined
and confined. An unconfined aquifer is an aquifer underlain by an aquiclude or
aquifuge. It receives direct recharge. A confined aquifer is one bounded from top and
bottom by aquiclude or aquifuge. These types of aquifers result as artesian and sub-artesian
wells.

 An aquifer (from Latin: aqua, water; ferre, to carry) is a sequence of porous and permeable
layers of rock or sediments that acts as a storage medium and transmitter of water. Although
any rock material that is porous and permeable can serve as an aquifer, most aquifers that
 supply water for human use are sandstones, limestones, or deposits of loose, coarse
sediments such as sand and gravel.

Water is held in aquifers in pore spaces, cavities, caverns, joints and fractures, depending on the
characteristics of the rock (but virtually all water in surface deposit aquifers is held in pore
spaces). The porosity of an aquifer is defined as the percentage of the total volume of a rock
which is represented by voids.

The ability of water to move through an aquifer is influenced also by the size of the voids and
their degree of interconnectedness, and is characterized by its permeability or hydraulic
conductivity. This varies considerably between different material types.

 A rock layer that is relatively impermeable, such as slate or shale, restricts the passage of
water and limits its storage and therefore is called an aquiclude (from Latin: aqua, water;
claudere, to close off).
3.3.2 Source and Occurrence of Groundwater

On the basis of the sources from which they are derived, subsurface waters may be classified as
meteoric, magmatic, connate, and metamorphic. Meteoric water is the water in the circulatory
system of the hydrologic cycle, which includes evaporation from the water bodies and soil of the
earth's surface, transport as vapor in the atmosphere, precipitation, overland runoff, and stream
flow, infiltration into the soil mantle, and downward percolation, as well as subsurface
movement. Practically all the fresh water available comes from this circulating system, and
meteoric waters are therefore of dominant interest to hydrologists .For fresh water supplies, the
remaining classes are of little practical value, although they are of considerable concern when
encountered in wells as they generally are too saline for potability.

Magmatic waters derive from molten rock (magma), and are found in some volcanic areas and
some thermal springs. Connate waters were trapped in interstices of sedimentary rocks at the
time of deposition, or at a later period that is still, in a geological sense, in the distant past. These
waters may be encountered in deep wells (notably oil wells, where they commonly are found as
brines) and in some mineralized springs.
Metamorphic waters are those waters brought into existence by the heat, pressure, and
recrystallization that created metamorphic rocks. They also may be encountered in some springs.
These last three classes of water are genetically related, respectively, to the three major classes of
rocks (igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic), and may similarly grade one into another. Some
classifiers of subsurface water also list so-called juvenile waters, which have existed in the deep
interior of the earth and are believed to be approaching the surface for the first time, but such
waters have no characteristics that would distinguish them from the classes mentioned
previously.

Groundwater is part of water below surface (sub-surface water), in zone of saturation. Vertical
distribution of sub-surface water may be divided into zone of aeration and saturated zone. Zone
of aeration comprises of interstices, which are partly occupied with water, and air, while all
interstices in saturated zone is filled only with water.
Water fills in zone of aeration is called as vadose water (vadose zone). Vadose water, which
occurs near surface and available for roots of vegetation, is defined as solumn water. It is also
called zone of non-saturation (unsaturated zone) and starts from the surface extending to
different depths. In this zone, the open spaces between the soil particles and rock spaces never
get completely filled with water. Groundwater in this zone is under a perpetual downward
movement mainly under the influence of gravity. Groundwater occurs in saturated zone filled in
all rock interstices or fissures.
3.3.3 Types of Ground Water
Based on its occurrence ground water can be wells and springs.
Wells:
 Are artificial openings dug or drilled below the water table. Water is extracted from
wells by lifting devices ranging from simple rope-drawn water buckets to pumps
powered by gasoline, electricity, or wind.
A. Shallow wells
 Are wells that have been dug into the uppermost permeable stratum, they have a depth of
less than 30 meters.
 The supply of water often depends on fluctuations in the water table.
  . In shallow wells, the water level always stands with in “sucking” distance of a pump
located at the top of the well.

B. Deeper wells
These penetrates into lower aquifers and beneath the zone of water table fluctuation provide
more reliable sources of water and are less affected by seasonal periods of drought. It is sunk
with drilling machines designed and produced for water. They tap water from a minimum depth
of around 60 meters. In some areas deposits of salt, sulphur or other objectionable minerals make
it unfits to drill deep for water. Such conditions can usually be determined by a survey of
existing wells in the area. Deep wells are constructed for water supply in large communities.
The water table in deep wells does not rapidly fluctuate, and therefore provides a large and
uniform yield.
C. Artesian Wells
In an artesian system, water under pressure can flow upward to level above the local water
table. In artesian wells, water rises to the surface and flows out under its own pressure,
without pumping. Certain conditions are required for an artesian water flow. First, a
permeable aquifer such as sandstone or limestone must be exposed at the surface in an area
of high recharge by precipitation or infiltration. In general these wells are not common.

Springs: are outflows of groundwater to the surface. They are related to many causes
landform configuration, bedrock structure, level of the water table, and the relative position
of various types of aquicludes. Springs may occur along a valley wall where a stream or river
has cut through the land to a level lower than a perched water table. An impermeable layer of
rock prevents further downward percolation of groundwater, forcing the water to move
horizontally until it reaches an outlet on the land surface. The yield (flow rate) of a spring
varies with the position of the water table, which in turn varies with the rainfall amount at
that locality and season. Springs may be classified as:

1. Surface, intermittent or seasonal spring:

These are springs which outcrop at a point higher in the groundwater body than the impermeable
stratum in the ground formation. These are in fact seepages from the subsoil or through cracks or
faults in the rock formation. They are usually not reliable, drying up during drier seasons and
appearing again during or after the rainy seasons. They should not be developed as water supply
sources unless observed throughout the year for their reliability.

2. Main springs: These are flow out of the ground after the infiltration water has reached an
impermeable stratum in the rock layers. Such springs are sometimes known as gravity springs
because the force of gravity makes them flows in the direction of the hydraulic gradient.

3. Thermal or hot springs: are springs of water which have been heated before they reach the
surface of the ground. There are at least two explanations for the occurrence of thermal springs:
1. Heat escaping from hot lower levels of the earth’s crust towards ground level may heat
groundwater.
2. The strata of certain regions contain radioactive elements, and heat emitted by this
process may heat groundwater and produce hot springs.
Thermal springs are quite common in various parts of the world. Examples of well-known
thermal springs in Ethiopia are. “Filowha” of Addis Ababa; Wondogenet in the Southern Region;
and Soderie in East Showa Zone.
3.3.4 Recharge Processes

Groundwater can be recharged in two main ways.

Direct recharge, or percolation, arises when rain water (or melting snow) infiltrates into the soil
and moves down through the soil profile. It therefore only tends to occur when the soil is
saturated, and the rate of recharge will depend on soil texture characteristics.
Indirect recharge occurs when groundwater is recharged by surface water, either as overland
flow or stream flow. The surface water may run across the land surface as overland flow, reach
an area of soil with high infiltration capacity, and infiltrate down to the groundwater. This
obviously only occurs where overland flow is important, as in arid and semi-arid areas, and
where there is spatial variability in soil characteristics and hence infiltration capacity. Indirect
recharge may occur through pools and ponds, fed by surface runoff and small streams.
Another source of indirect recharge is river runoff. Aquifers in many arid and semi-arid areas are
recharged by channel infiltration. As the river flows down the river channel water infiltrates
downwards into the floodplain gravels: this is termed transmission loss, and is responsible for
many rivers in dry areas failing to reach the sea. This infiltration is of course very irregular, and
is often restricted to rare flood events.

3.3.5. Factors Controlling Groundwater

The quantity, quality, and availability of groundwater in an area depend on a variety of
factors.

Rainfall: The amount of rainfall in any area plays an important role in determining the
groundwater. It is estimated that about 5 cm rainfall in one hour facilitates more run-off and
results in less filtration. Contrarily, a rainfall of about 5 cm in 24 hours creates fewer run-offs
and more filtration. However, much depends on other factors such as topography, vegetation,
evapotranspiration and water bearing properties of rocks and soils and their nature.

Topography: this effects run-off and filtration. Steep slope of ground activates more run-off
water and less filtration. In another situation, a gentle slope region facilitates more or less equal
run-off and filtration. In horizontal ground, the run-off will be minimal and consequently
filtration increases, adding more filtrated water to the subsurface water.
Vegetation cover: Vegetation intercepts much of the rainfall and has an effect on the recharge of
groundwater. If vegetation is very less or absent, this results in more run-offs and less filtration.
However, when thick vegetation cover is covered with grassland, filtration is more in the
grassland than in the thick cover forest. Thick cover vegetation also intercepts much of the
rainfall and reduces the recharge.
Evapotranspiration: Evaporation is caused by the action of solar radiation and wind, which
evaporates water molecules from such surface bodies as rivers, lakes, reservoirs etc. This process
may also be affected to a depth of 1 to 2 meters below the soil zone. All plants transpire water
through their green leaves and take less water from the shallow water bearing formations. The
rate of transpiration depends on the atmospheric temperature and velocity of wind. The
combined process of evaporation and transpiration is commonly referred to as
Evapotranspiration.
Water bearing properties of rocks and soils: Water bearing properties such as porosity,
permeability, fissures, jointing, types of rocks etc play an important role in groundwater
formation. Highly porous and permeable rock or soil facilitates more recharge. Water bearing
properties play an important role in the circulation of groundwater.
3.4 Snow Hydrology
Snow and ice are hugely important stores of water for many countries in the world, particularly
at high latitudes or where there are large mountain ranges. The gradual release of water from
snow and ice, either during spring and summer or on reaching a lower elevation, makes a
significant impact on the hydrology of many river systems.

In the same manner that rainfall may be intercepted by a canopy, so can snow. The difference
between the two is in the mass of water held and the duration of storage. The amount of
intercepted snow is frequently much higher than for rainwater and it is held for much longer.
This may be available for evaporation through sublimation (moving directly from a solid to a
gas) or release later in snow melt. The mass of snow held by interception is controlled by the tree
branching structure, leaf area and tree species.

In the middle latitudes, precipitation usually occurs as a result of the colloidal instability of a
mixed water-ice cloud at temperatures below 0°C. The formation of snow and rain in the
atmosphere is a dynamic process. It has been observed that winter precipitation occurs initially in
the form of snow crystals in sub-freezing portions of clouds. As the snowflakes fall through the
atmosphere, they later melt into raindrops when they fall through warmer, above-freezing air at
lower elevations. The melting level air temperature for snowflakes falling through the
atmosphere varies from 0-4°C, but it is usually about 1-2°C. Accordingly, on the earth's surface,
snowfall occurs at elevations higher than the melting level, while rainfall occurs at elevations
lower than the melting level. The most significant determinant of the occurrence of rain or snow
is the elevation of the melting level. This is particularly important in mountainous regions.
Factors influencing the amount and distribution of precipitation in the form of snow and the
snowpack water equivalent may be classified as being météorologic and topographic.
Meteorologic factors include air temperature, wind, perceptible water etc. Topographic factors
include elevation, slope, aspect, exposure, and vegetation cover.
3.4.1 Snowmelt
The process of melting snow involves the transformation of snow/ice from its solid form to
liquid water through the application of heat energy from outside sources. The rate of snowmelt is
dependent upon the many different processes of heat transfer to and from the snowpack, but it is
also somewhat dependent upon the snowpack condition.

The relative importance of these processes varies seasonally as well as with the day-to-day
variation of meteorological factors. The heat transfer processes also vary significantly under
various conditions of vegetation, exposure, elevation, and other environmental factors.
The four major natural heat sources in melting snow are: 1) absorbed solar radiation, 2) net
long-wave (terrestrial) radiation, 3) convective heat transfer from the air, and 4) latent heat of
vaporization by condensation from the air. Two additional minor sources of heat are: 5)
conduction of heat from the ground, and 6) heat content of rainwater.

Solar radiation is the prime source of all energy at the earth's surface. The amount of heat
transferred to the snowpack by solar radiation varies with latitude, aspect, season, time of day,
atmospheric conditions, forest cover, and reflectivity of the snow surface (albedo).
The albedo ranges from 40-80%.

Long-wave radiation exchange between the snow surface and the atmosphere is highly variable,
depending upon cloud cover conditions, atmospheric water vapor, nighttime cooling, and forest
cover. Heat exchange between the snow surface and the atmosphere by convection and by water
vapor condensation is dependent upon the atmospheric air temperature and vapor pressure
gradients, together with the wind gradient in the atmosphere immediately above the snow
surface. These processes are particularly important under storm conditions with warm air
advection and high relative humidity. In summary, there is no one process of heat exchange with
the snowpack that may be universally applied, but the relative importance of each process is
dependent on atmospheric, environmental, and geographic conditions for a particular location
and a particular time or season, location and a particular time or season.
4.5. Watershed and Regional Hydrology
Watershed can be defined in different ways: “Watershed is a unit of area covers all the land
which contributes runoff to common point or outlet and surrounded by a ridge line”.
Technically, a watershed is the divide separating one drainage area from another. It is the
drainage area on the earth’s surface from which runoff resulting from precipitation flows past a
single point into a larger stream, a river or ocean. A watershed, catchment, basin or drainage area
refers to any topographically delineated area that can collect water and is drained by river system
with an outlet.

The common point towards which all the water tends to converge flowing in the drainage
network is the outlet of the watershed. A drainage divide is the boundary that physically
separates two drainage basins from each other. Precipitation on one side of a divide will drain
into one basin, whereas, precipitation on the other side will drain into another basin. Watershed
includes:

 All natural resources(water soil and vegetation),

 people,
 farming system,
 livestock, and
 the interaction among the components.
Objectives of watershed management
 To manage the watershed in order to minimize natural disaster such as flood, drought and
land slide etc.
 To develop rural areas in the watershed for the benefit of the people and economies of the
region.
 To minimize siltation of reservoir/dam. The objective could also be a combination of the
above.
Principles of watershed management
A. Watershed as natural system that we can work with: Watershed can be regarded as a
complete system and the various parts of the watershed are physically and operationally
linked i.e. the various resources are linked not only spatially but also functionally, and the
potential benefit from integrated use can be large.
B. Watershed management must be participatory: Participatory means involving method
where the community is motivated to function and contributes as a group to perform various
tasks. The management must involve local farmers and other land users and wide community
 who depend on the land. Should follow multi-disciplinary approach and it is a continuous
process
C. Watershed management is inter-disciplinary approach: Watershed planning is a
coordinated analysis by a team of technicians representing various disciplines like hydrology,
geology, engineering, soil science, forestry, agronomy, and economists. Each disciple is
inter-related with each other.
D. Watershed management must be gender sensitive :Women's are the most affected by
environmental hardship; for example, they need to walk long hours to fetch increasingly
scarce water, firewood and animal dung in addition to attending livestock, to name a few.
Their involvement in watershed development planning, implementation and management is
the key to ensure that they
E. Watershed management must be build up on local experience and strength.
Local knowledge is essential to improve the existing technologies, to adopt new ones and to
manage natural measures once they are introduced and established equally benefit from the
various measures.

3.6 Runoff and Floods

If the amount of water falling on the ground is greater than the infiltration rate of the surface,
runoff or overland flow will occur. Runoff specifically refers to the water leaving an area of
drainage and flowing across the land surface to points of lower elevation. It is not the water
flowing beneath the surface of the ground. This type of water flow is called throughflow.

On a global scale, runoff occurs because of the imbalance between evaporation and precipitation
over the Earth's land and ocean surfaces. Oceans make up 71 % of the Earth's surface and the
solar radiation received here powers the global evaporation process. In fact, 86 % of the Earth's
evaporation occurs over the oceans, while only 14 % occurs over land. Of the total amount of
water evaporated into the atmosphere, precipitation returns only 79 % to the oceans and 21 % to
the land. Surface runoff sends 7 % of the land based precipitation back to the ocean to balance
the processes of evaporation and precipitation.
Runoff, or surface runoff, refers to all the waters flowing on the surface of the earth, either by
overland sheet flow or by channel flow in rills, gullies, streams, or rivers. Stream flow refers to
the flow in natural streams. Runoff and stream flow are continuous processes by which water is
constantly flowing from higher to lower elevations by the action of gravitational forces. In this
way, overland flow concentrates into small streams, which in turn combine to form larger
streams and rivers. Eventually, rivers flow into Oceans completing the hydrologic cycle.
Runoff is usually expressed in terms of either volume or flow rate. The usual units of runoff
volume are cubic meters, cubic feet. Flow rate or discharge is usually expressed in cubic meters
per second (m3 / s) or cubic feet per second (cfs). Discharge at a cross-section or gauging station
usually varies in time; therefore, its value at any time is the instantaneous or local discharge.
Runoff is also expressed in terms of depth units, by dividing the runoff volume by the
catchment/watershed/ basin area to obtain an equivalent spatially averaged runoff depth.
3.6.1 Factors Affecting Runoff
As the hydrologic cycle indicates, rain falling on a catchment may return to the atmosphere, be
stored above or below the soil surface or it may become runoff. Hydrologists refer to rainfall that
does not appear as surface flow at the catchment outlet as a ‘loss’. Agriculturalists prefer to
consider it as a ‘gain’ as much of this rainfall is stored in the soil for use by crops and pastures.
The proportion of annual rainfall that becomes runoff is generally smaller than most people
would expect. According to some studies, under forest the average annual runoff represented
only 3% of the total rainfall while the average annual runoff under pasture was 6%.
There are two sets of factors affecting the production of runoff:
• Rainfall characteristics
• Catchment characteristics.
Characteristics of rainfall that affect the amount and rate of runoff are:
• Intensity
• Depth
• Distribution over an area (spatial)
• Distribution over time (temporal).
Catchment characteristics: There are a number of physical characteristics of catchments that
affect the amount and/or rate of runoff they generate. Some of these characteristics vary with the
season and the type of management practices used. Thus, catchment characteristics include:
 Area and shape
Topography
Soil conditions
Storage
Land use management
3.6.2 Floods
A flood may be defined as an event when waters from a river, lake, ocean, or other surface water
feature rise above normal limits. Floods often endanger lives and cause millions of dollars in
damage. Flooding can occur in coastal areas, low lying areas with poor drainage, or locations
with inadequate urban drainage systems.
3.6.2. 1 Factors that lead to Flooding
Floods have a multitude of causes. Some causes are related to what would be considered natural
processes that would occur whether humans are present or not. Many causes have been affected
by human activities. In some cases the severity of floods and the types of damage are a direct
result of agriculture, urbanization, and the areas selected for development. In all cases flooding is
related to increased discharge in stream channels. These factors are:
Saturated Soil: Much of Earth's surface is covered by a weathered cover of regolith. Whether
forming a true soil with well-developed horizons or a weakly developed retrial cover, the
regolith is composed of a mix of mineral particles, organic fragments, and pore space.
Commonly, much of the pore space is filled with air and to a lesser extent water. When large
amounts of precipitation are received in a region, the pore space fills with water as the input of
water from precipitation exceeds the output of water from the soil column to the water table.

Decreases in infiltration lead to increases in runoff. The lag time between the precipitation event
and the arrival of water to stream channels decreases significantly when soil saturation occurs.
As a result, peak discharge increases significantly and the likelihood of overbank flow is high.
Spatially, soil saturation may occur over large-scale basins, which leads to flooding in large
areas. The peak discharge flows downstream and becomes concentrated in higher order streams
causing flooding. In many cases saturation follows a period of high amounts of precipitation over
a prolonged time period, possibly weeks or months.
Basin Characteristics: Surface characteristics influence infiltration and runoff rates. Impervious
surfaces such as exposed bedrock or a paved road accelerate surface runoff, thus decreasing lag
time between the precipitation event and entrance of water into a nearby channel. Urbanized
areas, therefore, with large percentages of impervious surface such as roofs, streets, and parking
lots coupled with an engineered drainage system designed to move water quickly to stream
channels greatly increase the chances that some flooding will occur after a significant
precipitation event. Conversely, rural areas with large areas of soil, natural vegetation, and the
potential for a faster infiltration rate are less likely to have significant flooding resulting from a
single precipitation event.

Topography: Topography will influence the rate at which precipitation will be incorporated as
stream discharge. Steep, rocky canyon walls have low infiltration rates as well as a great deal of
potential gravitational energy that leads to the concentration of discharge during a short period of
time. Alluvial plains usually have a much longer lag time between a precipitation event and the
introduction of runoff water into a stream channel. When land cover on steeper slopes is affected
by perturbations such as wild fire or building-related over steepening of slopes, the likelihood of
mass movement events is greatly increased. These events are usually related to unstable regolith
on steep slopes, which is susceptible to failure when sufficient precipitation is received.

High Amounts of Precipitation: Flooding is created by the delivery of larger than normal
amounts of runoff into stream channels. Periods of above-average precipitation lead to floods. In
some cases seasonal variability leads to great fluctuations in stream discharge. Wet-dry
subtropical or monsoonal climates with distinctive seasons of precipitation lead to fluctuations
from dry stream channels to potential flooding events. These cyclical events are related to large-
scale atmospheric circulation patterns that operate through an annual or longer period. In the mid
latitudes, the annual migration of subtropical high pressures and the polar front lead to distinct
precipitation patterns.

Extended Wet Periods: In many cases flooding is caused by the reception of precipitation over
an extended time period, on the order of weeks to months, that leads to the saturation of soils in a
large-scale region. This saturation leads to increased runoff at a time when streams are at
capacity. Additional water introduced to stream channels cannot be conveyed in the channel but
is spread across the floodplain.

Tropical Cyclones: Some of the largest precipitation amounts received as the result of a single
meteorological event have been associated with the movement of tropical cyclones (e.g.,
hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons) pole ward and over continents. These powerful cyclonic
storms carry large amounts of warm moist air over land surfaces. While wind speeds associated
with these storms decrease quickly after landfall, these storms are capable of delivering
precipitation over wide areas during a relatively short period of time, on the order of days to
weeks. In some cases cyclonic storms associated with the polar front may exacerbate conditions
by introducing a lifting mechanism that leads to increased condensation and precipitation. The
relatively low-lying coastal plain of eastern North America is especially susceptible to damage
from these types of storms.

Intense Thunderstorms: Thunderstorms are usually intense, short-lived storms that produce
high winds, hail, and heavy rainfall. These storms can be caused by convection in moist tropical
air masses over continental surfaces or fast-moving cold fronts that displace those moist air
masses. When these storms develop over mountainous areas where the precipitation is
concentrated by the topography the potential for large, catastrophic floods is great.

Quick Snowmelt: The storage of water in the form of snow temporarily removes that water
from the hydrologic cycle. In many cases this sequestration of water is short term. Snow
accumulates during winter especially at higher elevations and latitudes. With the onset of warmer
spring and summer conditions, snowmelt supplies water to streams. A typical early warming
may mean that snowmelt may be accelerated with large amounts of runoff entering stream
channels. It is possible for warm early spring rains to fall on the snowpack, causing much faster
runoff than normal. Another source of snowmelt is the subsurface introduction of heat from
volcanic activity. Large volcanoes can be high enough to support permanent snow and ice cover.
High temperatures associated with volcanic activity lead to the instantaneous melting of snow
and ice.
Failure of Flood Control Structures: A variety of humanly constructed structures are used in
an effort to limit the extent and severity of flooding. Dams and levees are common flood control
structures designed to contain water within designated areas. These structures can fail because of
construction errors, poor design, and overtopping by water.

Flood control structures can fail because of the failure of a key component. For example, a
spillway that erodes away has the potential to lead to the catastrophic failure of the entire dam as
the water cuts downward. Sound structures may fail when the water retained by the structure
exceeds the height of the structure. Large precipitation events or the displacement of water in a
reservoir have the potential to send water flowing over the flood control structure. This may lead
to the failure of the structure through erosion. Flooding may be exacerbated by these structures
since a feature such as a levee tends to raise the stream level well above the floodplain. When a
levee fails, a large amount of fluvial energy is concentrated through that break and a great deal of
damage can occur near the break.
Mass Movement Events: A variety of mass movement events, while strictly not fluvial events,
behave in a similar way to floods. The gravitationally fueled downhill movement of poorly
consolidated regolith results from the introduction of meteoric water that adds weight and
decreases hill slope cohesion.

These events can do significant damage. Several types of mass movement events are composed
of a larger percentage of sediments than a typical stream. Events such as mudflows commonly
may approach the viscosity and velocity of streams. Valleys can be filled with fine-grained
sediments as the deposits dewater following the initial surge of water and sediment. A variety of
factors lead to mass movement events.
Additional factors affecting lake and coastal flooding may include tides, tsunamis, and sea-level
rise.
3.6.2 .2 Flood Hazard
The interface between humans and hydrologic features across Earth's surface has helped shape
human culture. From the earliest agricultural, complex societies established along some of the
great rivers of the world to the bustling seaports of today, humans have gained from the myriad
advantages of living in proximity to water. Fertile soil, ease of transportation, and availability of
resources (both materials and energy) have allowed for the development of complex material and
intellectual cultures.

The relationship between water and humans also brings a great deal of risk. Flooding is one of
these risks. The impact of floods on humans has been evident from Genesis to tonight's evening
news. Although, the impacts of flooding on humans have been positive in the case of fertile
floodplains that support much of the world's agricultural productivity, there is the potential for a
great deal of negative impact.

More than the loss of life and damage to property, the sense of insecurity and fear in the minds
of people living in the flood plains is a cause of great concern. The after effects of floods such as
spread of epidemics, non availability of drinking water, essential commodities and medicines,
loss of the dwellings etc. make floods the most feared among the natural disasters faced by
mankind. Moreover, disaster by floods constitute one of the major natural calamities faced by
mankind almost every year resulting in substantial loss of life, large scale loss damage to
moveable and immovable properties, disruption of communication and community life lines
apart from sufferings of various other kinds. Floods and their disastrous impact on the hills and
plains of the adjoining rivers and drainage channels have plagued civilizations. Losses of life and
property have focused the efforts of scientists, engineers, and government agencies on the
prediction, control, and mitigation of floods and flood damage.

3.6.2.3. Flood Management Methods

Flood management is defined as the set of all measures, physical or otherwise, that enable the
communities that inhabit the flood plain to live in harmony with the extreme natural events,
minimizing undue hardship to the extent practicable. These can be:
A. Structural Measures
Structural measures which are engineering measures to minimize the risk of water course
overtopping its bank. This includes the following measures:
 Storage Reservoir
 Detention Reservoir
 Levees
  Floodways
 Channel Improvement
 Watershed Management
1. Storage Reservoir: Most reliable and effective flood control method
 Storage reservoir to absorb incoming flood
 Release in controlled way so that downstream channels do not get flooded.
 Several reservoirs to be placed in a river for complete flood control.

2. Detention Reservoirs

 Consist of an obstruction to a river with uncontrolled outlet.

 For small structures and temporary storage

3. Levees
 Also called dikes or flood embankments
 Earthen structures parallel to the course of river.
 Height higher than the design flood level.
 One of the oldest and common methods of flood protection
 Considerable care and maintenance required since earthen

4 .Flood ways
 Channels into which part of the flood will be diverted during high stages.
 Natural or man-made

5. Channel Improvement

Widening or deepening of channel

Reduction of channel roughness(clearance of vegetation)

6. Watershed Management

 Aims at cutting down and delaying the runoff before it gets into the river.
 Check dams, contour bunds, terraces etc.
 Improve soil infiltration capacity hence reduce soil erosion
  There are a number of structural ways to manage floods:
 Afforestation - planting trees increases interception rates and reduces surface runoff.
 Dams and Reservoirs - these hold back and regulate the flow of river water. Can be
used as fresh water supply and generation of HEP.
 Diversion Channels and basin - overflow channels which take surplus water out of a
river in times of flood.
 Channel Straitening and dredging - smoothens the channel to increase the speed
(velocity) of the river and get water out of the drainage basin as quickly as possible.
 Artificial Levees - makes river banks higher therefore holding more water.
 Culverts - semicircular, smooth channels increase velocity and gets water away from
urban areas as quickly as possible.
 Revetments, Channel Walls, gabions - strengthen river banks from erosion using large
lumps of stone – see over
 Restricted use of flood-plains - legislation, higher selective insurance premiums/refusal
to insure particular locations.
 Co-ordinated flood warning and emergence reaction procedures e.g. Environment
Agency Flood watch
B. Nonstructural Measure

Non- structural measures: are varied in nature and are aimed at minimizing the social and
economic loss to individuals in the event that the watercourse does overtop its bank and runs
uncontrolled over the flood plain.

 Flood Plain zoning

 Flood forecasting and Warning
 Evacuation and relocation
1. Flood plain zoning
 Identifies the flood prone areas of a river and regulates the land use to restrict the damage
due to flood.
 Development plans are prepared

2. Flood forecasting and warning

 Enables civil authority to take appropriate control measures.
Orbiting satellites—Pictures—Cloud growth—rainfall prediction—flood prediction
Historical records of flooding with study on the parameters: season, river channel
topography, soil conditions, rainfall intensity and weather.

3. Evacuation and Relocation

 Evacuation of communities along with their live stocks and other valuables.
 Temporarily Nonstructural measure, Permanent resettlement—Structural measure
 Decrease loss burden
 Giving education about the impacts and cause of flooding
 Give early warning about the flood and its management means

Unit Four
4. Kinds of Water Use
Water is the most abundant and most important resources of life, covering about 71 percent of
the earth’s surface. Generally water is important for:
 Water use for domestic, municipal, transportation and dilution of wastes
 Water resource use for food production, for generating hydroelectric power, recreation,
fishing
 Water resource use for manufacturing and processing of natural resources as well as
navigation
4.1. Domestic Water Use : is water used for indoor and outdoor household purposes or for
all the things you do at home: drinking, preparing food, bathing, washing clothes and dishes,
brushing your teeth, watering the yard and garden, 325 billion cubic metres of water are used
worldwide each year. The world average water use per person is 52 cubic metres per year.
Ethics come into play at every decision point of water management as well as domestic water
use within the home. The application of best practices such as low-water using appliances
and water harvesting from roofs and street surfaces, constitute a first-line of ethical behaviour
that can have far-reaching benefits for domestic water use.

4.2. Agricultural Use

 Of water accounts for nearly 70% of the water used throughout the world, and the
majority of this water is used for irrigation..
 An increase in irrigation development guarantees an increase in crop production in many
countries.
 Irrigation allows the land that does not receive enough precipitation annually to become
land that can be used for productive agriculture.
 On the negative side, irrigation of land causes salinization of the land that is being
irrigated, mostly in arid and semi-arid regions.
 Irrigation of cropland can increase the possibility fertilizers and pesticides will infiltrate
into the groundwater or runoff into nearby streams.
 Along with the irrigation of crops, the farmers that have livestock must provide
clean water for the livestock to drink.
  With a growing world population, expected to increase by 2 billion people by the year
2030, agriculture needs to find a way to use less water or to use the water
more efficiently.

4.3. Industrial Water Use

 The industries that produce metals, wood and paper products, chemicals, gasoline and
oils, and those invaluable grabber utensils you use to get your ring out of the garbage
disposal are major users of water.
 Probably every manufactured product uses water during some part of the production
process.
 The proportion of water use for industries is about 20%
 Unit Five
5. Major Forms of Water Pollution

5.1. Major Types and sources of water pollutants

Water pollution refers to degradation of water quality as measured by biological, chemical, or

physical criteria. This degradation is judged according to the intended use of the water, its
departure from the norm, and public health or ecological impacts. From a public health or
ecological point of view, a pollutant is any substance that, in excess, is known to be harmful to
desirable living organisms. In fact, the primary water pollution problem facing billions of people
today, especially in the third world, is the lack of clean drinking water that is free of disease-
causing organisms or substances. The concentration at which a material becomes harmful to
living things is the subject of toxicology.
The greatest water pollution problem in the world today is lack of disease-free drinking water for
about 20 percent of the world's population. Another 20 percent have poor sanitation conditions
that favor waterborne diseases that kill about 2 million people a year. Most of the deaths are of
children under the age of 5.
Chemical pollution is also an emerging problem on a global scale that occurs almost
everywhere where people live. Agricultural, industrial, and municipal processes release chemical
pollutants whose long-term effects on the environment and human health are largely unknown.
The sources of pollutants are divided into two groups: “point sources” and “nonpoint
sources.” Point sources correspond to discrete, identifiable locations from which pollutants are
emitted. They include factories, wastewater treatment plants, landfills, and underground storage
tanks.
Nonpoint sources of pollution are diffuse and therefore harder to control. For instance, rain
washes oil, grease, and solid pollutants from streets and parking lots into storm drains that carry
them into bays and rivers. Likewise, irrigation and rainwater leach fertilizers, herbicides, and
insecticides from farms and lawns and into streams and lakes.

5.1.1 Disease Causing Agents

This involves the transmission of disease via the water route as the result of contamination by
pathogenic bacteria and protozoan’s. Epidemics of typhoid, dysentery, and other gastrointestinal
diseases are from "sewage" contamination. Or Pathogenic microbes or microorganisms, which
are those that can be seen only with a microscope, are important biological pollutants. Cholera,
typhoid infections, hepatitis, and dysentery are all waterborne diseases caused by pathogenic
microorganisms.
According to the UN World Water Assessment Program, about 2.3 billion people suffer from
diseases associated with polluted water, and more than 5 million people die from these illnesses
each year. Dysentery, typhoid, cholera, and hepatitis A are some of the ailments that result from
ingesting water contaminated with harmful microbes. Other illnesses—such as malaria, yellow
fever, and sleeping sickness—are transmitted by vector organisms (such as mosquitoes and tsetse
flies) that breed in or live near stagnant, unclean water.

5.1.2 Oxygen-Demanding Wastes

Domestic sewage consists primarily of organic excreta which can be utilized as nutrients by
other organisms, particularly microorganisms in the environment. These organisms metabolize
the organic components of sewage via oxidation reactions and consume oxygen dissolved in the
water during the process. Because oxygen has a relatively low solubility in water, it is rapidly
consumed and depleted during waste organic oxidation and the water becomes anaerobic. Once
the dissolved oxygen is gone, it is not available for fish and other aerobic organisms, which then
die of oxygen deficiencies.
5.1.3 Inorganic Nutrients
Nutrients released by human activity may lead to water pollution. Two important nutrients that
can cause problems are phosphorus and nitrogen, both of which are released from a variety of
materials including fertilizers, detergents, and the products of sewage-treatment plants. The
concentration of phosphorus and nitrogen in streams is related to land use.
While the highest concentrations are found in agricultural areas such as fertilized farm, urban
areas can also add phosphorus and nitrogen to local waters.
High human-caused concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in water often result in the
process known as eutrophication of seaweed, referred to as marine algae, to flourish. The marine
algae become a nuisance when they are torn loose and accumulate on beaches. Besides,
eutrophication can reduces the penetration of sunlight through the water; when the plants die and
decompose, the body of water is left with odors, bad taste, and reduced levels of dissolved
oxygen.

5.1.4 Organic Chemicals

Organic pollutants include both petroleum compounds, such as benzene and other gasoline
components, and synthetic compounds or synthetically by industrial processes. It is difficult to
generalize concerning the environmental and health effects of synthetic organic compounds
because there are so many of them and they have so many uses and produce so many different
effects. Synthetic organic compounds have many uses in industrial processes, for pest control,
pharmaceuticals, and food additives. Some of these compounds are called persistent organic
pollutants. Many of these chemicals were produced decades ago before their harm to the
environment was known and a number have now been banned or restricted. The common
persistent organic pollutants have several general properties useful in defining them. First, they
have a carbon-based structure and often contain reactive chlorine. Second, most are produced by
human processes and thus are synthetic chemicals. Third, they persist in the environment, do not
break down easily, are polluting and toxic, and tend to accumulate in living tissue. Fourth, they
occur in a number of forms that allow them to be easily transported by water and wind with
sediment for long distances.

5.1.5 Sediments and Suspended Matter

Sediment consists of unconsolidated rock and mineral fragments, the smallest of which range in
size from sand particles to very small silt- and clay-sized particles. It is these small particles that
cause most sediment pollution problems. Sediment is our greatest water pollutant by volume; it
is clearly a resource out of place. It depletes soil, a land resource; can reduce the quality of the
water resource it enters; and may deposit undesired materials on productive croplands or on other
useful land.
Sediment from land erosion may also be classified as pollutant. Sediment consists of mostly
inorganic materials washed into a stream as a result of land cultivation, construction, demolition,
and mining operation. Sediment interferes with fish spawning because it can cover gravel beds
and block light penetration, making food harder to find. Sediment can also damage gill structure
directly.
5.1.6 Radioactive Substances
The problem of water contamination by radioactive materials is viewed as a mineral pollution
problem for several reasons. Although the specific concern is with the hazardous effects of
radiation, the mechanisms by which the radioactive substances are incorporated biologically are
dictated by the chemistry of the radioactive molecule. It is readily apparent that some radioactive
contamination overlaps with the topic of water contamination by air pollutants since strontium
pollution originated primarily from air contaminated by nuclear explosions. However, a
considerable amount of radioactive water contamination is reported to be a direct result of
discharges by nuclear processing and Power plants including ships.
5.1.7 Heavy Metals
Metals—such as lead, mercury, and silver—are, of course, naturally occurring, but they are used
in large amounts in a variety of human activities (e.g., the addition of lead to gasoline, the use of
mercury in the industrial manufacture of chlorine, and the use of silver salts in photography) and
often end up being released into waterways.
Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, zinc, cadmium, and arsenic are dangerous pollutants that
are often deposited with natural sediment in the bottoms of stream channels. If these metals are
deposited on floodplains, they may become incorporated into plants, including food crops, and
animals. Once the metal has dissolved in water used for agricultural or domestic use, heavy-
metal poisoning can result. As an example, consider mercury contamination of aquatic
ecosystems. It has been known for decades that mercury is a significant pollutant of aquatic
ecosystems, including ponds, lakes, rivers, and the ocean.
5.1.8 Thermal / Heat Pollution
Considerable thermal pollution results due to discharge of hot water from thermal power plants,
nuclear power plants, and industries where water is used as coolant. From an ecological
viewpoint then, heat will result in killing certain indigenous organisms while accelerating the
growth of more heat-tolerant ones, and a general shift in populations will occur some species will
die out altogether. If enough heat is added, sufficient evaporation could occur to endanger
shallow ecosystems and also to influence weather conditions.

5.1.9. Suspended Solids and Sediments: These comprise of silt, sand and minerals eroded from
land.
 These appear in the water through the surface runoff during rainy season and through
municipal sewers.
 This can lead to the siltation, reduces storage capacities of reservoirs.
 Presence of suspended solids can block the sunlight penetration in the water, which is
required for the photosynthesis by bottom vegetation.
 Deposition of the solids in the quiescent stretches of the stream or ocean bottom can
impair the normal aquatic life and affect the diversity of the aquatic ecosystem.
 If the deposited solids are organic in nature, they will undergo decomposition leading to
development of anaerobic conditions. Finer suspended solids such as silt and coal dust
may injure the gills of fishes.

Oil
Oil is a natural product which results from the plant remains fossilized over millions of years,
under marine conditions. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and degradable under bacterial
action, the biodegradation rate is different for different oils, tars being one of the slowest. Oil
enters in to water through oil spills, leak from oil pipes, and wastewater from production and
refineries. Being lighter than water it spreads over the surface of water, separating the contact of
water with air, hence resulting. This pollutant is also responsible for endangering water birds and
coastal plants due to coating of oils and adversely affecting the normal activities. It also results in
reduction of light transmission through surface waters, thereby reducing the photosynthetic
activity of the aquatic plants.
 Unit Six
Water Conservation and Management Methods
6.1 Water Pollution

Pollution of waters of rivers, streams and lakes is mainly the fallout of rapid urbanization,
industrialization and inadequate storage of flood flows for meeting the needs of water supply and
sanitation sectors. The main sources of water pollution are discharge of domestic sewage and
industrial effluents, which contain organic pollutants, chemicals and heavy metals, and runoff
from land based activities such as agriculture and mining. Further, bathing of animals, washing
of clothes and dumping of garbage into the water bodies also contribute to water pollution. All
these factors have led to pollution of rivers, lakes, coastal areas and groundwater seriously
damaging the eco-systems.
Water pollution is the degradation of water quality as measured by physical, chemical, or
biological criteria. These criteria take into consideration in the intended use for the water,
departure from the norm, effects on public health, and ecological impacts. The most serious
water pollution problem today is the lack of non contaminated drinking water for billions of
people.
6.1.1 Methods of controlling Water Pollution

6.1.1.1 Waste Water Treatment

The treatment of waste water is a relatively simple process that mimics natural processes in a
controlled, unnatural environment. The treatment processes used for industrial waste water is
dependent on the type of waste being produced. The main purposes of wastewater treatment for
municipal sewage from homes and industry are to break down and reduce the amount of organic
solids and BOD and to kill bacteria in the wastewater. In addition, new techniques are being
developed to remove nutrients and harmful dissolved inorganic materials that may be present.

There are two major objectives for successful sewage treatment: to control the spread of disease
from waste products and to break down the organic waste products into relatively harmless
metabolites (i.e. by-products of metabolism by bacteria, etc.). The first objective is achieved by
isolating the waste away from animal hosts so that viruses and other pathogens die. The second
objective is particularly important for the protection of where the treated effluent ends up –
frequently a river environment.
Existing wastewater treatment generally has two or three stages:
Primary treatment: This stage includes screening, which removes the grit composed of sand,
stones, and other large particles; and sedimentation, in which much of the remaining particulate
matter (mostly organic) settles out to form a mud like sediment called sludge.
Secondary treatment: encouraging the biological breakdown of waste and settling out of
remaining solids. This can take place either in trickle bed filters or activated sludge tanks. The
main requirement is plenty of oxygen to allow micro-organisms to break down the concentrated
effluent.
Tertiary treatment: biodigestion of sludge (from earlier settling treatment); extra treatment of
discharging effluent to meet water-quality standards (e.g. phosphate stripping, nitrate reduction).
In tertiary treatment an effort is sometimes (but not always) made to reduce the level of nitrate
and phosphorus in the discharged waste. In some cases this is achieved through final settling
ponds where the growth of aquatic flora is encouraged and the nutrients are taken up by the
plants before discharge into a stream.

Of particular use are reeds which do not die back during the winter. This is a re-creation of
natural wetlands that have been shown to be extremely efficient removers of both nitrogen and
phosphorus from streams. Other methods of phosphate removal are to add a lime or metallic salt
coagulant that causes a chemical reaction with the dissolved phosphorus so that an insoluble
form of phosphate settles out.
Advanced treatment. Used to remove nutrients, heavy metals, or specific chemicals, this
additional stage may be required if higher-quality treated wastewater is needed for particular
uses, such as for wildlife habitat or irrigation of golf courses, parks, or crops. The treated
wastewater for such uses is often referred to as reclaimed water.

6.1.1.2 Source Control

The best way of controlling any pollution is to try and prevent it happening in the first place. In
order to achieve this differentiation has to be made between point source and diffuse pollutants.
When control over the source of pollutants is achieved dramatic improvements in river-water
quality can be achieved.

6.1.1.2.1 Controlling Point Source Pollutants

The control of point source pollutants cannot always be achieved by removing that point source.
It is part of water resource management to recognize that there may be valid reasons for
disposing of waste in a river; effective management ensures that waste disposal creates no
harmful side effects. In the developed nations such as the United Kingdom the control of point
source pollution is through discharge consents. These provide a legal limit for worst-case
scenarios – for example, at individual sewage treatment works they are usually set with respect
to total suspended sediment (TSS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and ammonia
(sometimes heavy metals are included), and calculated to allow for low flow levels in the
receiving stream. There is also an obligation to comply with the European Union Urban Waste
Water directive.
6.1.1.2.2 Controlling Diffuse Source Pollutants
The control of diffuse source water pollution is much harder to achieve. In an urban environment
this can be achieved through the collection of storm water drainage into artificial wetlands
where natural processes can lessen the impact of the pollutants on the draining stream. Of
particular concern is runoff derived from road surfaces where many pollutants are present as
waste products from vehicles. The highest pollutant loading comes during long, dry periods
which may be broken by flushes of high rainfall (e.g. summer months in temperate regions). In
this case the majority of pollutants reach the stream in the first flush of runoff. If this runoff can
be captured and held then the impact of these diffuse pollutants is lessened. This is common
practice for motorway runoff where it drains into a holding pond before moving into a nearby
water course.

Another management tool for control of diffuse pollutants is to place restrictions on land
management practices. An example of this is in areas of England that have been designated
either a Nitrate Vulnerable Zone (NVZ) or a Nitrate Sensitive Area (NSA), predominantly
through fears of nitrate contamination in aquifers. In NSAs the agricultural practices of muck
spreading and fertilizing with nitrates are heavily restricted. This type of control relies on tight
implementation of land use planning – something that is not found uniformly between countries,
or even within countries.
6.2 Conservational Measures of Water Pollution
Prevent pollution rather than treating symptoms of pollution. Remedial actions to clean up
polluted sites and water bodies are generally much more expensive than applying measures to
prevent pollution from occurring. Thus, the most logical approach is to prevent the production of
wastes that require treatment.
Use the precautionary principle: An early action done in order to avoid/minimize possible
damage caused by discharge of hazardous substances into the aquatic environment.
Apply the polluter-pays-principle: The polluter-pays-principle, where the costs of pollution
prevention, control and reduction measures are borne by the polluter. The principle is an
economic instrument that is aimed at affecting behavior, i.e. by encouraging and inducing
behavior that puts less strain on the environment.
Apply realistic standards and regulations: An important element in a water pollution control
strategy is the formulation of realistic standards and regulations. However, the standards must be
achievable and the regulations enforceable.
Balance economic and regulatory instruments. Regulatory management instruments have
been heavily relied upon by governments in most countries for controlling water pollution.
Economic instruments, typically in the form of wastewater discharge fees and fines, have been
introduced to a lesser extent and mainly by industrialized countries.

Apply water pollution control at the lowest appropriate level: The appropriate level may be
defined as the level at which significant impacts are experienced.
Establish mechanisms for cross-sectoral integration : In order to ensure the co-ordination of
water pollution control efforts within water-related sectors, such as health and agriculture, formal
mechanisms and means of co-operation and information exchange need to be established.
Encourage participatory approach with involvement of all relevant stakeholders: The
participatory approach involves raising awareness of the importance of water pollution control
among policy-makers and the general public.

Give open access to information on water pollution: This principle is directly related to the
principle of involvement of the general public in the decision-making process, because a
precondition for participation is free access to information held by public authorities.
Promote international co-operation on water pollution control: Trans boundary water
pollution, typically encountered in large rivers, requires international co-operation and co-
ordination of efforts in order to be effective.
Education: Provide education, training, and share research in the fields of water and the water
environment.
Waste water-treatment facilities: Implement new and innovative, cost-effective water
treatment technologies.
6.3 Water Resource Management
Water management principle is either making the available water resource sustainable or
depositing water in different water reservoirs and to decrease unnecessary loss and waste. One
way to manage water resources is to increase the supply, mostly by building dams and reservoirs
and diverting surface water. The other approach is to improve the efficiency of water use by
decreasing unnecessary use and waste. A key part of water resource management involves water
allocation: the amount of water made available to users, including both out of stream users (e.g.
irrigation, town water supply) and in stream environmental use (e.g. amenity values, supporting
aquatic populations). Water allocation in a resource management context is about how to ensure
fair and equitable distribution of the water resource between groups of stakeholders.

Another key part of water resource management is the involvement of many different sectors of
the community in decision-making. This has lead to a different approach to water management
that stresses integration between different sectors. There are two key concepts in this area:
Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) and Integrated Catchment Management
(ICM).
The emphasis within an IWRM approach to water management is on integration between sectors
involved in water resources, including local communities (a participatory approach). Although
this is promoted as a new approach to resource management it is in many ways a return to
traditional values with recognition of the interconnectedness of hydrology, ecology and land
management.

Integrated Catchment Management (also sometimes referred to as Integrated Water Basin

Management, (IWBM) is essentially a subset of IWRM. It aims to promote an integrated
approach to water and land management but with two subtle differences:
1. ICM recognizes the catchment (or river basin) as the appropriate organizing unit for
understanding and managing water-related biophysical processes in a context that includes
social, economic and political considerations;
2. There is recognition of the spatial context of different management actions and in particular
the importance of cumulative effect within a catchment.

ICM can be seen as a process that can be used to implement IWRM. One of the key principles of
ICM and IWRM is community involvement through a participatory approach: making sure that
everybody can be involved in resource management, not just a few elite within a single
organization. Another key principle of ICM and IWRM is the idea of change. This ranges from
extolling change in management structures to cope with modern resource management pressures
to making sure the structures can cope with more inevitable changes in the future. Major methods
for managing water resource are:

1. Constructing dams and reservoirs: - Rain water and water from melting snow that would otherwise
be lost can be captured and stored in large water reservoirs like dams.
Advantage of dams and Reservoirs
 helps to increase the annual supply by collecting fresh surface water during wet periods
and storing it for use during dry periods;
 reduces the danger of flooding in downstream area;
 provides a controllable supply of water for irrigating arid and semiarid lands;
 helps to generate electricity;
 Used for outdoor recreation like swimming, boating, fishing.

Disadvantages of Dams and Reservoirs

 Expensive to build
 Displaces people and destroy vast area of valuable agricultural land, wild life, and scenic
natural beauty
 Raises the water table (the higher water table often water logs the soil nearby land ,
decreasing its crop or forest productivity)
 Evaporation also increases the salinity of reservoir water by leaving salts behind – decreasing
its usefulness for irrigation.
 Trap silt so it deprive downstream areas and estuaries of vital nutrients and decreasetheir
productivity
 Create favorable condition to reproduce e mosquitoes
 Faulty construction, earthquakes, sabotage, war can cause dams to fail - taking a terrible toll
in lives and property.
2. Water Diversion Project: diverting of water from water rich region to mostly arid and
semiarid regions. Even though it provides enough water for irrigation, domestic and
 industrial uses, it can cause different types of ecological disasters like loss of aquatic life,
disappearance of lakes, and depletion of ground water.
3. Trapping Ground Water: Even though it helps of satisfy shortage of water, unwise may
cause problems like aquifer depletion (occurs when ground water is withdrawn faster than its
recharge by percolation); subsidence (sinking of land when ground water is withdrawn
excessively); intrusion of salt water in to aquifer; ground water contamination from agricultural
and industrial activities.
4. Desalinization: removing of dissolved salts from ocean water or slightly salty ground water
through distillation and reverse osmosis. Distillation involves heating salt water until
evaporates and condenses as fresh water, leaving salts behind in solid form. In reverse osmosis,
high pressure is used to force salt water through a thin membrane whose pores allow water
molecules but not dissolved salt to pass through. The basic problem in desalination methods is
that they use large amounts of energy and therefore are expensive.

5. Encouraging the public to reduce unnecessary water waste and use: - manufacturing
processes can either use recycled water or can be redesigned to use and waste less water. Leaks
in pipes, water mains, toilets, bath tubs and faucets waste an estimate of 20 % of water
withdrawn for public supplies.

6. Purifying Polluted Water for Use

7. Decreasing Evaporation of Irrigation Water: it can be done by preventing seepage (by
placing plastic, concert tile liners in irrigation canal), by mulching etc.
 Unit Seven
7. Water Resource of Ethiopia
Ethiopia has numerous rivers, lakes and swampy areas. The high lands of the country are the
source of many big rivers; some cross the border and so have international significance. Not only
the highlands but also the abundant rainfall in the country together with the out ward inclination
of the land masses make Ethiopia to described as the “the water tower of East
Africa”.

7.1. The Ethiopian Drainage Systems

The drainage patterns are the result of the topographic features formed by the recent geologic
activity of the Cenozoic Era during the Tertiary Period.

The drainage systems of Ethiopia can be broadly divided into three topographic regions which in
turn are further subdivided in to drainage basins. These are: the western drainage system, the
south eastern drainage system and the Rift Valley drainage system.

The Western drainage system: includes the Tekeze drainage basin, Abay (Blue Nile) drainage
basin, Baro-Akobo drainage basin and Gibe-Omo drainage basin
The major lakes, such as Tana Lake, are located within this drainage system.

This is the largest drainage system that drains nearly 40 % of the total area and 60 % of the
annual water flow and an exoreic system in which the rivers in the system ultimately drain into
the Mediterranean Ocean.

The South-eastern drainage system: includes Wabishebele and Ghenale drainage basins. This
is also an exoreic system in which the rivers in this system ultimately drain into the Indian
Ocean.
The Rift valley drainage system : includes Awash drainage basin and major lakes such
as Ziway, Shala, Abijata, Awassa, Abaya and Chamo are located in the Rift Valley. This is
generally an endorheic or closed system with no external flow.
Most rivers have rapids, falls, gorges and cataracts that hinder transportation except that of Baro
along with the fluctuating volume of water of the rivers. Most rivers emerge from highlands so
that are speedy. These characteristics make the rivers fit for having good potential for
hydroelectricity power generation. Most rivers like Awash, Ghenalle, and Omo have high
potential for irrigation since they cross extensive lowlands.

Lakes: due to geological activities of the past, numerous lakes are found in Ethiopia. Most of the
country’s lakes are found in the drier areas. This implies that the lakes are of structural origin
rather than climatic effects. The tectonic activities have resulted in faulted depressions where the
rift valley lakes are mainly formed. The types of lakes in Ethiopia are categorized as highland
lakes, rift valley lakes and manmade lakes. Lakes of Ethiopia, if properly utilized, have potential
for fishery activity, for tourism, transportation, generating of hydroelectricity power, stabilizing
the micro climate, irrigation and etc.
The water shades of most lakes of Ethiopia are highly degraded so that the lakes are highly
threatened by siltation problem.
Lakes of Ethiopia are:

 High land lakes(Tana, Ashenge, Hayk )

 Rift valley (Chamo, Abaya,Awassa,Shalla,Abijata, Langano, Ziway)
 Manmade ( Koka )