Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him)

The home of the Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) is considered the first mosque. His house, in
Medina in modern-day Saudi Arabia, was a typical 7th-century Arabian style house, with a large
courtyard surrounded by long rooms supported by columns. This style of mosque came to be known as a
hypostyle mosque, meaning “many columns.” Most mosques built in Arab lands utilized this style for
centuries.

The Islamic era began with the formation of Islam under the leadership of Muhammad (Peace be upon
him) in early 7th-century Arabia. The first mosque was a structure built by Muhammad( Peace be upon
him) in Medina in 622, right after his hegira (migration) from Mecca, which corresponds to the site of
the present-day Mosque of the Prophet (al-Masjid an-Nabawi). It is usually described as his house, but
may have been designed to serve as a community center from the beginning. It consisted of a simple
courtyard structure built in unbaked brick, with a rectangular, almost square, floor plan measuring about
53 by 56 meters. A shaded portico supported by palm trunks stood on the north side of the courtyard, in
the direction of prayer (the qibla), which was initially towards Jerusalem. When the qibla was changed
to face towards Mecca in 624, a similar portico was added on the south side, facing towards that city.

Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his family lived in separate rooms attached to the mosque, and
Muhammad (Peace be upon him) himself was buried in one of these rooms upon his death in 632. Over
the rest of the 7th century and in the 8th century the mosque was repeatedly expanded to include a
large flat-roofed prayer hall supported by columns (a hypostyle hall) with a central courtyard. It became
one of the main models for the early mosques built elsewhere.

There are few other buildings dating from the era of Muhammad( Peace be upon him), but one example
is the Jawatha Mosque in Saudi Arabia. During the early Arab-Muslim conquests of the Middle East and
North Africa in the 7th century, new garrison cities were established in territories such as Fustat in Egypt
and Kufa in present-day Iraq. The central congregational mosques of these cities were built in the
hypostyle format. In other cities, especially in Syria, new mosques were established by converting or
occupying parts of existing churches in existing cities, as for example in Damascus and Hama. These early
mosques had no minaret, although small shelters may have been constructed on the roofs to protect
the muezzin while issuing the call to prayer.
(2) Umayyad
The Umayyad Dynasty was founded by the caliph Mu‘awiya I bin Abi Sufyan in AH 41 / AD 661 and
remained in power until overthrown by the Abbasids in 132 / 750. When Mu‘awiya came to power, he
chose Damascus as the capital of the Muslim Empire.

Art and architecture

Noted for its religious and civic architecture, such as The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (built by Abd al-
Malik, 691) and the Great Mosque of Damascus (finished 715). Elements of Sassanian and Byzantine as
well as Coptic art(Christian art of the byzantine-greco-roman Egypt and of Coptic Christian churches)
were also influential in the development of Islamic art under Umayyad rule, thus Umayyad art is an
innovative combination of various decorative styles and motifs drawn from different artistic traditions in
order to provide solutions for numerous new aims.
Umayyad architecture is a major witness of the dynasty, with numerous buildings still extant. Extensive
municipal architectural programs were undertaken, in addition to those constructions that were built by
order of the Umayyad royal family. Both the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the
Umayyad Mosque in Damascus appear to have been built as symbols of Umayyad power and victory,
and these buildings still give an impression of the grandeur of the dynasty’s architecture. In addition, the
remarkable palatial buildings formerly known as ‘desert castles’ continue to fascinate us for the window
they provide into Umayyad court life and ceremonials.

These and other Umayyad buildings were extensively and lavishly decorated. Both palaces and baths
were adorned with figurative floor mosaics and frescoes on the walls. Other architectural motifs
included skillful stone- and stucco carvings of animals and beasts, stylized floral motifs, and diverse
abstract patterns. The minor arts also flourished, and surviving examples suggest that metalwork and
woodwork reached a high level of achievement.
Umayyad art, with its striking and vibrant eclecticism, can be considered a continuation of Late Antique
art, for when the Abbasid Dynasty came to power so began a new phase in the development of Islamic
art.

(3) Abbasid Art (750-1258)

The Abbasid dynasty shifted the capital from Damascus to Baghdad - founded by al-Mansur in 762, the
first major city entirely built by Muslims. The city became the new Islamic hub and symbolized the
convergence of Eastern and Western art forms: Eastern inspiration from Iran, the Eurasian steppes,
India and China; Western influence from Classical Antiquity and Byzantine Europe. Later, Samarra took
over as the capital.

Abbasid architecture was noted for the desert Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir (c.775) 120 miles south of
Baghdad, the Great Mosque of Samarra, the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, and Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the
Great Mosque in Tunis.
Other arts developed under the Abbasids included, textile silk art, wall painting and ancient pottery,
notably the invention of luster-ware (painting on the surface of the glaze with a metallic pigment or
luster). The latter technique was unique to Baghdad potters and ceramicists. Also, calligraphic
decorations first began to appear on pottery during this period.

(4)THE AGHLABIDS

The Aghlabids ruled as emirs Ifriqiyah, an area that encompassed the coastal regions of what is now
Tunisia, Libya and eastern Algeria, from 800 CE to 909 CE. Although they nominally served as rulers of
the emirate under the Abbasid caliphs, they were essentially independent. The capital city from which
the Aghlabids ruled was Tunisia’s Kairouan. The Aghlabid’s were responsible for a number of building
projects, developing a unique architectural style that combined Abbasid and Byzantine architecture.
Amongst their great construction achievements were the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the restoration
of the Uqba mosque. They also built a number of fortified monasteries, known as ribats. Interestingly, it
was also through the Aghlabid Dynasty that metallic tinted ceramics became popular.

(5) The Samanids

The power of the Abbasids weakened from the middle of the 9th century, but a number of politically
independent dynasties emerged in the eastern part of the realm that still recognized the caliph in
Baghdad as their religious leader. A governor in the northern part of Afghanistan, Saman Khuda,
founded the Samanid dynasty in 819. He came from a local noble family that traced its lineage back to
pre-Islamic times, and the Samanids were consequently the first Persian dynasty to appear after the
Arabs conquered the region in the 7th century. After taking Khorasan in around 900 from another local
dynasty, the Saffarids (861-1003), the Samanids ruled over the largest Islamic realm in the east, with
important commercial centers such as Nishapur, Samarkand, Herat, and the capital of Bukhara. These
cities were major stations along the caravan route – the Silk Road – and flourishing commerce
contributed to the prosperity of the Samanid Empire. Another source of income was trade with slaves,
who were taken from among the Turkic peoples on the Central Asian steppes and were sold as soldiers
to Islamic armies.

ART

Coins found in Denmark and Sweden show that the Samanids’ trade routes reached all the way to
northern Europe. Towards the middle of the 10th century, the Samanid Empire was weakened by
attacks from the Turkic Qarakhanids and the Ghaznavids; the last Samanid ruler was killed in 1005. Much
of the period’s art is closely related to contemporary Abbasid art, but there are also elements from a
completely different tradition: the heritage of the local pre-Islamic Sogdian culture. Unglazed bricks
were used to create buildings with a strictly geometric structure and brickwork with fine, uniform
patterns.

The only monumental structure that survived from the Samanid epoch in Bukhara is the Samanid
Mausoleum which is the oldest Muslim memorial structure in Central Asia and the oldest building made
of fired bricks from basement to crest. Bricks served as the only decorative material. With plain make-up
(cubic, domed space) and comparatively small dimensions (10.75x10.75 m.), this mausoleum gives an
impression of monumental stateliness but, at the same time, a feeling of harmony, lightness, grace,
elegance, and taste. This mausoleum is recognized deservedly as a masterpiece of Central Asian
architecture which, in S. Khmelnitsky’s opinion, is the most beautiful architecture in the Islamic
countries, while the ninth-tenth centuries are the most brilliant period in the development of this
culture.
In addition to its talented architects, there were many representatives of other crafts among the
masters who lived in Bukhara. Between the ark and shakhristan near the congregational (Friday)
mosque, there was a large workshop that manufactured beautiful fabrics and carpets to export to Syria,
Egypt, and Rum (Asia Minor). According to Mukaddasi, prayer rugs, copper lamps, grease, wool, oil, and
even bridles, manufactured by the prisoners were also exported.

(6) Ṭūlūnid Dynasty

This was a minor dynasty established by Ahmad ibn Tulun (d. 884 A.D.) which ruled briefly
over Egypt and Syria. As a subgovernor of Egypt for the Abassids, Ibn Tulun seized the chance
of the weakening Abassids to create a private army and take over Egypt in 868 A.D. Although
the Tulunids expanded into Syria, the Abassids still managed to reclaim their lost power in 905
A.D. by taking over Egypt and destroying the Tulunid capital. The celebrated mosque of Ibn
Tulun (876-879 A.D.) however remains standing. During his rule (868–884), the most
significant in Ṭūlūnid history, the provinces developed agriculturally, commerce and industry
were encouraged, and the artistic traditions of the Abbasids of Baghdad and Sāmarrāʾ were
introduced into western Islam. A public building program was initiated, in which Al-Qaṭāʾīʿ, the
Ṭūlūnid capital, and the great Mosque of Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn were constructed.

Ahmad ibn Tulun founded his own capital, al-Qata'i, north of the previous capital Fustat, where
he seated his government. One of the dominant features of this city, and indeed the feature that
survives today, was the Mosque of Ibn Tulun. , modeled after the Great Mosque of al-
Mutawakkil in Sāmarrāʾ, is made of brick and plaster, materials rarely used previously in
Egyptian architecture but popular in Iraq. The mosque is built in a Samarran style that was
common in the period during which the caliphate had shifted capitals from Baghdad to Samarra.
This style of architecture was not just confined to religious buildings, but secular ones also.
Surviving houses of the Tulunid period have Samarran-style stucco panels.

Minaret of Ibn-Tulun Mosque

Ḵh̲ umārawayh's reign exceeded his father's in spending. He built luxuriant palaces and gardens
for himself and those he favored. To the Tulunid Egyptians, his "marvellous" blue-eyed palace
lion exemplified his prodigality. His stables were so extensive that, according to popular lore,
Khumarawaih never rode a horse more than once. The Tulunid dynasty ruled for only a few
generations, after which Egypt and Syria briefly returned to Abbasid control.

(7) Fatimid (909-1171)

In the tenth century, the Fatimid dynasty emerged and posed a threat to the rule of the Abbasids. The
Fatimid rulers took their name from Fatima, Muhammad’s daughter, from whom they claimed to be
descended. At the height of their power, the Fatimids claimed lands from present-day Algeria to Syria.
They conquered Egypt in 969 and founded the city of Cairo as their capital.
Under the Fatimids, Egypt took the lead in the cultural life of western Islam. In the arts, this dynasty was
noted for architectural structures like the al-Azhar Mosque and the al-Hakim Mosque of Cairo; ceramic
art in the form of pottery decorated with figurative painting and ivory carving as well as relief
sculpture and the emergence of the "infinite pattern" of abstract ornamentation. Fatimid art is
particularly famous for applying designs to every kind of surface. The wealth of the Fatimid court led to a
general bourgeoning of the craft trade even outside of the religious context. Centers near Cairo became
well known for ceramics, glass, metal, wood, and especially for lucrative textile production. The style of
ornament developed as well, and artisans began to experiment with different forms of abstracted
vegetal ornament and human figures.

This period is often called the Islamic renaissance, for its booming trade in decorative objects as well as
the high quality of its artwork.

(8) Ghaznavids

The first Islamized Turkish dynasty in the eastern Islamic world, the Ghaznavids (977–1186), ruled over
an empire comprising eastern Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India.

Art and architecture

Towers of Victory: — Very few of the buildings constructed by the Ghaznavids remain intact today;
there only exists two buildings that have survived since the 12th century, which are the "Towers of
Victory". These two towers are 600 meters apart and were built separately, first by Mas'ud III (c. 1099
—1114) and then Bahramshah (c. 1118—1152). They can be found east of Ghazni, close to the palace
of Masud III. These buildings were built from fire baked mud bricks, fastened with geometric
terracotta decoration designs, along with Kufic script spread sparsely apart. These leave a legacy of a
story of the titles of the rulers, coupled with the Qu'ranic surah of victory. At a height of twenty
meters, these towers stand tall, but notably this isn't their true height; having been left shaken by
earthquakes; the most significant one being from the early 20th century, where some of the towers
floors have been ripped off. These towers remained significant for later empires and dynasties that
took inspiration and built their own. The Ghurids, for instance, built the tower of Jam in Afghanistan,
and there also exists the Qutb Minar found in Delhi, India. The only reason why these structures exist
and nothing else is down to the fact that the city of Ghazni was burned down by the "World
Burner" (Allauddin Ghori); further dealt a blow when the Mongols destroyed what was left in 1221.
However weather now seriously threatens the towers' existence.
 Wall Paintings: — Despite the cruel destruction of the empire's cities, a lot is known about how the
Ghaznavids saw their empire. Wall paintings were the single most significant aspect of Ghaznavid
architectural culture. At the palace of Balkh for instance they decorated the walls with illustrious scenes
from Mahmud's reign; including battles, large feasts, which became "staples" of Islamic royal art; allegedly
inherited from the Sassanian tradition. A fresco discovered later illustrated forty-four life sized paintings of
the Turkish Guard, who wore richly colored robes. These were found in the South Palace at the Lashkari
Bazaar, which provided the first physical evidence of elaborate wall paintings used in the Ghaznavid court.

Interestingly, the oldest visibly Islamic building in Afghanistan is the Abbasid Mosque, built in the 9th
century at Balkh. There also exists, Qanats and Kariz's, which are irrigation works, which had been
constructed by the wealthier demographic of the empire; the Sultans were also responsible for hydraulic
constructions of such irrigation systems, which still exist today. The cataloguing of these buildings and
serious study into the art only took root in the West at the beginning of the 19th century. This was
coincidentally the same time the Umayyad, Mamluk, and Nasrid architecture were being studied.
Tragically, some of the architecture was ripped apart and looted, such as the alleged "Somnath gates".

(9) Ghorids

The Ghurids or Ghorids were a native Sunni Muslim dynasty of Eastern Iranian, possibly Tajik, origin, and
ruling at their zenith over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, and Iran. The dynasty ruled an unknown date before 897 to 1215 and succeeded
the Ghaznavid Empire. Their empire was centered in Ghor Province or Mandesh, now in the center
of Afghanistan. It encompassed Khorasan in the West and reached in the East to northern India, as far
as Bengal. Their first capital was Fīrūzkūh in Ghor, which was later replaced by Herat, while Ghazni
and Lahore were used as additional capitals, especially during the winter seasons. The Ghurids were
patrons of Persian culture and heritage.

The Ghurids were succeeded in Persia by the Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty and in the northern Indian
Subcontinent (Pakistan, Afghanistan, Northern India) by the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
Although these Turkic dynasties, the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids, took Persian culture as their ideal in
many respects, the effect of Indian culture was also felt in art. This can be seen both in details that were
adopted directly from Indian art and in a penchant for figurative, fairly true-to-life depictions.

Some of the architectural remaining of their era is:

The two mausoleums of Chisht (the western was built in 1167)

The eastern mausoleum of Chisht (built in 1194)

The Minaret of Jam in Ghor Province of Afghanistan (finished in 1174/75)

Ruins of the Shah-i Mashhad madrasa (built in 1176)

(10) Seljuk Art in Iran and Anatolia (Turkey) (1055-1194)
The struggle for power in Iran and the north of India, involving the Tahirids, Samanids, and
Ghaznavids, was won by the Seljuk in the middle of the 11th century. Within a short time, the
Seljuk Empire extended from Central Asia to Syria and parts of Anatolia, but in the course of the
second half of the 12th century, it already began to fall apart. True to the Turkic-Mongol
tradition of inheritance, the territory was divided among members of the family, creating local
dynasties. In Islamic art, this dynasty was noted above all for its architecture and building
designs, exemplified by the Masjid-i Jami in Isfahan, built by Malik Shah. Fundamental forms of
architectural design are developed and permanently formulated for later periods. The most
important were the court mosque and the madrasah, as well as forms for tomb towers and
mausoleums. A number of new artistic techniques and forms of expression were developed under
the Seljuks. In ceramics, highly detailed motifs were created in underglaze painting, luster
decorations, and polychrome painting (minai). Metal objects were also decorated with fine inlays
of silver and gold. Figurative motifs were among those used in Seljuk art. Depictions of men and
women are frequent, and their high cheekbones and almond-shaped eyes reflect the Turkic and
Mongol ethnic type. Many elements from Seljuk art lived on in Iran long after the Seljuks ceased
to be a political factor. The Seljuks also excelled at stone-carving, used in architectural
ornamentation, as well as painted tiles and faience mosaics.
(11) Mamluk Art in Syria and Egypt (1250-1517)

Following the Ayyubid state in 1250 AD, the Mamluk sultans established a formidable empire, ruling
Egypt, Syria, and Palestine for more than two hundred and fifty years, their frontiers extending from
southeastern Anatolia to the Hejaz and incorporating parts of Sudan and Libya. Soon after coming to
power, they defeated the Mongols and expelled the last of the Crusaders from the Near East. Trade and
agriculture flourished under Mamluk rule, and Cairo, their capital, became one of the wealthiest cities in
the Near East and the center of artistic and intellectual activity. It also became the seat of the caliphate
and, thus, the most prestigious capital in the Islamic world. Many monumental stone works of Islamic
architecture were created during this period include the Madrasah-Mausoleum of Sultan Hassan, Cairo
(1356-63), the Madrasah-Mausoleum of Sultan Kalaun, Cairo (1284-5), and Kayt Bey's Madrasah-
Mausoleum (c.1460-70).
 Mausoleum of sultan Hassan

Exteriors as well as interiors became richly decorated in a variety of media - plaster, relief carving, and
decorative painting. Enameled glass and metalwork were also greatly developed (c.1250-1400). For
example, the superb metal basin of Mamluk silver metalwork known as the "Baptistery de Saint Louis"
(Syria, 1290-1310), is one of the greatest masterpieces of its type in Islamic art. Decorated on the
outside with a central frieze of figures and two corresponding friezes of animals, it is also ornamented
with elaborate hunting scenes on the inside.

Illuminated Manuscripts

The exquisite illuminations, calligraphy, and bindings of Mamluk Korans are unequaled in any other
Islamic tradition of bookmaking. The technical and artistic virtuosity found in these manuscripts is
representative of the Mamluks, who, embracing Islam with the fervor of converts, endowed elaborate
religious complexes and supplied each major foundation with its set of Korans.
Metalwork

The art of the Mamluks is possibly best known for the creation of spectacular metalwork, examples of
which are among the most cherished possessions of many public and private collections around the
world. In general the Mamluk era is remembered as the golden age of medieval near Eastern Islamic
culture.

(12) Ilkhanids

The Mongol invasions of the Islamic world began in 1221 with the conquest of eastern Iran. A more
devastating wave of conquest, however, came with Genghis Khan’s grandson Hülegü, when Mongol
forces subjugated(conquered)all of Iran and by 1258 had also taken Baghdad, thus bringing to an end
the Abbasid caliphate (750–1258). Establishing rule over most of West Asia, including Iraq, Iran,
Khurasan, the Caucasus, and parts of Asia Minor, Hülegü (r. 1256–65) assumed the title of “Il-Khan,”
meaning lesser Khan, subordinate to the Great Khan ruling in China. This branch of the Mongol dynasty,
which became known as the Ilkhanids (1256–1353), centered its power in northwest Iran. Although
Mongol conquests initially brought devastation and affected the balance of artistic production, in a short
period of time, the control of most of Asia by the Mongols—the so-called Pax Mongolica (mongol peace)
—created an environment of tremendous cultural exchange. Following the conversion to Islam of Il-
Khan Mahmud Ghazan (r. 1295–1304) in 1295 and the establishment of his active cultural policy in
support of his new religion, Islamic art flourished once again. East Asian elements absorbed into the
existing Perso-Islamic repertoire (collection) created a new artistic vocabulary, one that was emulated
from Anatolia to India, profoundly affecting artistic production.

During the Ilkhanid period, the decorative arts—textiles, pottery, metalwork, jewelry, and manuscript
illumination and illustration—further developed along established lines. The arts of the book, however,
including illuminated and illustrated manuscripts of religious and secular texts, became a major focus of
artistic production. Baghdad became an important center once again. In illustration, new ideas and
motifs were introduced into the repertoire of the Muslim artist, including an altered and more Chinese
depiction of pictorial space, as well as motifs such as lotuses and peonies, cloud bands, and dragons and
phoenixes. Popular subjects, also sponsored by the court, included well-known stories such as
the Shahnama (Book of Kings), the famous Persian epic. Furthermore, the widespread use of paper and
textiles also enabled new designs to be readily transferred from one medium to another.

Along with their renown in the arts, the Ilkhanids were also great builders. The lavishly decorated
Ilkhanid summer palace at Takht-i Sulaiman (ca. 1275), a site with pre-Islamic Iranian resonances, is an
important example of secular architecture. The outstanding Tomb of Uljaitu (built 1307–13; r. 1304–17)
in Sultaniyya, however, is the architectural masterpiece of the period. Following their conversion to
Islam, the Ilkhanids built numerous mosques and Sufi shrines in cities across Iran such as Ardabil,
Isfahan, Natanz, Tabriz, Varamin, and Yazd (ca. 1300–1350). After the death of the last Ilkhanid ruler of
the united dynasty in 1335, the empire disintegrated and a number of local dynasties came to power in
Iraq and Iran, each emulating the style set by the Ilkhanids.

(13) Timurid Period (c.1360-1500)

Mongol rule in Iran was succeeded by that of Timur (Tamerlane) who came from south of
Samarkand. Timurid architecture is exemplified by the mosques of Kernan (c.1349) and Yezd
(c.1375), the Great Mosque of Samarkand (Bibi Khanum mosque) begun around 1400, the Gur-i
Amir, Timur's mausoleum in Samarkand (1405), and the Blue Mosque in Tabriz (1465).
Architectural decoration employed polychrome faience to the greatest effect. By bringing
craftsmen from different conquered lands to his capital in Samarqand, Timur initiated
one of the most brilliant periods in Islamic art. Timurid art and architecture provided
inspiration to lands stretching from Anatolia to India. Though Timur’s extensive empire itself
was relatively short-lived, his descendants continued to rule over Transoxiana as leading
patrons of Islamic art. Through their patronage, the eastern Islamic world became a prominent
cultural center, with Herat, the new Timurid capital, as its focal point. Timurid rulers were
sympathetic to Persian culture and lured artists, architects, and men of letters who would
contribute to their high court culture. Some of these rulers were also great patrons of the arts
of the book, commissioning manuscripts that were copied, compiled, and illustrated in their
libraries. Due to the flourishing of manuscript illumination and illustration, the Herat school is
often regarded as the apogee of Persian painting. The Timurid period saw great achievements
in other luxury arts, such as metalwork and jade carving. This cultural efflorescence found its
ultimate expression at the court of Sultan Husain Baiqara (r. 1470–1506), the last effective
Timurid ruler. Many Timurid princes were also prodigious builders—religious
institutions and foundations such as mosques, madrasas, khanqahs (convents), and
Sufi shrines were the main beneficiaries of their building programs. Major
architectural commissions from Timur’s lifetime include the Aq Saray Palace(Shahr-i
Sabz, ca. 1379–96); the shrine of Ahmad Yasavi (Turkestan City, ca. 1397);
Timur’s congregational mosque(Samarqand, ca. 1398–1405), popularly known as the mosque of
Bibi Khanum after his wife, who built a madrasa next to it; and the Gur-i Amir (Samarqand, ca.
1400–1404), Timur’s burial place. Trademarks of the Timurid style were monumental scale,
multiple minarets, polychromic tile work, and large bulbous double domes. The Timurid period
also witnessed women as active patrons of architecture. Along with their immediate successors,
the Shaibanids, the Timurid cultural tradition was also partly carried on by
the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires.

(14) Safavid Art in Iran (c.1502-1736)

In the late 16th century, the Safavid capital was established at Isfahan, in the heart of ancient Persia,
where it became the Centre of eastern Muslim art and culture for almost two centuries. Isfahan Safavid
architecture is exemplified by the domed mosque of Sheikh Lutfullah (1603-18) and the Great Mosque
of Shah Abbas (1612-20) (Masjid-i Shah). Advances in Safavid painting - including, brightly colored
stylized imagery as well as a highly realist style of figurative drawing - came predominantly from the
schools of Tabriz, Herat, Bukhara and Kazvin. In the decorative arts, Safavid artists excelled in all areas of
the book - like gilding, illumination, calligraphy and lacquer-painted leather bookbinding. Also in carpet-
design, the Safavid period saw the replacement of Turkish abstract patterns by new floral and figurative
designs. Also, advances were made in ceramic art, due in part to the influence of Chinese porcelain,
during the era of Ming Dynasty Art (c.1368-1644).
Persian Safavid art is noted for its architecture, its decorative design work (e.g. knotted rugs, silk-
weaving) and its figurative painting. The latter, in particular, gave rise to a richness and variety almost
unparalleled in Islamic art, and led to the emergence of individual artists and the creation of personal
styles. Court actively supported the arts and built workshops to produce rugs and silk textiles of
unprecedented quality. The Safavids were also great bibliophiles, and miniature painting flourished, due
increasingly to demand from the well-to-do middle class. Ceramics were mass manufactured in forms
and with decorations that were influenced by Chinese porcelain.

(15) Turkey

The Seljuks, nomads of Turkic origin from present-day Mongolia, appeared on the stage of Islamic
history toward the end of the 10th century. Architecture and objects were synthesized various styles,
both Iranian and Syrian. The art of woodworking was cultivated, and at least one illustrated manuscript
dates to this period. Caravanserais dotted the major trade routes across the region, placed at intervals
of a day’s travel. The construction of these caravanserai inns improved in scale, fortification, and
reliability. Also, they began to contain central mosques.
Starting in the 13th century, Anatolia was dominated by small Turkmen dynasties, which progressively
chipped away at Byzantine territory. The Ottoman Empire, whose origins lie in the 14th century,
continued in existence until shortly after World War I. This impressive longevity, combined with an
immense territory (stretching from Anatolia to Tunisia), led naturally to a vital and distinctive art,
including plentiful architecture, mass production of ceramics (most notably Iznik ware), an important
jeweler’s art, Turkish paper marbling Ebru, Turkish carpets as well as tapestries and an exceptional art of
manuscript illumination, with multiple influences.