Human Behaviour and Victimology

BY: GIRLIE L BAUTISTA
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GIRLIE L BAUTISTA, RCrim, MSCJE
COURSE INTRODUCTION
This subject provides the basic principles and ideas about Human Behavior and
Victimology as one of the major subjects for criminology course. Furthermore, this topic
comprises part of the 15% in the Criminology Licensure Examination under Criminal
Sociology area. We study Human Behavior and Victimology, as part o the professional
subjects under the Criminal Justice Education curriculum to necessitate the need of
understanding why people act in a certain matter. Criminologists in our fields would
require such comprehension in the aim to analyze crime, which human commit, provide a
strategy for its prevention and devise methods for proper treatment.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course covers the study on human behavior with emphasis on the concept of
human development and abnormal behavior. It includes strategies and approaches for
handling different kinds of abnormal behavior in relation to law enforcement and criminal
proceedings. It also includes the study of victimization, the role of community and
techniques in assisting offender’s reintegration and victim’s recovery.
COURSE OUTLINE
CHAPTER I – Introduction to Human Behavior
Segment1: Overview on Human Behavior
• What is Behavior?
• Kinds of Behavior
• Aspects of Behavior
• What is Human Behavior?
• Classification of Human Behavior
• Pioneers
• Theories of Child(Human Development)
• Freuds Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)
• Trait Theory
• Personality Trait by Eysenck
• Psychological Studies in Relation to Crime and Delinquency
Segment 2: Abnormal Behavior
• What is Abnormal Behavior?
• What is Psychopathology?
• The 4Ds
• Identification of Abnormal Behavior
• Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior
Segment 3: Mental Disorder
• What is Mental Disorder
• What is Mental Retardation
• Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation
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• Causes and Symptoms of Mental Retardation
Segment 4: Criminal Behavior
• What is Criminal Behavior
• Origins of Criminal Behavior
• The terrible triad for serial killers
• Childhood characteristics of serial killer
• What is Human Intelligence
• Binet Scale of Human Intelligence
CHAPTER II – Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanism
Segment 1: Emotion
• What is Emotion
• Theories of Emotion
Segment 2: Conflict
• What is Conflict
• Types of Conflict
Segment 3: Depression
• What is Depression
• Causes of Depression
• Symptoms of Depression
• Different Forms of Depression
• How to Battle Depression?
Segment 4: Stress
• What is Stress
• What is Stressor
• Two Types of Stress
• Three stages of Stress (General Arousal Syndrome/ GAS)
• Types of Short-Term Stress
• Types of Long-Term Stress
Segment 5 : Frustration
• What is Frustration
• What is Internal/Personal Frustration
• Common Responses to Frustration
Segment 6 : Coping Mechanism vs. Defense Mechanism
• What is Coping Mechanism?
• What is Defense Mechanism
• List of Coping Mechanism
CHAPTER III –DISORDERS
Segment 1: Anxiety Disorder
• What is Anxiety
• Symptoms of Anxiety Disorder
• Types of Anxiety Disorder
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Segment 2: Mood Disorders
• Types of Mood Disorder
Segment 3: Personality Disorder
• Types of Personality Disorders
• Cluster A. Odd or Eccentric Disorder
• Cluster B. Dramatic, Emotional or Erratic Behavior
• Cluster C. Anxious, Fearful Behaviors
Segment 4: Schizophrenia
• Schizophrenia Hallucination
• Characteristics of Schizophrenia
Segment 5: Sexual Disorder or Sexual Dysfunction
• Types of Sexual Dysfunction
• Paraphillias
• Common Forms of Paraphilia
• Categories of Sexual Abnormalities
CHAPTER IV: VICTIMOLOGY
Segment 1: Origin of Victimology
• History of Victimology
• Victimology
• Criminology vs. Victimology
Segment 2: Nature of Victimization
• Victim Characteristics
• Three kinds of Crime Victim
Segment 3: Personalities
• Hans Von Hentig
• Benjamin Mendelson
• Marvin Wolfgang
• Stephen Schafer
• Menachem Amir
Segment 4: Theories relating to Victimology
• Life Style Theory
• Deviant Place Theory
• Routine Activity Theory
INSTRUCTION TO THE USERS

1. Ask your instructor what type of information they'll include on exams. Taking good
notes is much easier if you know what's important. Each instructor has their own way of
designing their exams, so you may need to change up your note taking strategy to fit their
assessments. This information may also be included on the syllabus.
2. Write down important information from your teacher and textbook. It may feel
redundant to take notes, since the information is in front of you. However, you’ll soon
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forget the facts and dates if you don’t write them down straight away. The same goes for
when you’re reading the assigned text(s) for the course/class. So, keep a notebook
dedicated to classes, and aim to take at least 1 page of notes per chapter read or 30
minutes of lecture you've sat through. For example, you may not need to write down
Abraham Lincoln’s exact height. But, you should jot down the dates of the Civil War and
the date of the Gettysburg Address, for example.
3. Organize your notes chronologically. Maintaining that chronology in the notes that
you take while reading will help you organize the information you receive. Always jot
down the date of events in your notes and try to keep things sequential.
4. Write down connections between the chronological notes you take. Studying
history can often feel like you’re memorizing a bunch of disconnected dates, names, and
places. Avoid this by making the connections explicit in the notes that you take. Then,
when you’re preparing for a test or essay, you’ll be able to draw on these connections and
contextualize historical events.
5. Ask your instructor about any information you didn’t understand. Sometimes
students feel embarrassed to ask their teacher questions, but there’s no reason to feel that
way. If you’re confused about a point in the lecture or are struggling to remember any
dates, names, or places, don’t hesitate to ask your teacher after class. Or, send your
teacher an inquiring email that night.
6. Reading is Not Studying
Simply reading and re – reading texts or notes is not actively engaging in the material. It
is simply re – reading your notes. Only ‘doing’ the readings for class is not studying. It is
simply doing the reading for class. Re – reading leads to quick forgetting.
Think of reading as an important part of pre – studying, but learning information
requires actively engaging in the material. (Edwards, et al. 2014)
Active engagement is the process of constructing meaning from text that involves making
connections to lectures, forming examples, and regulating your own learning. (Davis, 2007)
Active studying does not mean highlighting or underlining text, re – reading, or rote
memorization. Though these activities may help to keep you engaged in the task, they are
not considered active studying techniques and are weakly related to improved learning.
(Mackenzie, 1994)
7. Ideas for Active Studying
a. Create a study guide by topic. Formulate questions and problems and write complete
answers. Create your own quiz.
Become a teacher. Say the information aloud in your own words as if you are the
instructor and teaching the concepts to a class.
b. Derive examples that relate to your own experiences.
Create concept maps or diagrams that explain the material.
Develop symbols that represent concepts.
c. Figure out the big ideas so you can explain, contrast, and re-evaluate them.
d. Work the problems and explain the steps and why they work.
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e. Study in terms of question, evidence, and conclusion: What is the question posed by the
instructor/author? What is the evidence that they present? What is the conclusion?
f. Organization and planning will help you to actively study for your courses. When
studying for a test, organize your materials first and then begin your active reviewing by
topic. (Newport, 2007)
g. Often subtopics are provided on the syllabi. Use them as a guide to help organize your
materials. For example, gather all of the materials for one topic (e.g., PowerPoint notes,
text book notes, articles, homework, etc.) and put them together in a pile. Label each pile
with the topic and study by topics. The Learning Center (2020)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The learning objectives include the following;
1. To be able to use a variety of brainstorming techniques to generate novel ideas of value
to solve problems;
2. To have sufficient mastery of one or more media to complete the technical and formal
challenges pertinent to a body of original work;
3. To be able to clearly communicate the content and context of their work visually, orally
and in writing;
4. To develop behaviors such as curiosity, initiative, and persistence that will help them
engage with the world in productive ways. Students will be able to work independently or
collaboratively to achieve stated goals;
5. To know and understand significant aspects of the history; the nature; and
characteristic;
6. To understand historical concepts such as continuity and change, cause and
consequence, similarity, difference and significance, and use them to make connections,
draw contrasts, analyze trends, frame historically – valid questions and create their own
structured accounts, including written narratives and analyses;
7. To understand the methods of historical enquiry, including how evidence is used
rigorously to make historical claims, and discern how and why contrasting arguments and
interpretations of the past have been constructed;
8. To gain historical perspective by placing their growing knowledge into different
contexts, understanding the connections between local, regional, national and international
history; between cultural, economic, military, political, religious and social history; and
between short – term and long – term timescales;
9. To develop a better understanding of their own role;
10. To become more familiar with the concepts of interdependence, development,
globalization;
11. and to think critically.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
COVER PAGE……………………………………………………………………………………………..…….1
COURSE INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………2
COURSE DESCRIPTION..……………………………………………………………………………………2
COURSE OUTLINE…………………………………………………………………………………….………2
INSTRUCTION TO THE USERS……………………………………………………..………...................4
LEARNING OBJECTIVES…………………………………………………………..………………………..6
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………….……………………………7
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Human Behavior………….…………………………………………8
Segment 1: Overview on Human Behavior…………….…………………..…….………9
Segment 2: Abnormal Behavior………………………………………………………...........15
Segment 3: Mental Disorder………………………………………...……..…………………..18
Segment 4: Criminal Behavior……….………………………………………………………..21
CHAPTER 2 Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanism………………………......27
Segment 1: Emotion………………………………………………….……………………………28
Segment 2: Conflict…………………………………………...…………………………………...29
Segment 3: Depression………………….……………………………………………………….31
Segment 4: Stress……………………………………………..……………………………………33
Segment 5: Frustration……………………………….………………………………………….35
Segment 6: Coping Mechanism vs. Defense Mechanism………………..………….36
CHAPTER 3 Disorders…………………………………………………………………..…………………..40
Segment 1: Anxiety Disorder…………………………………..…………….........................41
Segment 2: Mood Disorders…………………………………….………….………………….43
Segment 3: Personality Disorder………………………………………....………………...44
Segment 4: Schizophrenia………………………………………………….…………………..47
Segment 5: Sexual Disorder……………………………………………..…..………..……….49
CHAPTER 4 Victimology………………….…………………………………………...……………….….54
Segment 1: Origin of Victimology………………………………………………………..….55
Segment 2: Nature of Victimization……………………………………………………..…56
Segment 3: Personalities……………………………………………………………………….57
Segment 4: Theories relating to Victimology………………………………………….59
ACTIVITY NO.1………………………………………………………………………………………………..62
ACTIVITY NO.2………………………………………………………………………………………………..62
ACTIVITY NO.3………………………………………………………………………………………………..63
ACTIVITY NO.4………………………………………………………………………………………………..64
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………….65
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Human Behavior
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Segment1: Overview on Human Behavior
What is Behavior
The behavior is defined as a total response of an organism, in reply to living

circumstances, depending on the environmental stimulation and its internal tension of
successive movements which are oriented in a significant way. The behavior designates
the way to be and to act through the observable manifestations. The meaning and the
direction of adaptive behavior are of a major importance.
Kinds of Behavior
Kinds Nature Examples
Overt Behaviors that are directly observable. Smiling, Pouting, Crying
Covert Behaviors that are hidden or not visible to Hatred, Cursing, Jealousy,
the naked eye. etc
Conscious Acts which are within the level of Walking, Clapping, etc.
awareness.
Unconscious Acts that are embedded in one’s Mannerisms
subconscious.
Simple Acts categorized according to the number of Smiling, Winking of the
neurons involved in the process of behaving. eye, etc.
Complex Acts involving the use of more number of Dancing, Laughing,

neurons which are combination of simple Running, Crying
behaviors.
Rational Behaviors that are manifested with sanity or Logical Reasoning
reason.
Irrational Behaviors with no apparent reason or Laughing out loud at
explanation. nobody or nothing in
particular.
Voluntary Act done with full volition of will. Making decisions
Involuntary Bodily processes that goes on even when we Respiration, Circulation,
are awake or asleep. Digestion,
Somnambulism, etc.
Aspects of Behavior
Aspects Nature
Intellectual Behaviors which pertain to our way of thinking, reasoning, solving
problem, processing information and coping with environment.
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Emotional Behaviors which pertain to our feelings, moods, temper, and strong
motivation force.
Social Behavior which pertain to how we interact or relate with other

people.
Moral It pertains to our conscience and concept on what is good or bad.
Psychosexual It pertains to our being a man or a woman and the expression of

love.
Political It pertains to our ideology towards society or government.
Values or It pertains to our interest towards something, our likes and dislikes.
Attitude
What is Human Behavior?

Human Behavior refers to a voluntary or involuntary attitude of a person in order
to fit the society’s idea of right or wrong, partly determined by heredity and environment,
and modified through learning. It is the way also how human beings act. Many people use
the word behavior to mean conduct. But in psychology and other behavioral science,
behavior is regarded as any activity of a person.
Human Behavior, the potential and expressed capacity for physical, mental, and
social activity during the phases of human life.
Classification of Human Behavior
1. Habitual – refers to demeanors which are resorted to in a regular basis it be

further characterized as: emotional and language.
2. Instinctive – are human conduct, which is unlearned and inherent, said to be
present at birth of a person, and significantly influenced by heredity.
3. Complex – refers to two or more habitual behavior which occurs in one situation.
Pioneers of Human Behaviour

• B.F Skinner (1904-1990) proposed that children learn from consequences of
behaviour. Skinner proposes the use of reinforcements to encourage desirable
behaviour and to discourage negative behaviour in children. Reinforcements can be
in the form of rewards and sanctions which parents can use in the home to
promote good behaviour and deter bad behaviour.
• Jean Piaget (1896- 1980)- Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests
that intelligence changes as children grow. A child's cognitive development is not
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just about acquiring knowledge, the child has to develop or construct a mental
model of the world.
• Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939) - was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a
method for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior.
Theories of Child (Human) Development

Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
The structure of personality/tripartite personality
The structure of personality is made up of three major systems: the Id, the ego and
the super ego. Behavior is always the product of an inter action among these three
system; rarely does one system operate to the exclusion of the other two.
a. Id – id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on
the pleasure principle i.e. it wants immediate satisfaction, with no consideration for
the reality of the situation. Id refers to the selfish, primitive, childish, pleasure-
oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification. Freud called the
id the “true psychic reality” because it represents the inner world of subjective
experience and has no knowledge of objective reality.
b. Ego – as the child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The
ego’s job is to meet the needs of the id, whilst taking into account the constraints of
reality. The ego acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt us,
so the id must be constrained (reality principle). Ego is the moderator between the
id and the super ego which seeks compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as
our “sense of time and place”.
c. Superego (conscience of man) – the superego develops during the phallic stage as a
result of the moral constraints placed on us by our parents. It is generally believed
that a strong superego serves to inhibit the biological instinct of the id (resulting in a
high level of guilt), whereas a weak superego allows the id more expression-resulting
in a low level of guilt. Superego internalized societal and parental standards of
“good” and “bad”, “right and “wrong” behavior (Burger, 2000).
Freud’s Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)

1. Oral stage (0-18 months)
This is the first psychosexual stage in which the infant’s source of id gratification is the
mouth. Infant gets pleasure from sucking and swallowing. Later when he has teeth, infant
enjoys the aggressive pleasure of biting and chewing. A child who is frustrated as this
stage may develop an adult personality that is characterized by pessimism, envy and
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suspicion. The overindulged child may develop to be optimistic, gullible, and full of
admiration for others.
2. Anal stage (18 months-3 years)

When parents decide to toilet train their children during anal stage, the children learn
how much control they can exert over others with anal sphincter muscles. Children can
have the immediate pleasure of expelling feces, but that may cause their parents to punish
them.
This represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion
of bodily wastes, and the super-ego which represent external pressure to control bodily
functions. If the parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of an
anal expulsive character of the child who is disorganized, reckless and defiant. Conversely,
a child may opt to retain feces thereby spiting his parents and may develop an anal-
retentive character which is neat, stingy and obstinate.
3. Phallic stage (3-6 years)

Genitals become primary source of pleasure. The child’s erotic pleasure focuses on
masturbation that is, on self-manipulation of the guuenitals. He develops a sexual
attraction to the parent of the opposite sex; boys develop unconscious desires for their
mother and become rivals with their father for her affection.
The reminiscent with Little Hans’ case study. So the boys develop a fear that their
father will punish them for these feelings (castration anxiety) so decide to identify with
him rather than for fight him. As a result, the boy develops masculine characteristics and
represses his sexual feeling towards his mother.
This is known as:
a. Oedipus complex – this refers to an instance where in boys build up a warm and
loving relationship with mothers (mommy’s boy).
b. Electra complex – this refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense

emotional attachment for their fathers (daddy’s girl).
Note: the Oedipus complex is named for the king of Thebes who killed his father and married
his mother.
4. Latency stage (6-11 years)

Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage. Sexual energy is going through the
process of sublimation and is being converted into interest in schoolwork, riding bicycles
playing house and sports.
5. Genitals stage (11 years)

This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage; there is renewed interest in
obtaining sexual pleasure through the genitals. Masturbation often becomes frequent and
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lead to orgasm for the first. Sexual and romantic interests in others also become a central
motive.
What is Trait?
A trait is a personality characteristic that has met three criteria: it must be
consistent, stable, and vary from person to person. Based on this definition, a trait can be
thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain
ways.
Trait Theory
Trait approach identifies where a person might lie along continuum of various
personality characteristics. Trait theories attempt to learn and explain the traits that make
up personality, the differences between people in terms of their personal characteristics
and how they relate to actual behaviour.
Trait refers to the characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of
behaving, thinking, and feeling (Wade,et. Al, 2003).
Hans Eysenk’s Personality Trait

Eysenck's theory of personality focused on temperaments, which he believed were
largely controlled by genetic influences.1 He utilized a statistical technique known as
factor analysis to identify what he believed were the two primary dimensions of
personality: extraversion and neuroticism. He later added a third dimension known as
psychoticism.
a. Extraversion. Extraversion is a measure of how energetic, sociable and friendly a
person is. Extraverts are commonly understood as being a ‘people’s person’
drawing energy from being around others directing their energies towards people
and the outside world. Often seen as the ones talking the most in a social situation,
extraverts are traditionally characterized by sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness,
and excitability.
b. Neuroticism. Neuroticism is typically defined as a tendency
toward anxiety, depression, self-doubt, and other negative feelings. All personality
traits, including neuroticism, exist on a spectrum—some people are just much more
neurotic than others. It is sometimes described as low emotional stability or
negative emotionality.
c. Psychoticism. Psychoticism states that a person will exhibit some qualities
commonly found among psychotics, and that they may be more susceptible, given
certain environments, to becoming psychotic. Examples of such psychotic tendencies
include recklessness, disregard for common sense, and inappropriate emotional
expression to name a few (Boeree, 1998)
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Allport’s Trait Theory
In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one English-language dictionary
contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits. He categorized
these traits into three levels:
a) Cardinal traits. Allport suggested that the basic traits are rare and predominant
and usually develop in later years. They tend to define people to the extent that
their names are synonymous with their personality. Examples of this include the
following descriptive terms: Machiavellian, narcissistic, Don Juan, and Christ-like.
b) Central traits. These general characteristics form basic personality foundations.
While central traits are not as dominating as cardinal traits, they describe the major
characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such as
"intelligent," "honest," "shy," and "anxious" are considered central traits.
c) Secondary traits. Secondary traits are sometimes related to attitudes or
preferences. They often appear only in certain situations or under specific
circumstances. Some examples include public speaking anxiety or impatience while
waiting in line.
Psychological Studies in Relation to Crime and Delinquency
1. August Aichorn in his book entitled Wayward Youth, 1925 said the cause of crime
and delinquency is the fault development of child during the first few years of his
life (faulty ego-development). Aichorn felt that exposure to stressful social
environment did not automatically produce crime and delinquency. He said that
after all, most people are exposed to extreme stress and do not result to violence or
crime. Aichorn felt that stress only produced crime in those who had a particular
mental state known as Latent Delinquency.
Latent Delinquency, according to Aichorn, this result from inadequate
childhood Socialization and manifest itself in the need for immediate
gratification (impulse), lack empathy for other and inability to feel guilt.
2. Cyrill Burt (Young Delinquent, 1925). He gave the theory of General emotionality.
According to him excess or a deficiency of a particular instinct account for the
tendency of many criminals to be weak willed or easily led. Callous type of
offenders may be due to the deficiency in the primitive emotion of love and an
excuse of the instinct of hate. (Usually with weak emotion, example broken hearted
or greedy type easily fooled)
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3. William Healy (individual Delinquency). He claimed that crime is an expression of
the mental content of the individual. Frustration of the individual causes
emotional discomfort; personality demands removal of pain and pain is eliminated
by substitute behaviour, that is, crime delinquency of the individual.
4. Walter Bromberg (Crime and the mind, 1946). He claimed that criminality is the
result of emotional immaturity. A person who is emotionally matured if he has
learned to control his emotion effectively and who lives at peace and harmonious
with the society. An emotional Immature person rebels against the rules and
regulations, engages in usual activities and experience a feeling of guilt due to
inferiority complex.
NOTE: Inferiority complex is the prevailing and intense personal feeling of inadequacy,
weakness, and insecurity. You feel your accomplishments, attractiveness, or happiness are no
match when compared to others. Constantly thinking that you are not good enough is an
erroneous belief that can harm your mental and social life.
5. David Abrahamsen. Abrahamsen maintained that criminal behaviour is a symptom

of a more complex personality distortion; there is a conflict between ego and super-
ego, as well as inability to control impulsive and pleasure seeking drives, because
these influence are rooted in early childhood and later reinforced through reaction
to familial and social stresses.
Segment 2: Abnormal Behavior

What is Abnormal Behavior?
Abnormal Behavior (maladaptive or maladjusted behavior). A group of behaviors
that is deviant from social expectations because they go against the norms or standard
behavior of society.
Abnormal psychology focuses on the patterns of emotion, thought, and behavior
that can be signs of a mental health condition. Rather than the distinction between normal
and abnormal, psychologists in this field focus on the level of distress that behaviors,
thoughts, or emotions might cause.
What is Psychopathology?
Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders , including efforts to
understand their genetic, biological, psychological, and social causes.
Identification of Abnormal Behavior

Abnormal Behavior could be recognized through any of the following:
1. Deviation from Statistical Norm – The word abnormal means` away from the
norm’. Many population facts are measured such as height, weight and intelligence.
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Most of the people fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a few are
abnormally stupid. But according to this definition, a person who is extremely
intelligent would be classified as abnormal.
• Intelligence – it is statistically abnormal for a person to get a score about 145
on an IQ test or to get a score below 55, but only the lower score is
considered abnormal (Wakefield, 1992).
2. Deviation from Social Norm – Every culture has certain standards for acceptable
behavior; behavior that deviates from the standard is considered to be abnormal
behavior. But those standards can change with time and vary from one society to
another.
3. Maladaptive Behavior – Maladaptive behavior can result when a person just does
not see a path to their desired future. This can happen with any chronic illness or
major lifestyle change. With maladaptive behavior, self-destructive actions are taken
to avoid undesired situations. Maladaptive behaviors like these can become a self-
destructive pattern:
• Passive-aggressiveness. This is when you express negative feelings indirectly
rather than head-on. You say one thing but really mean another. Your true
feelings are woven into your actions.
• Withdrawal. When avoidance is your go-to strategy, you’re effectively
withdrawing from social interaction. Consider the college student who uses
video games to avoid joining clubs or meeting new people. The games are a
distraction and provide temporary relief from anxiety.
• Self-Harm. Some people deal with stressful events by hurting themselves, such
as:
a) cutting, scratching, or burning skin
b) picking at scabs or wounds
c) pulling out hair, eyelashes, or eyebrows
d) self-hitting or banging your head
e) refusal to take needed medications
4. Personal Distress – The fourth criterion considers abnormality in terms of the

individual’s subjective feelings, personal distress, rather than his behavior. Most
people commonly diagnosed as `mentally ill’’ feel miserable, anxious, depressed and
may suffer from insomnia (Whitford, et. al., 2006).
5. Failure to Function Adequately - Under this definition, a person is considered

abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life. They may
be unable to perform the behaviors necessary for day – to – day living e.g., self –
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care, hold down a job, interact meaningfully with others, make themselves
understood etc.
The following characteristics that define failure to function adequately:
a. Suffering;
b. Maladaptiveness (danger to self);
c. Vividness and unconventionality (stands out);
d. Unpredictably and loss of control;
e. Irrationality/incomprehensibility;
f. Causes observer discomfort, and
g. Violates moral/social standards.
6. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health - Under this definition, rather than defining
what is abnormal, we define what normal/ideal is and anything that deviates from
this is regarded as abnormal. This requires us to decide on the characteristics we
consider necessary to mental health. The six criteria by which mental health could
be measured are as follows:
a. Positive view to the self;
b. Capability for growth and development;
c. Autonomy and independence;
d. Accurate perception and reality;
e. Positive friendships and relationships, and;
f. Environmental mastery (able to meet the varying demands of day – to – day
situations).
Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior

The following are the signs of abnormal behavior:
• Long Periods of Discomfort – This could be anything as simple as worrying about
a calculus test or grieving the death of a loved one. When such distressing feelings,
however, persist for an extended period of time and seem to be unrelated to events
surrounding the person, they would be considered abnormal and could suggest a
psychological disorder.
• Impaired Functioning – Here, a distinction must be made between simply a
passing period of inefficiency and prolonged inefficiency which seems
unexplainable.
• Bizarre Behavior – Bizarre Behavior that has no rational basis seems to indicate
that the individual is confused. The psychoses frequently results to hallucinations
(baseless sensory perceptions) or delusions (beliefs which are patently false yet
held as true by the individual).
• Disruptive Behavior – Disruptive Behavior means impulsive, apparently

uncontrollable behavior that disrupts the lives of others or deprives them of their
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human rights on a regular basis. This type of behavior is characteristic of a severe
psychological disorder.
Segment 3: Mental Disorder

What is Mental Disorder?
- Mental disorder from sociological viewpoint is the persistent inability to adapt
oneself to the ordinary environment. It is the individual’s loss of power to regulate
his actions and conduct according to the rules of society.
- A mental disorder can make you miserable and can cause problems in your daily
life, such as at school or work or in relationships. In most cases, symptoms can be
managed with a combination of medications and talk therapy (psychotherapy).
What is Intellectual Disability?

- Formerly knowns as Mental Retardation. It is characterized by below-average
intelligence or mental ability and a lack of skills necessary for day-to-day living.
People with intellectual disabilities can and do learn new skills, but they learn them
more slowly. There are varying degrees of intellectual disability, from mild to
profound. The term "mental retardation" is no longer used, as it's offensive and has
a negative tone.
- It refers to a mental disorder characterized by sub – average general functioning
existing concurrency with deficits in adaptive behavior. It is a common mental
disorder before the age of eighteen (18). The person suffering from low IQ.,
difficulty focusing attention and deficiency in fast learning.
Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation

1. Mild mental retardation (I.Q. 50 – 70) – educable
Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly retarded category.
Their IQ score ranges from 50-70 and they can often acquire academic skills up to about
the sixth-grade level.
2. Moderate mental retardation (I.Q. 35– 55) – trainable
About 10% of the mentally retarded population is considered moderately retarded.
Moderately retarded persons have IQ Scores ranging from 35-55. They can carry out work
and self-care tasks with moderate supervision.
3. Severe mental retardation (I.Q. 20 – 40) – dependent retarded
About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded. Severely retarded
persons have IQ Scores of 20-40. They may master very basic self-care skills and some
communication skills.
4. Profound mental retardation (I.Q. under 20-25) – life support retarded
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Only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as profoundly retarded.
Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ Scores under 20-25. They may be able to develop
basic self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and training.
Symptoms of Mental Retardation

• Failure to meet developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, walking, or
talking, in a timely manner
• Persistence of childlike behavior, possibly demonstrated in speaking style, or by a
failure to understand social rules or consequences of behavior
• Lack of curiosity and difficulty solving problems
• Decreased learning ability and ability to think logically
• Trouble remembering things
• An inability to meet educational demands required by school.
What is Human Intelligence?

Human intelligence, mental quality that consists of the abilities to learn from
experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use
knowledge to manipulate one’s environment.
Human Intelligence generally points to at least three characteristics. First,
Intelligence is best understood as a compilation of brain-based cognitive abilities.
According to 52 eminent researches, intelligence reflects`` a very general mental capability
that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think
abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience’’.
What is Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?

The IQ is a measurement of your intelligence and is expressed in a number. It is a
measure of your ability to reason and solve problems. It essentially reflects how well you
did on a specific test as compared to other people of your age group. While tests may
vary, the average IQ on many tests is 100, and 68 percent of scores lie somewhere
between 85 and 115.
The IQ concept was developed by either the German Psychologist and Philosopher
Wilhem Stern in 1921. However, in 1904 psychologist Alfred Binet was commissioned by
the French Government to create a testing system to differentiate intellectual normal
children from those who are inferior. From Binet’s work the IQ scale called the “Binet
Scale” (later became Simon-Binet Scale) was developed.
Two Groups of Intelligence Quotient

High IQ and Genius IQ. Genius or near Genius IQ is considered to start around 140-
145. Less than ¼ of 1 percent fall into this category. Here are some common designation
on IQ scale:
a) 115-124 - Above Average
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b) 125- 134 - Gifted
c) 135-144 - Very Gifted
d) 145-164 - Genius
e) 165-179 - High Genuis
f) 180-200 - Highest Genius
Low IQ and Mental Retardation. An IQ under 70 is considered as “Mental
Retardation” or Limited Mental Ability. 2.27% of the population falls below 70 on IQ tests.
The severity of mental retardation is commonly broken into 4 levels:
a) 50-70 - Mild Mental Retardation
b) 35-50 - Moderate Mental Retardation
c) 20-35 - Severe Mental Retardation
d) IQ<20 - Profound Mental Retardation
Binet Scale
IQ SCORE Original Name
Below 20 Idiot
20 to 49 Imbecile
50 to 69 Moron/Feebleminded
70 to 79 Borderline Deficiency
80 to 89 Dull
90 to 109 Normal or Average
110 to 119 Superior
120 to 139 Very Superior
Over 140 Genius or Near Genius
Segment 4: Criminal Behavior

What is Criminal Behavior
Criminal Behavior refers to the behavior which is criminal in nature; a behavior
which violates a law. It is also refer to conduct of an offender that leads to and including
the commission of an unlawful act.
Origins of Criminal Behavior

1. Biological Factor
Heredity as a factor implies that criminal acts are unavoidable, inevitable consequences of
the bad seed or bad blood. It emphasizes genetic predisposition toward antisocial and
criminal conduct. The following are some studies and theories related to biological causes
of crime:
a. Born Criminal (Cesare Lombroso)
Lombroso's (1876) biological theory of criminology suggests that criminality is
inherited and that someone "born criminal" could be identified by the way they look.
Measuring Crime: The “Born Criminal”
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Lombroso examined over 4000 offenders (living and dead) to identify physical
markers indicative of the atavistic form.
Examples of things Lombroso measured were people’s height, weight, the span of their
arms, the average height of their body while seated, the sizes of their hands, necks, thighs,
legs, and feet, their eye color and so on.
In a study of 383 dead Italian criminals and 3839 living ones he found 40% of them had
atavistic characteristics.
b. Somatotype (William Sheldon) and Physique Theory (Ernst Kretschmer)

Somatotyping by William Sheldon
William H. Sheldon (1940) developed and Tested his classification system also
known as Somatotyping. He attempted to document as direct link between biology and
personality through development of classification system of personality patterns and
corresponding body built.
• Endomorphs
- characterized by increased fat storage, a wide waist, and large bone structure.
- they have a smooth, round body, small shoulders, and shorter limbs.
- they tend to carry weight in the lower abdomen, hips, and thighs rather than evenly
distributed throughout the body
-have a Viscerotonic temperament (i.e., relaxed, comfortable, extroverted)
• Ectomorphs
- characterized by long, thin muscles and limbs and low fat storage.
- ectomorphs are slim. Ectomorphs are not predisposed to store fat or build muscle
- have a Ceberatonic temperament (i.e., introverted, thoughtful, inhibited, sensitive)
• Mesomorph
- mesomorph body type is predisposed to build muscle, but not store fat. They tend to be
strong and solid, neither overweight nor underweight.
- their bodies may be described as rectangular in shape with an upright posture.
- Mesomorphs are typically thought of as having an even weight distribution, muscular
arms, legs, chest and shoulders, and a large heart
- have a Somotonic temperament (i.e., active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive)
Physique Theory by Ernst Kretschmer

Ernst Kretschmer developed his Physique Theory in his book Physique and
Character published in 1912, he suggested the following physique:
• Asthenic Type. This individual is skinny, with rib bones are easily counted
and slender body type. This type usually commits crime such as theft and
fraud
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• Athletic Type. This individual has broad shoulders, powerful legs and
muscular body types. This type usually commits violent crimes.
• Pyknic Type. This individual is stout, has short stubby hands and with round
body. This type usually commits deception, fraud and violence.
• Dysplastic or Mixed Type. This individual has body type that is less clearly
evident having any predominant type (unclassified). Any person with this
body type usually commits offenses against decency and morality
c. Juke and Kallikak (Richard Dugdale & Henry Goddard)

The Jukes Family (Richard Dugdale)
"The Jukes," a fictitious name for a real family. The results of the research were
published in 1875 as a Prison Association report, entitled The Jukes: A Study in Crime,
Pauperism, Disease, and Heredity. The publication created a popular uproar, especially in
the press. It was republished in 1877, together with his Further Studies of Criminals.
He traced the descendants of matriarch Margaret Ada Jukes and discovered that
most of the members of the family were criminals, prostitutes or welfare recipients. Most
of Dugdale's assumptions and conclusions about hereditary degeneracy are no longer
accepted. What Dugdale had discerned is today known as "the poverty cycle" or "culture of
poverty," and is believed to be the result of environment, not heredity.
As evidence, he cited statistics relating to "the Jukes family." He discovered:
• 310 died as paupers
• 150 were criminals
• 7 were murderers
• 100 were drunkards
• More than half of the women were prostitutes.
The study of Dugdale that for over seven generations produced 1,200 bastards,
beggars, murderers, prostitutes, thieves and syphilitics. Margarette Ada Juke was regarded
as mother of Criminals.
Kalikak Family (Henry Goddard)

American psychologist Henry Herbert Goddard published the book The Kallikak
Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness in 1912. This book was highly
influential in the eugenics movement, and used provocative photographs to further its
theses.
The Kallikak Family is an example of family study. Undertaken by a number of
eugenicists, family studies sought to track specific traits over two or more (ideally three)
generations in order to establish hereditary relationships. Believed to provide “scientific”
evidence for the hereditability of feeblemindedness and human intelligence more generally,
family studies were used by eugenicists to make a case for eugenic interventions such as
immigration restriction, segregation, and sterilization.
"Kallikak" is pseudonym derived from the Greek words Kallos (beauty) and Kakos
(bad), referring to the two strands of the Kallikak family, which both originated with
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Martin Kallikak Sr. Martin Sr., while serving in the Revolutionary War, met a “feeble-
minded” women at one of the taverns frequented by the militia, with her he fathered an
illegitimate “feeble-minded” son, Martin Kallikak Jr, the great-great-grandfather of Deborah
(Goddard 1912) According to Goddard, from Martin Jr. came four hundred and eighty
decedents, one hundred and forty-three of whom were feeble-minded.
NOTE: Goddard believed that the Kallikak family provided strong evidence that
intelligence was an inherited trait and has been criticized for altering pictures in his study to
give members of the Kallikak family menacing and sinister dispositions
2. Personality Disorder Factor

Personality disorder factor refers to an act that exhibits a pervasive pattern of
disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early
adolescence and continues into childhood such as Anti-Social Personality Disorder
(Psychoanalytic Theory-Sigmund Freud)
A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder in which you have a rigid and
unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and behaving. A person with a personality
disorder has trouble perceiving and relating to situations and people. This causes
significant problems and limitations in relationships, social activities, work and school.
3. Learning Factor
Learning factor explains that criminal behavior is learned primarily by observing or
listening to people around us. The following are related learning theories are;
a. Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland). Differential association
theory proposes that people learn values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for
criminal behavior through their interactions with others.
b. Imitation Theory (Gabriel Tarde). Tarde devised a theory of “imitation and
suggestion,” through which he tried to explain criminal behavior. He believed
that the origins of deviance were similar to the origins of fads and fashions, and
that his “three laws of imitation” can explain why people engage in crime. There
are three laws of imitation:
a. the law of close contact;
b. the law of imitation of superiors by inferiors; and
c. the law of insertion (where new behaviors either reinforce or
replace customary ones).
What is a Serial Killer?

Serial murder, also called serial killing, the unlawful homicide of at least two people
carried out by the same person (or persons) in separate events occurring at different
times.
The term serial murder was popularized in the 1970s by Robert Ressler, an
investigator with the Behavioural Science Unit of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation
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(FBI). The FBI originally defined serial murder as involving at least four events that take
place at different locations and are separated by a cooling-off period.
What is Macdonald Triad?

In 1963, forensic psychiatrist J. M. Macdonald observed in a paper, "The Threat to
Kill," that these behaviors (along with two others) often showed up in his most aggressive
and sadistic patients. Macdonald had compared 48 psychotic patients against 52 non-
psychotic patients who all had threatened to kill someone.
The three characteristics of almost serial killers during their childhood are: bed-wetting,
fire-starting and animal torture.
1. Bed-wetting. Bed wetting or Enuresis is the most intimate of these, “triad”
symptoms, and is less likely to be willfully divulged. Persistent bed-wetting that still
occurs after the age of five (5) and continues at least twice a week for at least
three consecutive months.
By some estimates, 60% of multiple murderers wet their beds past
adolescence. Kenneth Bianchi apparently spent many a night marinating in urine-
soaked sheets.
NOTE: Donald “Pee Wee” Gaskins endured a very terrible childhood filled with
abuse and trauma. He experienced constant convulsions as the result of accidentally
drinking kerosene when he was 1, and he suffered from night terrors and bed-wetting.
2. Fire-starting (fascination of fire) – Children and young people start to play with
fire for various reasons, ranging from natural curiosity in toddlers to older children
using fire setting to express feelings of anger or emotional distress.
The signs particularly point to those who intentionally use fire to harm, such
as setting fire to a place frequented by people. This is said to be a young person’s
first attempt at showing aggression or violence. In other cases, fire setting can also
be a way of releasing pent-up frustration and anger. Fire fascination was an early
manifestation of their obsession with destruction.
3. Animal Torture (Cruelty to Animals) – Most serial killers, before moving to

human victims, start with animals. to be cruel to animals is it serves as a rehearsal
for killing human victims. It is also theorised that these kids were not able to
retaliate toward their abusers, leading them to act out their vengeance on weaker
beings, particularly smaller animals.
Ed Kemper killed his neighbor’s cat. A dog’s severed head was found on a
stick in the wood near Jeffrey Dahmer’s childhood home.
Note: There is no guarantee that if the three aforesaid conditions are present, the child will
grow as serial killer. They are only early signs to beware of.
Childhood characteristics of serial killer
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a. Majority of serial killers have a history of sexual and physical abuse during their
childhood.
b. Half of the serial killers’ families, the biological father had left before the child were
12 years old. In cases where the father didn’t leave, he was domineering and
abusive.
c. Delinquent acts such as pyromania, theft, and cruelty to animals were present
during the childhood of the most killers.
Famous Serial Killers

1. Ted Bundy. He was a 1970s serial murderer, rapist and necrophiliac. He was
executed in Florida's electric chair in 1989. His case has since inspired many novels
and films about serial killers. Bundy confessed to 36 killings of young women
across several states in the 1970s, but experts believe that the final tally may be
closer to 100 or more. The exact number of women Bundy killed will never been
known. His killings usually followed a gruesome pattern: He often raped his victims
before beating them to death.
2. Edmund Kemper. He killed both his grandparents at the age of 15 to "see what it
felt like." Upon release, he drifted, picking up and releasing female hitchhikers. But
he soon stopped letting them go, killing six young women in the Santa Cruz,
California, area in the 1970s. In 1973 he killed his mother and her friend before
turning himself in.
3. Jeffrey Dahmer. He was an American serial killer who took the lives of 17 males
between 1978 and 1991. Over the course of more than 13 years, Dahmer sought
out men, mostly African American, at gay bars, malls and bus stops, lured them
home with promises of money or sex, and gave them alcohol laced with drugs
before strangling them to death. He would then engage in sex acts with the corpses
before dismembering them and disposing of them, often keeping their skulls or
genitals as souvenirs. He frequently took photos of his victims at various stages of
the murder process, so he could recollect each act afterward and relive the
experience.
4. Ed Gein. He grew up in a repressive household dominated by a controlling mother.
Following her death in 1945, his mental health disintegrated. After Gein was
apprehended as a suspect in a 1957 murder, the investigation of his home yielded a
highly disturbed man who kept human organs and fashioned clothing and
accessories out of body parts.
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CHAPTER 2
Human Behavior and
Coping/Defense Mechanism
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Segment 1: Emotion
What is Emotion?
Emotion refers to feelings affective responses as a result of physiological arousal,
thoughts and beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily expression. It is a state characterized
by facial expressions, gestures, postures and subjective feelings.
Emotion is often defined as a complex state of feeling that results in physical and
psychological changes that influence thought and behavior. Emotionality is associated with
a range of psychological phenomena, including temperament, personality, mood, and
motivation.
NOTE: Personality is the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that
make a person unique.
Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
Categories for Theories of emotion are:

The major theories of emotion can be grouped into three main categories:
physiological, neurological, and cognitive.
1. Physiological theories suggest that responses within the body are responsible for
emotions.
2. Neurological theories propose that activity within the brain leads to emotional
responses.
3. Cognitive theories argue that thoughts and other mental activity play an essential
role in forming emotions.
Theories of Emotion;
1. James-Lange Theory by William James and Carl Lange
Independently proposed by psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange,
the James-Lange theory of emotion suggests that emotions occur as a result of
physiological reactions to events. This theory suggests that seeing an external stimulus
leads to a physiological reaction. Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you
interpret those physical reactions.
Example: Suppose you are walking in the woods and see a grizzly bear. You begin to
tremble, and your heart begins to race. The James-Lange theory proposes that you will
conclude that you are frightened ("I am trembling. Therefore, I am afraid"). According to
this theory of emotion, you are not trembling because you are frightened. Instead, you feel
frightened because you are trembling
2. Cannon-bard Theory by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard

Another well-known physiological theory is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. Walter
Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange theory of emotion on several different grounds.
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First, he suggested, people can experience physiological reactions linked to emotions
without actually feeling those emotions.
This theory suggest that people feel emotions first and then act upon them. This is a
theory that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously. These actions
include changes in muscular tension, perspiration, etc. Cannon also suggested that
emotional responses occur much too quickly to be simply products of physical states.
When you encounter a danger in the environment, you will often feel afraid before you
start to experience the physical symptoms associated with fear, such as shaking hands,
rapid breathing, and a racing heart
Example: Your heart might race because you have been exercising, not because you are
afraid
Segment 2: Conflict
Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between
incompatible or contradictory alternatives. It is an negative emotional state caused by an
inability to choose between two or more incompatible goals or impulse (uriarte,2009)
Types of Conflict
The following are the types of conflict:
1. Psychological Conflict (internal conflict) – psychological conflict could be going on
inside the person and no one would know (instinct may be at odds with values)
Freud would say unconscious id battling superego and further claimed that our
personalities are always in conflict.
2. Social Conflict – the different kinds of social conflict are:

a) Interpersonal Conflict.
b) Two individual me against you
c) Inter-group Struggles – us against them;
d) Individual Opposing a Group – me against them, them against me;
e) Intra-Group Conflict – members of group all against each other on a task.
f) Approach-Avoidance – Conflict can be described as having features of
approach and avoidance: approach-approach; avoidance-avoidance; approach-
avoidance.
NOTE: Approach speaks to things that we want while Avoidance refers to things that we do
not want.
Kinds of Approach-Avoidance
a. Approach-Approach Conflict – In Approach-Approach Conflict, the individual must

choose between two positive goals of approximately equal value. In these two
pleasing things are wanted but only one option should be chosen.
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Examples: A student wishes to pursue a graduate degree and has been accepted into
two graduate programs and needs to make a decision about which one to attend.
GOAL+ PERSON GOAL+
Fig. 1 Approach-Approach Conflict
b. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – In Avoidance-avoidance conflict involves more

obvious sources of stress. In such conflicts, both are unwanted goals, but he cannot
keep quiet without opting also.
Examples: a woman must work at a job which she dislikes very much or else she has
to remain unemployed. “I don’t want this, and I don’t want that.”
GOAL- PERSON GOAL-
Fig. 2 Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
c. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – In Approach-avoidance conflict a person is both

attracted and repelled by the same goal object. Here the goal object will have both
positive and negative valences.
The positive valence attracts the person, but as he approaches, the negative valence
repels him back. Attraction of the goal and inability to approach it leads to frustration and
tension.
Example: Gina is beautiful, but she is lazy.

A person is approaching to accept a job offer, because the salary is attractive- but at the
same time he is repelled back as the job is very risky.
“I want this, but I don’t want what this entails”
GOAL
PERSON +
_
Fig. 3 Approach-Avoidance Conflict
d. Multiple-Approach-avoidance Conflict – this refers to conflict with complex

combinations of approach and avoidance conflicts. It requires individual to choose
between alternatives that contain both positive and negative consequences (Lahey,
2001)
Example: A woman is engaged to be married. The marriage to her has positive

valences like-providing security to life and marrying a person whom she loves very much.
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Suppose, on the other hand, if the marriage is repellent to her because she has to quit her
attractive job and salary, recognition which makes her dependent, the situation builds up
tension in her.
GOAL GOAL
+ PERSON +
_ _
Fig. 4 Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Segment 3: Depression
Depression is an illness that cause a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the
time. It is different from normal feelings or sadness, grief, or low energy. Anyone can
have depression. If often runs in families. But if can also happen to someone who does
not have a family history of depression. You can have depression one time or many times.
CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
The causes of depression are not entirely understood. Things that may trigger
depression include:
• Abuse. Physical, sexual, or emotional abuse can make you more vulnerable to
depression later in life.
• Age. People who are elderly are at higher risk of depression. That can be made
worse by other factors, such as living alone and having a lack of social support.
• Conflict. Depression in someone who has the biological vulnerability to it may
result from personal conflicts or disputes with family members or friends.
• Death or a loss. Sadness or grief after the death or loss of a loved one, though
natural, can increase the risk of depression.
• Gender. Women are about twice as likely as men to become depressed. No one's
sure why. The hormonal changes that women go through at different times of their
lives may play a role.
• Major events. Even good events such as starting a new job, graduating, or getting
married can lead to depression. So can moving, losing a job or income, getting
divorced, or retiring. However, the syndrome of clinical depression is never just a
"normal" response to stressful life events.
• Substance misuse. Nearly 30% of people with substance misuse problems also
have major or clinical depression. Even if drugs or alcohol temporarily make you
feel better, they ultimately will aggravate depression.
SYMPTOMS OF DEPRESSION
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People who are depressed may:
• Feelings of sadness, tearfulness, emptiness or hopelessness
• Angry outbursts, irritability or frustration, even over small matters
• Loss of interest or pleasure in most or all normal activities, such as sex, hobbies or
sports
• Sleep disturbances, including insomnia or sleeping too much
• Tiredness and lack of energy, so even small tasks take extra effort
• Reduced appetite and weight loss or increased cravings for food and weight gain
• Anxiety, agitation or restlessness
• Slowed thinking, speaking or body movements
• Feelings of worthlessness or guilt, fixating on past failures or self-blame
• Trouble thinking, concentrating, making decisions and remembering things
• Frequent or recurrent thoughts of death, suicidal thoughts, suicide attempts or
suicide
• Unexplained physical problems, such as back pain or headaches
What are the different forms of depression?

1. Major depressive disorder – this is also called major depression. It is characterized
by a combination of symptoms that interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep,
study, eat and enjoyed once – pleasurable activities. Major depression disabling and
prevent a person from functioning normally. An episode of major depression may
occur only once in a person lifetime, but more often, it recurs throughout a
person’s life.
2. Dysthymic Disorder- (or also referred to as Dysthymia) – The symptoms do not

occurs for more than two months at a time. Generally, this type of depression is
described as having persistent but less severe depressive symptoms than major
Depression. Manifest nearly constant depressed mood for at least 2 years
accompanied by at least two (or more) of the following:
a) Decrease or increase in eating;
b) Difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping;
c) Low energy of fatigue;
d) Low self-esteem;
e) Difficulty concentrating or making decisions; and
f) Feeling hopeless.
3. Psychotic Depression- This occurs when a severe depressive illness is accompanied

by some form of psychosis, such as a break with reality, hallucinations, and
delusions.
4. Postpartum Depression – This is a major depressive episode that occurs after

having a baby. A new mother develops a major depressive episode within one
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month after delivery. It is estimated that 10 to 15 percent of women experience
postpartum depression after giving birth. In rare cases, a woman has a severe form
of depression called postpartum psychosis. She may act strangely, see or hear
things that aren’t there, and be danger to herself and her baby.
5. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)- This is characterized by the onset of a

depressive illness during the winter months, when there is less natural sunlight.
The depression generally lifts during spring and summer. SAD may be effectively
treated with light therapy , but nearly half of those with SAD do not respond to
light therapy alone. Antidepressant medication and psychotherapy can reduce SAD
symptoms, either alone or combination with light therapy.
6. Bipolar Disorder- This is also called manic-depressive illness, is not as common as

major depression or dysthymia. Bipolar disorder is characterized by cyclical mood
changes-form extreme highs (e.g., mania) to extreme lows (e.g., depression).
Segment 4: Stress
Stress- refers to the consequence of the failure of an organism – human or animal – to
respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats, whether actual or imagined. Stress
is a form of the middle English destresse, derived via old French from the latin
STRINGERE, to draw tight. The term stress was first employed in biological context by the
endocrinologist HANS SELYE in the 1930s. stress can through as any event that strains or
exceeds an individual’s ability to cope lazarus 1999)
What is stressor?
Stress or is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or
positive) for example, getting a promotion is a positive event, but may also produce a
great deal of stress with all the new responsibilities, work load, etc.
Two types of stress
1. Eustress (positive)- eustress is a word consisting of two parts. The prefix derives
from the Greek EU meaning either “well” or “good’. When attached to the word
“stress”’ it literally means “Good Stress”
It is a stress that is healthy or gives one of feeling of fulfillment or other positive

feelings. Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains. A stress that enhances function
(physical or mental, such as through strength training or challenging work) is considered
eustress.
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2. Distress (Negative) - distress is known as the negative stress. Persistent stress that
is not resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety
or withdrawal (depression) behavior (lazarus 1974).
Three stages of stress
1. Alarm- alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realize
the body’s stress response is a state of alarm. During this stage adrenalin will be
produce in order to bring about the fight –or-flight response.
2. Resistance – resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes

necessary to attempt some means of coping with the stress. Although the body
begins to try to adapt to the strains or demands of the environment, the body
cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources are gradually depleted.
3. Exhaustion- exhaustion is the third and final stage in the general arousal syndrome
(GAS) model. At this point, all of the body’s resources are eventually depleted and
the body is unable to maintain normal function. The initial autonomic nervous
system symptoms may reappear sweating, raised heart rate etc.
The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses such as ulcers, depression,
diabetes, trouble with the digestive system or even cardiovascular problem, along with
other mental illnesses.
TYPES OF SHORT-TERM STRESS
1. Acute Time- acute time refers to limited stress that come on suddenly (acute) and
are over relatively quickly. Situations like public speaking and doing math in your
head fall in this category. This thing may come on without warning but are short in
duration.
2. Brief Naturalistic Stress- brief naturalistic stress is relatively short in duration.

Think of a classroom test or a final exam. The stress you experience usually only
lasts for the time you are in the stressful situation.
Types of long-term stress
1. Stressful Event Sequences – stressful event sequences stress is a single event that
start from a chain of challenging situations. For example, losing a job or surviving a
natural disaster.
2. Chronic Stress – chronic stress lacks a clear end point. Often, they force people
two assume new roles or change their self-perception think of a refugee living their
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native country or an injury leading to permanent disability. This are life-changing
events- your rarely get to go back to the way things were.
3. Distant Stress - Distant stress may have been initiated in the past (like childhood
abuse or trauma resulting from combat experiences) but continue to affect the
immune system distant stressors have long-lasting effects on emotional and mental
health (scott,2011)
Segment 5: Frustration
Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from
reaching a goal. Frustration is an unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic
activity resulting from a blocked goal. It is associated with motivation since we won’t be
frustrated if we were not motivated to achieve the goal frustration may be external or
persona
What is External Frustration?

External frustration is a distress caused by outwardly perceivable conditions that
impedes progress toward a goal.
What is Personal Frustration?

Personal frustration is a distress caused by the individual's inner characteristic
that impedes progress toward a goal (Uriate, 2009)
Sources of Frustration
1. Physical Obstacles such as: drought typhoons flat tire, etc. that prevents a person
from doing his plans or fulfilling his wishes.
2. Social circumstances such as: obstacles through the restriction imposed by other
people and customs and laws social being
3. Personal Shortcomings such as: handicapped by diseases, blindness, deafness or
paralysis
4. Conflicts between Motives such as: wanting to leave college for a year to try
painting but also wanting to please one parent by remaining in school.
The following are common responses to frustration:

1. Aggression - it refers to any response made with the intent of harming some
person or objects. the intentional infliction may be a physical or psychological harm.
2. Displaced Aggression - it refers to the redirecting of aggression to a target other
than the actual source of one's frustration
3. Scapegoating - it refers to the act of blaming a person or group of people for

conditions not of their making
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4. Escape - it is the act of reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situation or by
psychologically withdrawing from them such as apathy (pretending not to care) or
illegal drug use.
Segment 6: Coping Mechanism vs. Defense Mechanism

Coping mechanisms are the sum total of ways in which people deal with mirror to
major stress and trauma. some of these processes are unconscious one’s other are learned
behaviours and still other are skills that individuals consciously master in order to reduce
stress or other intense emotions like depression. not all ways of coping are equally
beneficial, and some can actually be very detrimental
Defense mechanism refer to an individual’s way of reacting to frustration. these

are unconscious psychological strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with
reality and to maintain self-image healthy persons normally use different defenses
throughout life according to Freud defense mechanism are method that ego uses to avoid
recognizing ideas or emotions that may cause personal anxiety: it is the unrealistics
strategies use by the ego to discharge tension (lahey, 2001 &Rathus, 2003).
The following is the list of coping mechanism:
1. Acting Out - this means literally acting out the desires that are forbidden by the
super ego and yet desired by the Id. we thus cope with the pressure to do what we
believe is wrong by giving in to the desire A person who is acting out desires may
do it in spite of his/her conscience or may do it with relatively little thought thus
the act may be being deliberately bad or may be thoughtless wrongdoing.
Example: An addict gives in to his/her desire for alcohol or drugs. A person who dislikes
another person seeks to cause actual harm to him/her.
2. Aim Inhibition - sometimes we have desires and goals that we believe or realize
that we are unable to achieve in aim inhibition we lower our sights reducing our
goals to something that we believe is actually more possible or realistic.
Example: A person who sexually desire another person but is unable to fulfill that
desire (for example the other person is married) convinces.
A person who wants to be a veterinarian does not get sufficient exam grades so
becomes a vet assistant instead.
3. Altruism - Avoid your own pains by concentrating on the pains of other maybe
you can heal yourself and feel good by healing them and helping them to feel good.
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Example: A self-made millionaire who grew up in poverty sets up charitable
foundation and gains great pleasure from how it helps others get out of the poverty trap.
she receives social accolade and public recognition for her good deeds gratefully
4. Attack - The best from of defense is attack is a common saying and is also a
common action and when we fell threatened attacked(even psychologically ) we will
attack back. When personal feel stressed in some way, whether other the person is
a real cause or not. he/she may also attack inanimate objects.
Example: A Person is having problems with his/her computer. he/she angrily bangs the
keyboard
5. Avoidance - In avoidance we simply find ways of avoiding having to face

uncomfortable situations thing or activities the discomfort for example may come
from unconscious sexual or aggressive objects.
Example: I dislike another person at work i avoid walking past his/her desk when
people talk about him/her I say nothing.
My son does not like doing homework whenever the subject of school comes up he
changes the topic he also avoids looking directly at me.
6. Compensation - Where a person has a weakness in one area they may

compensate by accentuating or building up strengths in another area thus when
they are faced with their weakness they can say ah but I am good at and hence feel
reasonably good about the situation
Example: A person who failed in math excelled in english people who are not
intellectually gifted may turn their attention to social skills.
7. Denial - Denial is simply refusing to acknowledge that an event has occurred the
person affected simply acts as if nothing has happened behaving in ways that
others may see as bizarre
Example: A man hears that his wife has been killed and yet refuses to believe it still
setting the table for her and keeping her clothes and other accoutrements in the bedroom.
Alcoholic vigorously deny that things may go wrong pessimists deny they may
succeed.
8. Fantasy or day dreaming – when we cannot achieve or do something that we want,

we channel the energy created by the desire into fantastic imaginings fantasy also
provides temporary relief from the general stresses or everyday living
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Example: a boy who is punished by a teacher creates fantasies of shooting the
teacher (remember the movie (if they really wanted to)
9. Fight or flight reaction- when we perceive a significant threat to us then our body get
ready either for a fight to the death or a desperate flight from certain defeat by a clearly
superior adversary. It also happens when a creative new idea makes us feel uncertain
about things of we previously were sure. The biochemical changes in our brain makes us
aggressive, fighting the new idea or make us timid, feeling from it.
Example: a lion suddenly appeared in front of a person while walking the forest.
That person may choose to wrestle the lion or run away to save his life
10. RATIONALIZATION - When something happens that she finds difficult to accept, then
we will make up a logical reason why it has happened. We rationalize to ourselves. We
also find it very important to rationalize to other people, even those we do not know.
Example: A person fails to get a good enough results to get into a chosen
university and then says that he/she didn’t want to go there anyway.
11. SELF-HARMING: The person physically deliberately hurts himself/herself in some way
or otherwise puts themselves at high risk of harm.
a. Slapping oneself
b. Punching a hard wall
c. Cutting oneself with a knife
d. Reckless Driving
e. Taking narcotic drugs
12.TRIVIALIZING - When we are faced with a disappointment over something that is

important to us, we are faced with the problem of having our expectations and predictions
dashed. We may even have told other people about it beforehand, making it doubly
embarrassing that we have not gained what we expected. One way that we trivialize is to
make something a joke, laughing it off.
Example: I lose a lot of money due to gambling. I tell myself that I didn’t need it
anyway.
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CHAPTER 3
DISORDERS
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Segment 1: Anxiety Disorder
Anxiety is a psychological disorder that involves excessive levels of negative
emotions, such as nervousness, tension, worry, fright, and anxiety. It is a generalized
feeling of apprehension, fear, or tension that may be associated with a particular object or
situation or may be free-floating, not associated with anything specific. Anxiety can cause
such distress that it interferes with a person’s ability to lead a normal life (Lahey, 2001).
What is the difference between Anxiety and Fear?

Anxiety is defined as an unpleasant emotional state for which the cause is either
not readily identified or perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable, whereas, fear is an
emotional and physiological response to a recognized external threat or a response to real
danger or threat.
What are the symptoms of anxiety disorder?

Symptoms vary depending on the type of anxiety disorder, but general symptoms include:
Ø Feelings of panic, fear and uneasiness
Ø Uncontrollable, obsessive thoughts
Ø Repeated thoughts or flashback of traumatic experiences
Ø Nightmares
Ø Ritualistic behaviours, such as repeated hand washing
Ø Problems sleeping
Ø Cold or sweaty hands and/or feet
Ø Shortness of breath
Ø Palpitations
Ø An inability to be still and calm
Ø Dry mouth
Ø Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet
Ø Nausea
Ø Muscle tension
Ø Dizziness
What are the types of Anxiety Disorder?

There are several recognized types of anxiety disorders, including:
1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder- this disorder involves excessive, unrealistic worry

and tension, even if there is little or nothing to provoke the anxiety. Accordingly,
symptoms include restlessness or feeling keyed up, difficulty concentrating,
irritability, muscle tension and jitteriness, deep disturbance, and unwanted,
intrusive worries.
2. Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD) – People with OCD are plagued by constant

thoughts or fears that cause them to perform certain rituals or routines. The
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disturbing thoughts are called obsessions - are anxiety-provoking thoughts that will
not go away.
3. Panic Disorder – this disorder keeps recurring attacks to a person of intense fear
or panic, often with feeling of impending doom of death. People with this condition
have feeling of terror that strike suddenly and repeatedly with no warning. Other
symptoms of a panic attack include sweating, chest pain, palpitations (irregular
heartbeats), and feeling of choking, which may make the person feel like he or she
is having a heart attack or “going crazy.”
4. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – PTSD is a condition that can develop

following a traumatic and/or terrifying event such as sexual or physical assault, the
unexpected death of a loved one, or a natural disaster. People with PTSD often to
be emotionally numb.
5. Specific Phobias – A Specific Phobia is an intense fear of a specific object or
situation, such as snakes, heights, or flying. Phobia is an exaggerated, unrealistic
fear of a specific situation, activity, or object.
The level of fear usually is inappropriate to the situation and may cause the person to
avoid common everyday situations. Some specific phobias are:
Acrophobia -fear of heights

Ailorophobia -fear cats
Amaxophobia -fear of vehicle or driving
Anuptaphobia -fear of staying single
Aquaphobia -fear of water or swimming
Arachnophobia -fear of spider
Astraphobia -fear of storms, thunder, and lighting
Airophobia -fear of flying, airplanes
Biblophobia -fear of books
Blennophobia -fear of slime
Bogyphobia -fear of demons
Cathisophobia -fear of sitting down
Cibophobia -fear of foods
Claustrophobia -fear of confinement
Coitophobia -fear of sexual intercourse
Cremnophobia -fear of precipices
Cynophobia -fear of dogs
Demophobia -fear of crowds
Dromophobia -fear of crossing street
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Ecophobia -fear of home
Entomophobia -fear of insects
Gamophobia -fear of commitment
Gephyrophobia -fear of marriage
Geascophobia -fear of crossing bridge or a large body of water
Gymnophobia -fear of nudity
Hamatophobia -fear of sins or sinning
Hapephobia -fear of touching, or being touched
Hematophobia -fear of blood
Hodophobia -fear of travels
Homilophobia -fear of sermons
Kenisophobia -fear of motion
Kopophobia -fear of mental and physical exams
Lygophobia -fear of the dark
Mersophobia -fear of darkness
Microphobia -fear of germs
Nyctophobia -fear of fear of darkness
Ocholophobia -fear of crowds
Odontiatophobia -fear of dentists
Ophiophobia -fear of snakes
Opthalomophobia -fear of being stared at
Onomatophobia -fear of certain word or name
Panophobia -fear of everything
Paralipophobia -fear of responsibility
Pathophobia -fear of disease
Philophobia -fear of falling in-love or being loved
Phobophobia -fear of fears
Pyrophobia -fear of fire
Phyrotophobia -fear of getting wrinkles
Selenophobia -fear of the moon
Telephonophobia -fear of using the telephone
Trophophobia -fear of moving
Thanotophobia -fear of death or dying
Zenophobia -fear of strangers
Zoophobia -fear of animals in general
Segment 2: Mood Disorders

• Mood Disorders are disorders characterized by extreme and unwanted
disturbances in feeling or mood. These are major disturbances in one’s
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condition or emotion, such as depression and mania. It is otherwise known as
affective disorder (DSM-IV-TR, 200).
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What is Bipolar Disorder- In bipolar disorder, formerly known as manic-depression,
there are swings in mood from elation (extreme happiness) to depression (extreme
sadness) with no discernible external cause.
Two Phases of Bipolar

a. Manic Phase-During the manic phase of this disorder, the patient may show
excessive, unwarranted excitement or silliness, carrying jokes too far. They may
also show poor judgment and recklessness and may be argumentative. Manic
may speak rapidly, have unrealistic ideal, and jump from subject to subject. They
may not be able to sleep or sit still for every long.
b. Depressive Episode- The other side of the bipolar coin is the depressive
episode. Bipolar depressed patients often sleep more than usual and are
lethargic. During bipolar depressive episodes, a patient may also show irritability
and withdrawal.
Accordingly (wade, 2004), the depressed person speaks slowly and
monotonously while the manic person speak rapidly, dramatically, often with many
jokes and puns. The depressed person has low self-esteem while the manic person has
inflated self-esteem.
Segment 3: Personality Disorder

Personality disorder are chronic maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns
that are thoroughly integrated into the individual’s personality and that are
troublesome to others or whose pleasure sources are either harmful or illegal (Livesly,
2001).
Types of Personality Disorder: Cluster A, B & C

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR, 2000), a
reference used to clinically define mental illnesses, there are ten different personality
disorders categorized into three main grouping or clusters.
Clusters A: Odd or Eccentric Behaviors

1. Schizoid Personality Disorders (SPD)- Those with SPD may be perceived by
others as somber , aloof and often are referred as “loners.”
Manifestations:
a. Social isolation and a lack of desire for close personal relationships.
b. Prefers to be alone and seem withdrawn and emotionally detached.
c. Seem indifferent to praise or criticism from other people.
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2. Paranoid Personality Disorders (PPD)- Although they are prone to unjustified
angry or aggressive outbursts when they perceive others as disloyal or deceitful,
those with PPD more often come across as emotionally “cold” or excessively
serious.
Manifestations:
a. They feel constant suspicion and distrust toward other people.
b. They believe that others are against them and constantly look for evidence to
support their suspicions.
c. They are hostile toward others and react angrily to perceived insults.
3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD)-This disorders is characterized a need

for isolation as well as odd, outlandish, or paranoid beliefs. Some researchers
suggest this disorder is less severe than schizophrenia.
Manifestations:
a. They engage in odd thinking, speech, and behavior.
b. They may ramble or use words and phrases in unusual ways.
c. They may believe they have magical control over others.
d. They feel very uncomfortable with close personal relationships and tend to
be suspicion of others.
Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Behaviors

1. Antisocial Personality Disorders (APD)- APD is characterized by lack of
empathy or conscience, a difficulty controlling impulses and manipulative
behaviours. Antisocial behaviour in people less than 18 years old is called
conduct disorders.
Manifestations:
a. Act in a way that disregards the feelings and rights of other people.
b. Anti-social personalities often break the law.
c. Use or exploit other people for their own gain.
d. They may lie repeatedly, act impulsively, and get into physical fights.
e. They may mistreat their spouse, neglect or abuse their children and exploit their
employees.
f. They may even kill other people.
g. People with this disorders are also sometimes called sociopaths or psychopaths.
People with this disorder are at high risk for premature and violent death, injury,
imprisonment, loss of employment, bankruptcy, alcoholism, drug dependence, and failed
personal relationship.
2. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)- This mental illness interferes with an

individual’s ability to regulate emotion. Borderline are highly sensitive to
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rejection, and fear of abandonment may result in frantic efforts to avoid being
left alone, such as suicide threats and attempts.
Manifestations:
a. They have intense emotional instability, particularly in relationship with
other.
b. They make frantic to avoid real or imagined abandonment by others.
c. They may experience minor problems as major crises.
d. They express their anger, frustration, and dismay through suicidal gestures,
self-mutilation, and other self-destructive acts.
e. They tend to have an unstable self-image or sense of self.
Borderline personalities are at high risk for developing depression, alcoholism, drug
dependence, and bulimia; dissociate disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
3. Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD)- NPD is characterized primarily by

grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy. Narcissistic tend to be
extremely self-absorbed, intolerant of others’ perspectives, insensitive to others’
needs and indifferent to the effect of their own egocentric behaviour.
Manifestations:
a. They a grandiose sense of self-importance.
b. They seek excessive admiration from others and fantasize about unlimited
success or power.
c. They believe they are special, unique, or superior to others. However, they
often have every fragile self-esteem.
4. Histrionic Personality Disorders (HPD)- Individual with this personality

disorders exhibits a pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attempt to
get attention in unusual ways, such as bizarre appearance or speech.
Manifestations:
a. They strive to be the center of attention.
b. They act overly flirtatious or dress in ways that draw attention.
c. They may also talk in dramatic or theatrical style and display exaggerated
emotional reactions.
Cluster C: Anxious, Fearful Behaviors
1. Avoidant Personality Disorder (APD) -Those with avoidant personalities are

often hypersensitive to rejection and unwilling to take social risks. Avoidant
displays a high level of social discomfort timidity fear of criticism avoidance of
activities that involve interpersonal contact.
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Manifestation:
a. They possess intense, anxious shyness.
b. They are reluctant to interact with others unless they feel certain of being liked
c. They fear being criticized and rejected
d. They often view themselves as socially inept and inferior to others.
2. Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD) -People with dependent disorder

typically exhibits a pattern of needy and submissive behavior and reply on
others to make decision for them.
Manifestation:
a. They have severe and emotional dependency on others
b. They have difficulty in making decisions without a great deal of advice and
reassurance from others.
c. They urgently seek out another relationship when a close relationship ends.
d. They feel uncomfortable by themselves.
3. Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), also called Anankastic

personality disorder is a personality disorder characterized by a general pattern
of concern with orderliness, perfectionism, excessive attention to details, mental
and interpersonal control, and a need for control over one's environment, at the
expense of flexibility, openness, and efficiency. Work holism and miserliness are
also seen often in those with this personality disorder.
Manifestations:
a. They have a preoccupation with details, orderliness, perfection, and control.
b. They devote excessive amounts of time to work and productivity and fail to take
time for leisure activities and friendship.
c. They tend to be rigid, formal, stubborn, and serious.
This disorder differs from obsessive-compulsive disorder, which often includes more
bizarre behavior and rituals.(Lahey, 2001 & Santrock, 2003).
Segment 4: Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a group of disorders characterized by loss of contact with
reality, marked disturbances of thought and perception and bizarre behavior. At some
phase delusions or hallucinations almost always occur.
Emil Kraepelin first indentified the illness in 1896 when he distinguished it
from the mood disorders. He called it dementia praecox, which means a premature
deterioration of the brain. Emil’s thoughts were later disputed by psychiatrist. One of
these was Eugene Bleur, an eminent Swiss psychiatrist, who in 1911 gave term
“schizophrenia.” He developed the word by combining two Greek words schizein
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meaning “to split” and phren “mind.” This emphasized a splitting apart of the
patient’s affective and cognitive functioning, which are heavily affected by the disease.
Also, schizophrenia came from the New Latin words schizo, meaning “split,” and
phrenia, meaning “mind” (King, 2008).
Schizophrenia Hallucinations
1. Tactile (touch) People with Schizophrenia often have the sensation that there
are things (like bugs or insects) crawling across their skin.
2. Visual (sight) this kind of hallucination cause the person to see things that are
not really there.
3. Auditory (hearing) this is the most common type of hallucination. people with
auditory hallucination hear voices and sounds that others cannot hear.
4. Olfactory (smell) the person experiencing an olfactory hallucination smells
things (usually foul smelling things) that others do not smell.
5. Command (hearing) when a voice commands the person to do something
he/she would not ordinary do.
Characteristics of Schizophrenia
1. Disturbance of Thought and Attention- People suffering Schizophrenia often
cannot think logically and as the result of this they cannot write a story because
every word they write down might make sense but are meaningless in reaction
to each other and they cannot keep their attention to the writing. The principal
disturbance in the schizophrenic’s thought processes is multiple delusions. This
is divided into two sub-categories:
a. Persecutory Delusion- the schizophrenic believes that he/she is being talked
about spied upon or his/her death being planned.
b. Delusions of Reference-the schizophrenia give personal importance to
completely unrelated indicate object or people.
2. Disturbances of Perception - During acute schizophrenic episodes people say

that the world appears different to them their bodies appear longer colors seem
more intense and they cannot recognize themselves in a mirror.
3. Disturbances of Affect- schizophrenia person fail to show normal emotions.

This symptom is easiest described as an excessive lack of correlation between
what an individual is saying and what emotions they are expressing.
4. Withdrawal from Reality - During schizophrenic episode the individual become

absorbed in his inner thoughts and fantasies. The self-absorption may be so
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intense that the individual may not know the month or day or the place where
he is staying.
5. Delusions and Hallucinations - in the most cases it is accompanied by

delusions. Delusions are inflexible misleading belief. They appear as a result of
exaggeration or distortion of reasoning as well as false interpretation of things
and events.
Segment 5: Sexual Disorder

Sexual dysfunctions are disorder related to a particular phase of the sexual
response cycle. Sexual disorders include problems of sexual identity, sexual
performance, and sexual aim.
Types of sexual Dysfunction

A. Dysfunction of Sexual Desire (occurs during the Excitement Phase):
1. Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder – It is marked by lack or no sexual drive or
interest in sexual activity. It is characterized by persistent, upsetting loss of
sexual desire.
2. Sexual Aversion Disorder – It is characterized by a desire to avoid genital
contact with sexual partner. It refers to persistent feelings of fear, anxiety, or
disgust about engaging sex.
B. Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal (occurs during the Arousal/Plateau Phase):

1. Male Erectile Disorder – It refers to inability to maintain or achieve an erection
(previously called as impotence).
2. Female Sexual Arousal Disorder – It refers to none responsiveness to erotic
stimulation both physically and emotionally (previously called frigidity).
C. Dysfunctions of Orgasm (occurs during the Orgasmic Phase):

1. Premature Ejaculation – It is the unsatisfactory brief period between the
beginning or sexual stimulation and the occurrence of ejaculation.
2. Male Orgasmic Disorder – It refers to the inability to ejaculate during sexual
intercourse.
3. Female Orgasmic Disorder - It refers to the difficulty in achieving orgasm,
either manually or during sexual intercourse.
D. Hyper Sexuality:
1. Nymphomania (or furor uterinus) – A female psychological disorder
characterized by an overactive libido and an obsession with sex (etymology of
the word is nymph).
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2. Satyriasis – In males the disorder is called satyriasis and the etymology is satyr
(At health, Inc., 1996-2013).
What is Paraphilias
Paraphilia (in Greek “para” = over and “philia” = friendship) is a rare
mental health disorder term recently used to indicate sexual arousal in response to
sexual objects or situation that are not part of societal normative arousal/activity
patterns, or which may interfere with the capacity for reciprocal affectionate sexual
activity.
The disorder is characterized by a 6-month period of recurrent, intense
sexually arousing fantasies or sexual urges involving a specific act, depending on the
paraphilia.
Common forms of paraphilia are:

a. Exhibitionism – this is also known as flashing, is behaviour by a person that
involves the exposure of private parts of his/her body to another person in a
situation when they would not normally be exposed.
Forms of exposure
Various types of behaviour classified as exhibitionism includes:
1. Flashing – It is the display of bare breasts and/or buttocks by a woman with an
up-and-down lifting of the shirt and/or bra or a person exposing and/or stroking
his or her genitals.
2. Mooning – refers to the display of the bare buttocks while bending down by the
pulling-down of trousers and underwear. This act is more often done for the
sake of humor and/or mockery than for sexual excitement.
3. Anasyrma – Lifting up of the skirt when not wearing underwear, to expose
genitals.
4. Martymachlia – Is a paraphilia which involves sexual attraction to having others
watch the execution of a sexual act.
b. Fetishism – People with a fetish experience sexual urges and behavior which are
associated with non-living objects. For example, the object of the fetish could be an
article of female clothing, like female underwear. Usually the fetish begins in
adolescence and tends to be quite chronic into adult life. Sexual fetishism, first
described as such by Sigmund Freud.
Types of Fetishism
1. Sexual Transvestic Fetishism (Transvestism) – Like most paraphillas,
transvestic fetishism begins in adolescence, usually around the onset of
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puberty. Most practitioners are male who are aroused by wearing, fondling, or
seeing female clothing. Lingerie (bras, panties, girdles, corsets, and slips),
stockings, shoes or boots may all be the fetishistic object.
2. Foot Fetishism – It is pronounced fetishistic sexual interest in human feet. It is
also one of the most common fetishistic interests among humans. A foot fetishist
can be sexually aroused by viewing, handling , licking, tickling, sniffing or kissing
the feet and toes of another person, or by having another person doing the same
to his/her own feet.
3. Wet and Messy Fetish (WAM) – A form of sexual fetishism that has as person
getting aroused by substances applied on the body like mud, shaving foam,
custard pudding, chocolate sauce, etc. It could also involve wet clothes, or any
combination of the above.
c. Frotteurism (Frottage) – Frotteusim is the act of obtaining sexual arousal and

gratification by rubbing one’s genitals against others in public places or crowds or
sexual urges are related to the touching or rubbing of their body against a non –
consenting, unfamiliar woman.
d. Pedophilia – Pedophilia is used to refer to child sexual abuse which comes from the
Greek word (paidophilia), (pais), “child” and (philia), “friendship”. It is also called
“pedophilic behavior”.
e. Masochism – Sexual masochism involves acts in which a per son delivers sexual
excitement from being humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise abused.
f. Sadism - Sadism is the act attaining sexual pleasure or gratification by the infliction
of pain and suffering upon another person. The word is derived from the name of
the Marquis de Sade, a prolific French writer of sadist novels.
g. Voyeurism (peeping tom) – Voyeurism came from the French vouyer meaning,
“One who looks”. This is the act of reaching sexual pleasure or gratification by
watching or observing the subject from a distance, or by stealth to observe the
subject with the use of peep-holes, two- way mirrors, hidden cameras, secret
photography and other devices and strategies.
h. Coprolalia– It is also called Scatologia, deviant sexual practice in which sexual
pleasure is obtained through the compulsive use of obscene language. The affected
person commonly satisfies his desires through obscene telephone calls (Telephone
Scatologia), usually to strangers.
i. Necrophilia – Necrophilia is also called thenatophilia and necrolagnia, is the
sexual attraction to corpses.
j. Zoophilia – Zoophilia is the practice of sex between humans and animals (also
known as bestiality/bestosexual). It came from the Greek (zÓion, “animal”) and
(philia, “friendship” or “love”), also known as zoosexuality. A person who
practices zoophilia is known as a zoophile.
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k. Mysophilia – Mysophilia is obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by a filthy
surrounding. Put simply, this is getting horny from smelling, chewing, or rubbing
against dirty underware (Greek, mysos, uncleanness + -philia).
Category of Sexual Abnormalities

1. Heterosexual - this refers to sexual desire towards the opposite sex. This is a
normal sexual behavior, socially and medically acceptable.
2. Homosexual – This refers to relationship or having a sexual desire towards
member(s) of his/her own gender. The term homosexual can be applied to either a
man or woman, but female homosexuals are usually called lesbians.
3. Infantosexual – This refers to a sexual gratification towards an immature person
such as pedophilia.
4. Autosexual (Self Gratification o Masturbation) – It is a form of “self-abuse” or
“solitary vice” carried without the cooperation of another person to the induction of
a state of erection of the genital organs and the achievement of the orgasm by
manual or mechanical stimulation.
6. Gerontophilia- This refers to a sexual desire with elder person.
7. Necrophilia-This refers to a sexual prevention characterized by erotic desire or
actual sexual intercourse with a corpse.
8. Incest- This refers to sexual relations between persons wh0, by reason of blood
relationship cannot legally marry.
Under Sex (Dysfunction of women)

a) Sexual Anesthesia- This refers to the absence of sexual desire or arousal during
sexual act in women.
b) Dyspareunia- It refers to the painful sexual act in women.
c) Vaginismus- it refers to the painful spasm of the vagina during sexual act.
Sexual Abnormalities (as to Mode of Sexual Expression or way of Sexual Satisfaction)

1. Oralism - This refers to the use of the mouth as a way of sexual gratification .
This includes any of the following:
a. Fellatio( Irrumation)- The female agent receives the penis of a man into her
mouth and by friction with the lips and tongue coupled with act sucking the
sexual organ.
b. Cunnilingus- The sexual gratification is attained by licking or sucking the
external female genitalia.
c. Anilism( Anilingus )- It is a form of sexual pervasion wherein a person derives
excitement by licking the anus of another person of either sex.
D. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Part of the Body:

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1. Sodomy – This refers to the sexual act through anus of another human being.
2. Uranism – This refers to the attainment of sexual gratification by fingering fondling
with breast, licking part of the body, etc.
3. Frottage (Frotteurism) – it is form of sexual gratification characterized by the
compulsive desire of a person to rub his sex organ against some parts of the body
of another.
E. Sexual Abnormalities as to Visual Stimulus:

a. Voyeurism – it is a form of sexual perversion characterized by a compulsion to
peep to see persons undress or perform other personal activities. The offender is
sometimes called “Peeping Tom” the person masturbates in excess.
b. Mixoscopia – it refers to a perversion wherein sexual pleasure is attained by
watching couple during their sex intimacies.
F. Sexual abnormalities as to Number of Sex Partner:
1. Triolism (from French word, trios which means three – it is a form of sexual
perversion in which three persons are participating in the sexual orgies. The
combination may consist of two men and two woman or two women and a man.
Troilist (a person) becomes aroused and gratified by the “sharing”.
2. Pluralism –it is a form of sexual deviation in which a group of person participates in
the sexual orgies. Two or more couples may perform sexual act in a room and they
may even agree to exchange partners for “variety sake” during “sexual festival”.
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CHAPTER 4
VICTIMOLOGY
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Segment 1: Origin of Victimology
ORIGIN OF VICTIMOLOGY
Victimology was coined in the mid-1900s. Prior to this time crime was occurring;
people were being victimized long before the scientific study of victims began. Victims
were recognized as being harmed by crime.
Victimology first emerged in the 1940s and '50s, when several criminologists
(notably Hans von Hentig, Benjamin Mendelsohn) considered the “fathers of the study
of victimology”, They suggested the theory that the victim’s behavior and attitude
caused the crime to be committed. The field of victimology originally devoted most of
its energy to examining the numerous ways victims shared the responsibility of specific
crimes with the criminal offenders (Karmen,2018)
A person or property was harmed, the victim and victim’s family seek justice. So
that, Lex Talionis (Law of Retaliation), an eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth, were
introduced to make the punishment equal. Code of Hammurabi, helps the restoration of
equity between the offender and victim.
HISTORY OF VICTIM
The concept of victim dates back to ancient cultures and civilizations, such as the
ancient Hebrews. Its original meaning was rooted in the idea of sacrifice or scapegoat –
the execution or casting out of a person or animal to satisfy a deity or hierarchy.
Over the centuries, the word victim came to have additional meanings. During the
founding of victimology in the 19040s, victimologists such as Mendelsohn, Von Hentig,
and Wolfgang tended to use textbook or dictionary definitions of victims as hapless
dupes who instigated their own victimizations (Karmen, 2007).
VICTIMOLOGY
• Scientific study of the psychological effects of crime and the relationship between
victims and offender.
• Examine victim patterns and tendencies.
• Study of the ways in which the behavior of crime victims may have led to or
contributed to their victimization. (Merriam-Webster dictionary)
• Include the relationship between victims and offender, victims and criminal
justice system, and victims and other social groups and institutions, such as
media, business, and social movements.
• Branch of criminology that deals about the factors of victimization and
contributory role of the victims in the crime.
• Scientific study of crime victims.
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VICTIMOLOGY versus CRIMINOLOGY
• VICTIMOLOGY focuses on helping victims heal after a crime. CRIMINOLOGY aim
to understand the criminals motives and the underlying causes of crimes.
• VICTIMOLOGISTS, concerned with fostering recovery. CRIMINOLOGOGISTS, seeks
prevention and seek to understand the social impact of crimes.
• VICTIMITY, the state, quality or fact of being a victim. VICTIMIZER, a person who
victimizes others.
Segment 2: The Nature of Victimization

Victim Characteristics
Social and demographic characteristics distinguish victims and nonvictims.
Among them are age, gender, social status, marital status, race and residence.
§ Age – Victim data reveal that young people face a much greater victimization
risk that do older persons.
§ Gender – except for the crimes of rape and sexual assault, males are more likely
than females to suffer violent crime. Men are twice as likely as women to
experience aggravated assault and robbery. Women, however, are six times more
likely than men to be victims of rape or sexual assault.
When men are the victims of violent crime, the perpetrator is a stranger; women
are much more likely to be attacked by a relative that are men. About two – thirds of
all attacks against women are committed by a husband, boyfriend, family member, or
acquaintance.
§ Social Status – People in the lowest income categories are much more likely to
become crime victims than those who are more affluent. Poor individuals are
most likely the victims of crime because they live in crime – prone areas.
Although the poor are more likely to suffer violent crimes, the wealthy are more
likely to be targets of personal theft crimes, such as pocket picking and purse
(bag) snatching.
§ Marital Status – divorced and never – married males and females are victimized
more often than married people. Widows and widowers have the lowest
victimization risk.
§ Race – In the U.S., African Americans (blacks) are more likely than whites to be
victims of violent crime.
§ Residence – Urban residents are more likely than rural or sub – urban residents
to become victims of crime.
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Three Kinds of Crime Victim
1. Direct or Primary Crime Victim - This kind of victim directly suffers the harm
or injury which is physical, psychological, and economic losses.
2. Indirect or Secondary Crime Victim - Victims who experience the harm second
hand, such as intimate partners or significant others of rape victims or children
of a battered woman. This may include family members of the primary victims.
However, Karmen (2007) also included first responders and rescue workers who
race to crime scenes (such as police officers, forensic evidence technicians,
paramedics, firefighters and the like) as secondary victims because they are also
exposed to emergencies and trauma on such a routine basis and that they also
need emotional support themselves.
3. Tertiary Crime Victims - Victims who experience the harm vicariously, such as
through media accounts, the scared public or community due to watching news
regarding crime incidents.
Segment 3: Personalities
HANS VON HENTIG
• German Criminologist & Author, “The Criminal and His Victim: Studies in the
Sociobiology of Crime.”
• Determined that some of the same characteristics that produce crime also
produce victimization.
• Developed a typology on the degree to which the victims contributed to causing
the criminal act.
• Consider that the victims may provoke victimization, acting as agents
provocateurs, based on their characteristics.
10 Victims Categories based on their propensity for Victimization:

1. Young;
2. Females;
3. Old;
4. Immigrants
5. Depressed/ Lonesome/Heartbroken
6. Mentally Defective/Deranged;
7. The Acquisitive;
8. Dull Normal;
9. Minorities;
10. Tormentor;
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BENJAMIN MENDELSOHN
• Father of Victimology
• Coined the relationship between victims and criminals that they knew each other
and had some kind of existing relationship.
• Victims bear no responsibility for their victimization, based on their behaviors or
actions, do.
6 Degree of Categories of Victims:

1. Completely innocent victim: No responsibility at all; Victimized simply because of
his/her nature.
2. Victim with minor guilt: Victimized due to ignorance; Inadvertently places
himself/herself in harm’s nature.
3. Victim as guilty as offender/voluntary victim: Who bears as much responsibility
as the offender.
4. Victim more than offender: Who instigates/provokes his/her own victimization.
5. Most guilty victim: Victimized during the perpetration of a crime.
6. Simulating or imaginary victim: Victim is not victimized; Fabricates a
victimization event.
MARVIN WOLFGANG
• First person to empirically investigate victim precipitation.
• Classic study of homicides occurring in Philadelphia.
• Examined 558 Homicides, extent victims precipitated their own deaths.
• 26% of all Homicides in Philadelphia.
3 Factors that common to victim-precipitated homicide:

a) The victim and offender had some prior interpersonal relationship;
b) There was a series of escalating disagreements between the parties; and
c) The victim had consumed alcohol.
STEPHEN SCHAFER
• Victimologist & Author, “The Victim and His Criminal: A Study in Functional
Responsibility.”
• He used both social characteristics (Hentig) and behaviors (Mendelson), this
typology places victims in group based in how responsible they are for their
vicitimization.
• Classifies victims on the basis of their “functional responsibility.”
57 | P a g e
7 Categories and labeled their levels of responsibility:
1. Unrated victims – no responsibility
2. Provocative victims – share responsibility
3. Precipitative victims - some degree of responsibility
4. Biologically weak victims – no responsibility
5. Socially weak victims – no responsibility
6. Self-victimizing – total responsibility
7. Political victims – no responsibility
MENACHEM AMIR
• Student of Wolfgang, conducted an empirical investigation about rape incidents
that were reported to the police.
• He used both social characteristics (Hentig) and behaviors (Mendelson), this
typology places victims in group based in how responsible they are for their
victimization.
• His study shows that victims precipitated their own rapes and also identified
common attributes. As results, rapes were likely to involve alcohol, the victim
was likely to engage in seductive behavior, likely to wear revealing clothing,
likely to use risqué language and she likely had a bad reputation. Women are
largely responsible for their own victimization.
Segment 4: Theories relating to Victimology

VICTIM PRECIPITATION THEORY
• First promulgated by Von Hentig in 1941 and applies only to violent
victimization.
• Its basic premise is that by acting in certain provocative ways, some individuals
initiate a chain of events that lead to their victimization.
• People may actually initiate the confrontation that eventually leads to their
injury or death.
VICTIM PRECIPITATION
• How much a victim contribute to his or her own victimization.
• Extent to which a victim is responsible for his or her own victimization.
• Concept of victim precipitation is rooted in the notion, although some victims are
not at all responsible for their victimization.
• Involves at least two people – an offender and a victim – both parties are acting
and often reacting, before, during, and after incident.
• It is used to blame the victim while ignoring the offender’s role.
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2 Types of Victim Precipitation:
a. Active Precipitation – it occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or
fighting words, or even attack first.
b. Passive Precipitation – it occurs when the victim exhibits some personal
characteristics that unknowingly either threatens or encourages the attacker.
-the crime can occur because of personal conflict.
-it also occur when the victim belongs to a group whose mere presence
threatens the attacker’s reputation, status, or economic well-being.
BENJAMIN & MATER’S THREEFOLD MODEL

This is one is found in a variety of criminological studies, from prison riots to
strain theories.
Conditions that support crime is classified into three general categories:
a. Precipitating Factors – These includes time, space, being in the wrong place at
the wrong time.
b. Attracting factors – These includes choices, options, lifestyles (the sociological
expression ‘’lifestyle’’ refers to daily routine activities as well as special events
one engages in on a predictable basis).
c. Predisposing factors – these includes all the socio – demographic characteristics
of victims, being male, being young, being poor, being a minority, living in
squalor, being single and being unemployed.
LIFE STYLE THEORY

• Lifestyle exposure theory posits that persons with certain demographic profiles
are more prone to experience criminal victimization because their lifestyles
expose risky situations.
DEVIANT PLACE THEORY

• The more often victims visit dangerous places, the more likely they will be
exposed to crime and violence. Victims do not encourage crime, but are victim
prone because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas where they
have the greatest risk of coming into contact with criminal offenders, irrespective
of their own behavior or lifestyle.
ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY (Cohen and Felson’s (1979))

• emphasizes that crime occurs when three elements converge:
a. a motivated offender,
b. a suitable target, and
c. the absence of a capable guardian.
This theory includes the routine activities of both offender and victim.
59 | P a g e

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BY: GIRLIE L BAUTISTA

INSTRUCTION TO THE USERS

The behavior is defined as a total response of an organism, in reply to living

Complex Acts involving the use of more number of Dancing, Laughing,

Social Behavior which pertain to how we interact or relate with other

Psychosexual It pertains to our being a man or a woman and the expression of

What is Human Behavior?

Classification of Human Behavior

1. Habitual – refers to demeanors which are resorted to in a regular basis it be

Pioneers of Human Behaviour

Theories of Child (Human) Development

Freud’s Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)

2. Anal stage (18 months-3 years)

3. Phallic stage (3-6 years)

b. Electra complex – this refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense

4. Latency stage (6-11 years)

5. Genitals stage (11 years)

Hans Eysenk’s Personality Trait

Psychological Studies in Relation to Crime and Delinquency

5. David Abrahamsen. Abrahamsen maintained that criminal behaviour is a symptom

Segment 2: Abnormal Behavior

Identification of Abnormal Behavior

4. Personal Distress – The fourth criterion considers abnormality in terms of the

5. Failure to Function Adequately - Under this definition, a person is considered

Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior

• Disruptive Behavior – Disruptive Behavior means impulsive, apparently

Segment 3: Mental Disorder

What is Intellectual Disability?

Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation

Symptoms of Mental Retardation

What is Human Intelligence?

What is Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?

Two Groups of Intelligence Quotient

Segment 4: Criminal Behavior

Origins of Criminal Behavior

b. Somatotype (William Sheldon) and Physique Theory (Ernst Kretschmer)

Physique Theory by Ernst Kretschmer

c. Juke and Kallikak (Richard Dugdale & Henry Goddard)

Kalikak Family (Henry Goddard)

2. Personality Disorder Factor

What is a Serial Killer?

What is Macdonald Triad?

3. Animal Torture (Cruelty to Animals) – Most serial killers, before moving to

Childhood characteristics of serial killer

Famous Serial Killers

Categories for Theories of emotion are:

2. Cannon-bard Theory by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard

2. Social Conflict – the different kinds of social conflict are:

a. Approach-Approach Conflict – In Approach-Approach Conflict, the individual must

GOAL+ PERSON GOAL+

Fig. 1 Approach-Approach Conflict

b. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – In Avoidance-avoidance conflict involves more

GOAL- PERSON GOAL-

Fig. 2 Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

c. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – In Approach-avoidance conflict a person is both

Example: Gina is beautiful, but she is lazy.

d. Multiple-Approach-avoidance Conflict – this refers to conflict with complex

Example: A woman is engaged to be married. The marriage to her has positive