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contents
Preface xiii
About the Author xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Chapter 1 The Science of Agriculture 3

The Basis of Civilization 4 World Trade 31
American Agriculture 7 Summary 33
Milestones in Agricultural Chapter Review 34
Research 19
Chapter 2 Soil: The Source of Life 37

The Food Chain 38 The Soil Ecosystem 58
Soil Origins 40 Macroorganisms in the Soil 64
Physical Properties of Soils 45 Summary 65
Soil Horizons 52 Chapter Review 66
Soil Taxonomy 53
Chapter 3 Cells: Agriculture’s Building Blocks 69

The Discovery of Cells 70 Cell Reproduction 83
The Role of Cells in Agriculture 71 Summary 85

Types of Cells 72 Chapter Review 86
Eukaryotic Cell Components 75
Chapter 4 The Science of Genetics 89

Beginnings of the Study of Animal Breeding 108

Genetics 90 Summary 111
Gene Transfer 95 Chapter Review 112
Plant Breeding 100
vii
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 5 Genetic Engineering 115

Genetic Engineering 116 Summary 139
Gene Mapping 124 Chapter Review 140
Societal Concerns 131
Regulation of Genetic

Engineering 137
Chapter 6 The Classification of Agricultural Organisms 143

Scientific Classification 144 Chapter Review 161
Summary 160
Chapter 7 Plant Systems 163

Plants—The Basis for All of Stems 180

Agriculture 164 Roots 185
Plant Leaves 166 Summary 187
Leaf Types 172 Chapter Review 188
Chapter 8 Plant Reproduction 191

Sexual Reproduction 192 Summary 214
Asexual Propagation 198 Chapter Review 215
Layering 207
Chapter 9 Plant Growth 217

Seed 218 Summary 239
Growth After Germination 225 Chapter Review 240
Plant Nutrition 234
Chapter 10 Animal Systems 243

The Skeletal System 244 The Circulatory System 263
Bones 245 The Nervous System 265
The Muscular System 250 The Endocrine System 267
The Digestive System 253 Summary 270
Ruminant Systems 258 Chapter Review 271
The Respiratory System 260
Chapter 11 Animal Reproduction 273

The Production of Gametes 275 Artificial Insemination 287
The Male Reproductive System 277 Embryo Transplant 292
The Female Reproductive Cloning 295
System 279 Summary 299
The Mating Process 281 Chapter Review 300
Fertilization 281
CONTENTS ix
Chapter 12 Animal Growth 303

The Growth Process 307 Chapter Review 319
Summary 318
Chapter 13 Plant and Animal Diseases 321

Animal Diseases 323 Prevention of Plant Diseases 338
Animal Immune Systems 328 Summary 340
Plant Diseases 333 Chapter Review 341
Chapter 14 Weed Science 343

The classification of weeds 347 Controlling Weeds 353
Characteristics of Weeds 348 Summary 365
Imported Weeds 351 Chapter Review 366
Chapter 15 Agricultural Entomology 369

The Importance of Insects 370 Insect Pests 382
The Scientific Classification of Control of Insect Pests 385

Insects 373 Summary 398
Characteristics of Insects 376 Chapter Review 399
Chapter 16 The Science of Forestry 401

Forest History 404 Paper Making 421
The Natural Forest 407 Summary 426
The Production of Wood Fiber 411 Chapter Review 427
Chapter 17 The Science of Aquaculture 429

Fish as Agriculture 433 Summary 455
Food Fish 435 Chapter Review 456
Water Quality 448
Chapter 18 Agriculture and the Environment 459

The Growing Population 460 Depletion of Water Reserves 482
Environmental Issues 461 Summary 483
Water Pollution 463 Chapter Review 484
Soil Erosion 476
x CONTENTS
Chapter 19 Wildlife Management 487

Making Decisions About Wildlife Indicators of Management Success

Management 488 (or Failure) 502
Wildlife Habitat: Is It Good The Role of Environmental

Enough? 489 Education 505
Managing Wildlife Populations 490 Want a Job in Wildlife

Dead Trees and Debris 492 Management? 507

Creating Wildlife Habitat 495 Summary

508
Nuisance Wildlife 497 Chapter Review 509
Chapter 20 A Safe Food Supply 513

Biosecurity 515 Fat Content in Food 527
Pesticide and Chemical Labeling of Foods 532
Residues 515 Summary 539
Meat Inspection 521 Chapter Review 540
Hormone and Antibiotic
Residues 524
Chapter 21 The Science of Food Preservation 543

Causes of Food Spoilage 544 Summary 563
Food Preservation 550 Chapter Review 564
New Food Preservation

Technologies 558
Chapter 22 The Science of Fiber Production 567

Natural Fibers 568 Chapter Review 585
Summary 584
Chapter 23 Producing Organically Grown Products 587

Organic Food Production Act 590 Summary 610
The Production Process 599 Chapter Review 611
Organic Animal Agriculture 606
Criticisms of Organic
Production 608
Chapter 24 New Directions in Agriculture 613

Genetic Engineering and Precision Agriculture 634

Biotechnology 616 Sustainable Agriculture 635
Pharming 619 Summary 636
New Uses for Old Crops 626 Chapter Review 637
Farming the Ocean 630
High-Tech Engineering and

Electronics 631
CONTENTS xi
Chapter 25 Energy from Agriculture 639

Energy in the Past 640 Methane 653
Alternative Energy Sources 642 Concerns 655
Biodiesel 646 Summary 656
Biomass 649 Chapter Review 657
Chapter 26 Careers in Agricultural Science 659

Opportunities in Plant Science 661 Careers in Social Science 672
Careers in the Animal Sciences 664 Summary 674
Careers in Natural Resources 669 Chapter Review 675
Careers in Food Science 670
Chapter 27 The Agriscience Fair 677

Participation in Agriscience Summary 692
Fair 678 Chapter Review 693
Planning Your Project 683
Chapter 28 Laboratory Safety 695

Preventing Laboratory Summary 704
Accidents 696 Chapter Review 705
Glossary/Glosario 707
Index 751
preface
Constant change is a fact of our everyday lives. No segment of our
society changes more rapidly than that of the sciences. In fact, it is
because of the changes in science that many of the other changes in
our lives occur. Perhaps the most sensational changes occur in the
biological sciences. Our understanding of the life processes is con-
tinually expanding, and the rate of the understanding and change is
increasing as new discoveries unlock the mysteries of life. All of the
knowledge we have about biology has but three applications: medi-
cine, ecology, and agriculture. By far, the widest application is that
of agriculture. In fact, advances in medicine and ecology often come
about as a result of agricultural research. The Science of Agriculture:
A Biological Approach explains the scientific principles behind the
production of food and fiber. All of modern agriculture is built on
these principles, and it is through scientific inquiry that we progress.
Traditionally, agricultural texts have concentrated on the how of
production. This text approaches the material from the why rather
than the how perspective, allowing you to build and strengthen your
understanding of agriculture as a science.
FEATURES OF Chapter 1 The Science of

AgriculTure
THIS TEXT Key TermS
science
aquaculture
scientific method
basic research
applied research
genetics
cooperatives
●● Reader-friendly narrative STuDenT oBJecTiV

As a result of studyin
eS in BASic Scien
g this chapter, you
ce
should be able to:
cite scientific discov
eries that have made
presents information in an
●●
expensive for the
●● define scienc
e. food better and less
science. consumer.
s first began to use
●● tell how human
ific method.
●● explain the
concept of the scient
interesting and engaging way ●● distinguish

science.
between basic and
applied
urAl Science
eS in AgriculT
STuDenT oBJecTiV
should be able to:
Full-color photos, g this chapter, you American

As a result of studyin ●● discuss the
advances made by
●● ●● explain how
agriculture helped
develop
agriculture.
ratives have
civilization. ●● discuss how
agricultural coope
illustrations, and design bring lture and consumers.

scient ific resear ch in agriculture affected agricu
●● discuss how
country. d the
developed in this ●● analyze the
factors that allowe
efficient
food needs of the average develo pment of the world’s most
●● discuss the
key points to life and bridge American family.

●● analyze how
benefited the
agricu
consu
ltural
mer.
research has
system of agriculture.
the gap between the readings

and real-world application. 3
●● Learning objectives—one set

for basic science and one set for
71585_ch01_ptg01.ind
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xiii
xiv preface
agricultural science—open all

applicable chapters and allow
you to see the connection
Bio Brief between the agriculture
identifying Tiny Wasp
s
Information Staff,
ltural Research Service ine, August 2015
ng the larval stages
tural ecosystems, attacki a team member and entomologist at
of pest flies, such leaf-
the
industry and the scientific
of natural and agricul
concepts that uphold it and

By Jan Suszkiw, Agricu
ton,
USDA, AgResearch
Magaz flies,” says Matt Buffing this monograph now
mining flies and fruit Washington, D.C. “With identified by
ology Laboratory in ance will be reliably
ring less than a millime
ter long— ARS Systematic Entom of agricul tural import
wasps—some measu time, these wasps
y of parasit ic s to descrip tions in published, for the first ed
D etermining the identit s comparing their feature nted by 306 describ
move it forward. Additionally,

ide.”
ing process that include ication is critical, researchers worldw Cynipoidea is represe
can be a time-consum And correct identif region, the superfamily to be described, adds
dispara te specimen collections. the host insect in In the Afrotropical ds more species yet issue of the
published works and other insect species
, killing , but there are hundre raph in the April 2015
ic wasps lay their eggs inside worldw ide, to control pest insect species and 54 genera a paper describing the monog
as these parasit extensively, ored
these wasps are used Buffington, who coauth
the process. As a result,
populations in agricul
Now, making such
ture.
An international team
identifications could
begin with the click
of researchers, includi
ng a scientist from
called a “monograph”
of a mouse.
the Agricultural Resear
that will make it easier
ch
to
journal ZooKeys.
The resource, which
members of this wasp
brings together all
superfamily “under
as they’re discovered.
that’s currently known
one roof,” will make
It will also broaden
about the Afrotropical
it easier to identify
and
scientific understandin
ant use could be the
g a successful understanding of
these concepts can prepare
ent are new species One import
ed a new, online docum While these wasps catego rize cal diversi ty. that
Service, has publish called the “Cynipoidea.” associations and biologi l agents, such as those
wasps belong ing to a group
Afrotropical Region . This vast of their taxonomic ial as biologi cal contro
the United
identify and study s on species from the species having potent of invasive weeds in
monog raph focuse the southe rn Arabia n identification of wasp galls in the tissues
common worldwide,
the
the Sahara Desert,
as well as g flies or that form
all of Africa south of l discovery. parasitize crop-damagin
you to receive a science credit

area, encompassing , is ripe for entomologica ng those wasps has been rather
piecemeal. Some
and surrounding islands ication keys—includi States. of cynipo id of the
Peninsula, Madagascar, image-based identif to the Historically, the identif
ication existing repositories
pairs of interactive, help users navigate cross-checked with effort.
The monograph uses characteristics—to collected were not a spotty taxonomic
ntation, and other specimens that were d entirely, leading to conducting
of wing shape, body segme
t, along with species went ignore ces and expertise in
wasps, or closely related
for the course.

of the wasp of interes to pool their resour sites and museum
correct genus or species colleagues decided obtained from field
So, Buffington and ination of specimens
available biological, an exhaustive search and reexam
ted
geographic, and other the world. useful, and we genera
collections around in the world that are
information about al keys to identification to have keys such as
these
“There are few region , with long-term plans
the insect, including the Afrotropical Region said Buffington, who
the first such key for over the next 10 years,”
io Brief articles are

B
locations of existin
g parts of the world Iziko South
made available to other Natura l History Department at the
specimens.
“These wasps are
collaborated with Simon
African Museum and
van Noort of
Mattias Forshage,
the
with the Swedish Museu
m of Natural History
initiative will provide
an unparalleled
.
●
critical components g from this long-term ically and agriculturally
The final product resultin
included in the chapters;

a diverse array of econom adds van Noort. ■
ication resource to region and elsewhere,
comprehensive identif species in the Afrotropical
and ant
significant wasp, bee,
(about
This Didyctium wasp found
these present actual

is
2.5 millimeters long)
Agricultural Research
worldwide. Source: USDA,
by Matt Buffington.
Service (ARS). Photo
159
scientific studies and

158
discoveries that are
71585_ch06_ptg01.ind
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The Agriscience Fair 693
world and that relate directly
chapter review
review Questions
to what you are learning.
1. In conducting your Agriscience Fair project, why is it
important to use the scientific method?
2. Review the scientific method from Chapter 2 and list each step
in the order it is to be conducted.
● iscussion Questions and Student Learning Activities
D
3. In your own words, explain the importance of keeping a
detailed and accurate logbook and project report.
4. If you were a judge at the National FFA Agriscience Fair, what
encourage practical application of the content in each
would you look for in a quality project display?
5. Suppose you were helping a friend practice for the interview
portion of the Agriscience Fair. What pointers regarding the
chapter.
interview process would you give to help enable your friend to
succeed?
Student Learning activities

1. Go to the website http://www.ffa.org and do a search for
material on the Agriscience Fair. Print the materials that are of
NEW TO THIS EDITION

the most interest to you.
2. Make a list of five research topics that are of interest to you.
Consider different ways to conduct research in these areas.
Think through the process as to which of these topics and
research methods are the most interesting and the most
practical. Narrow your choice to one project, and plan your
project for the Agriscience Fair.
● eadings within each chapter are broken down further into

R
smaller sections by new headings to help you easily learn new
concepts and quickly locate specific topics
● All-new Bio Briefs reflect current news in the world of science
and agriculture, placing a spotlight on exciting advancements
in agriculture
urrent statistics reflect the latest U.S. and global trends in
C
71585_ch27_ptg01.indd 693 1/9/17 10:31 AM
●
agriculture
● New, noteworthy topics, including:
❍ histones, and their role in affecting genetic traits
❍ quarantine measures for plant and animal diseases
❍ o-till crops as a new method of cultivation for weed
n
control
❍ food labeling for consumer awareness
❍ high pressure processing in food preservation
❍ developing new foods through genetic engineering
❍ fracking as a method for unlocking new sources of energy
preface xv
EXTENSIVE TEACHING/LEARNING
PACKAGE
This supplement package was developed to achieve two goals:
1. To assist students in learning the essential information
needed to continue their exploration into the exciting field of
agriscience.
2. To assist instructors in planning and implementing their
instructional program for the most efficient use of time and
other resources.
COMPANION SITE
NEW! The Companion site to accompany The Science of Agriculture:
A Biological Approach, 5th Edition features tools to support learn-
ing and facilitate teaching:
●● Answers to Review Questions appearing at the end of each
chapter allow teachers to track and validate student learning.
●● Answers to the Lab Manual provide responses to the all the
questions found in the exercises.
●● Lesson Plans provide an outline of the key topics in each
chapter, and correlate to the accompanying PowerPoint'
presentations.
●● PowerPoint' presentations align with the Lesson Plans and
include photos and illustrations to visually reinforce the key
points in each chapter.
●● Testing powered by Cognero, a flexible online system, provides
chapter-by chapter quizzes, and enables teachers to:
❍ Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple
sources
❍ Create multiple test versions in an instant
❍ Deliver tests from teacher/school-specific learning
management system (LMS) or classrooms
●● Construction Plans, including one for a greenhouse and another
for an aquaculture unit, detail the construction of these units to
provide a space for conducting research studies.
●● Developing Critical Career Skills provides information on
effective methods for cultivating leadership abilities, outlines
specific technical, management, and teamwork skills required
of a successful employee in the business, and offers advice on
preparing for an interview.
xvi preface
●● Image Gallery offers full-color photos and illustrations from

the text to enable teachers to further enhance classroom
presentations.
For these instructor-specific resources, please visit CengageBrain
.com at http://login.cengage.com and follow the prompts for obtain-
ing access to this secure site.
LAB MANUAL
Thoroughly revised to align to the latest core curriculum math
and science standards, the Lab Manual to Accompany The Science
of Agriculture: A Biological Approach, 5th Edition provides engaging
exercises, thought-provoking questions, and supporting informa-
tion for the hands-on application experience in the lab environment.
MINDTAP FOR THE SCIENCE OF

AGRICULTURE, 5E
NEW! The MindTap for The Science of Agriculture: A Biological
Approach, 5th Edition features an integrated course offering a com-
plete digital experience for the student and teacher. This MindTap is
highly customizable and combines assignments, videos, interactivi-
ties, lab exercises, and quizzing along with the enhanced ebook to
enable students to directly analyze and apply what they are learning
and allow teachers to measure skills and outcomes with ease.
●● A Guide: Relevant interactivities combined with prescribed
readings, featured multimedia, and quizzing to evaluate
progress will guide students from basic knowledge and
comprehension to analysis and application.
●● Personalized Teaching: Teachers are able to control course
content—hiding, rearranging existing content, or adding and
creating their own content to meet the needs of their specific
program.
●● Promote Better Outcomes: Through relevant and engaging
content, assignments, and activities, students are able to build
the confidence they need to ultimately lead them to success.
Likewise, teachers are able to view analytics and reports
that provide a snapshot of class progress, time in course, and
engagement and completion rates.
about the author
Dr. Ray V. Herren has been actively involved in
agriculture for most of his life. He grew up on a diversified farm,
where he played a major role in the production of livestock. He
obtained a Bachelor of Science degree in Agricultural Education
from Auburn University, a Master’s degree in Agribusiness educa-
tion from Alabama A & M, and a Doctorate in Vocational Education
(with an emphasis in Agricultural Education) from Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University. Dr. Herren has taught
at Gaylesville High School, Virginia Tech, Oregon State University,
and the University of Georgia in Athens, where he recently retired
as head of the Department of Agriculture Leadership, Education,
and Communication. In addition to serving as National President in
the FFA Alumni organization, he has served on numerous commit-
tees from the local to international level, including a national task
force to develop FFA programs for middle school and the National
Committee for Career Development Events. His prolific scholarly
activity includes 26 journal articles, 51 invited or refereed presenta-
tions, and 12 books and manuals. He has also earned several awards
for his commitment to service, including induction into the Georgia
Agricultural Teacher Hall of Fame and UGA’s prestigious College of
Education Outstanding Teaching Award.
xvii
acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank the following individuals for their con-
tribution to this edition, as well as those who served to build the
foundation for this text in previous editions:
●● Nick E. Fuhrman, Ph.D., for his contribution to the chapter on
Wildlife Management.
●● Arenthia Herren and Dallas Duncan, for assistance in
developing enhancements and supporting materials for the
text.
●● Dr. Frank Flanders, for his contribution of images.
Additionally, Cengage Learning and the author would like to
thank the reviewers who shared their content expertise and valu-
able insight throughout the development of this text:
Erin Johnson Stephanie Jolliff
Union High School Ridgemont High School
Lake Butler, FL Ridgeway, OH
Farrah Johnson Ron Worth

Deltona High School Alpena High School
Deltona, FL Alpena, MI
Jonathan J. Stopek
B.S. Biology, Computer Science
Chicago, IL
xix
Chapter 1
The Science of
Agriculture
Key Terms
science scientific method applied research cooperatives
aquaculture basic research genetics
STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE

As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to:
●● define science. ●● cite scientific discoveries that have made
●● tell how humans first began to use science. food better and less expensive for the
consumer.
●● explain the concept of the scientific method.
●● distinguish between basic and applied
science.
STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to:
●● explain how agriculture helped develop ●● discuss the advances made by American
civilization. agriculture.
●● discuss how scientific research in agriculture ●● discuss how agricultural cooperatives have
developed in this country. affected agriculture and consumers.
●● discuss the food needs of the average ●● analyze the factors that allowed the
American family. development of the world’s most efficient
●● analyze how agricultural research has system of agriculture.
benefited the consumer.
4 Chapter 1
In modern times, science has rapidly changed the way we live. Just
look around at all the new innovations that make our lives easier
and more enjoyable. While all branches of science have made im-
portant impacts, the science of agriculture is the basis on which all
civilization is built. Before humans began to devise ways to produce
their own food, most of their lives were devoted to finding enough
to eat (Figure 1–1). The only available food was the plants and ani-
mals that grew wild in the area. Hunting and gathering food was a
process that was not only time-consuming but also prevented early
humans from settling in one place. If a group of people stayed in one
area very long, most of the wild game and wild plants that provided
food would be exhausted. Because gathering food took so much
time, these early humans had no time for such endeavors as build-
ing homes and cities, or even to develop inventions that might make
their lives better.
✺ The Basis of Civilization

The very first science was agriculture. Science is knowledge ob-
tained through a systematic study of naturally occurring phenom-
ena. The first systematic study by humans was probably devising
ways to obtain food, clothing, and shelter.
The systematic study of anything begins with observation.
Early humans likely began to notice that plants sprouted from
seeds and that by putting seeds in the ground, they could make
the seeds come up where they wanted them. They also observed
where the edible plants grew and the environment surrounding
the growing plants. They noticed the time of year when the seeds,
nuts, and fruits matured and returned to that area to harvest. By
further observing, they saw that the seeds had to be planted at the
right time of year; the plants had to have water and sunlight; and
they had to be protected from animals. These early humans prob-
ably noticed which plants grew bigger and better than others and
used these for obtaining seeds.
Similarly, humans observed the way animals developed
patterns in where they ate, slept, and moved. They noticed that
some animals were not as wild as others and would tolerate the
presence of humans. Rather than following the herds of animals,
they began to raise the animals in captivity and to live in one place.
This provided a ready supply of food that required less time than
hunting.
© Nicolas Primola/Shutterstock.com
The Beginning of Agriculture

Most anthropologists agree that agriculture began about 10,000 years
ago in what is now known as the Middle East. When humans be-
gan to grow their own food, they no longer needed to wander about
in search of edible plants and animals. This allowed them to settle
Figure 1–1 Early humans spent down in one place and to develop villages where they could live to-
most of their time searching for food. gether as one society (Figure 1–2).
The Science of Agriculture 5
© ArtMari/Shutterstock.com
Figure 1–2 Agriculture allowed people to settle down in one place and develop
villages.
As humans grew more of their own plants and animals for food,
they began to search for better ways to produce food. These ways
were discovered through trial and error and passed down from par-
ents to children. All modern agricultural crops and livestock were
developed from the plants and animals tamed and cultured by early
humans (Figure 1–3).
© dinosmichail/Shutterstock.com
Figure 1–3 All modern livestock was developed from animals tamed and
cultured by early humans.
6 Chapter 1
As more efficient ways of growing plants and animals were

developed, food could be produced in less time. As soon as people
could supply enough to feed themselves and have some left over,
the surplus food was traded to other people. Because food could
be obtained through trading, time could then be spent develop-
ing skills in building, engineering, literature, and art that led to
the great civilizations. When everyone had to find food every day,
they had very little time and energy left to spend on inventions to
improve their lives. Without the development of agriculture,
humans would still be hunting and foraging for their food.
As people began to raise their own food, it became necessary to
invent implements for opening the soil to plant seed or to dig out
weeds. These first crude tools were made of wood or stone and later
evolved into metal implements. The more tools people made, the
more efficient they became at growing food. The more food people
grew, the more time they had for inventing and making tools. After
the technology was developed to make agricultural tools, humans
discovered that these tools could also have other uses, such as carv-
ing stone for buildings or statues.
Some scientists think that counting and writing developed
from agriculture. As people began to harvest crops and found
that they had produced a surplus, ways to store the surplus
had to be created and built. To indicate ownership, contents,
and the amount in the containers, a system of marking had to be
developed. As more and more containers needed to be marked,
systems of written language developed (Figure 1–4). This allowed
the expansion of trade and barter so that the excess food could be
traded to other people.
© Anton V. Tokarev/Shutterstock.com
Figure 1–4 Some scientists think that counting and writing developed from
agriculture.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
guide a tool. The slide-rest, while it had been invented, had not been
put into practical form or come into general use. There were a few
rude drilling and boring machines, but no planing machines, either
for metal or wood. The tool equipment of the machinist, or
“millwright,” as he was called, consisted chiefly of a hammer, chisel
and file. The only measuring devices were calipers and a wooden
rule, with occasional reference perhaps to “the thickness of an old
shilling,” as above. Hand forging was probably as good as or better
than that of today. Foundry work had come up to at least the needs
of the time. But the appliances for cutting metal were little better than
those of the Middle Ages.
Such was the mechanical equipment in 1775; practically what it
had been for generations. By 1850 it was substantially that of today.
In fact, most of this change came in one generation, from about 1800
to 1840. Since that time there have been many improvements and
refinements, but the general principles remain little changed. With so
wonderful a transformation in so short a time, several questions arise
almost inevitably: Where did this development take place, who
brought it about, and why was it so rapid?
The first question is fairly simple. England and America produced
the modern machine tool. In the period mentioned, England
developed most of the general machine tools of the present day; the
boring machine, engine lathe, planer, shaper, the steam hammer and
standard taps and dies. Somewhat later, but partially coincident with
this, America developed the special machine tool, the drop hammer,
automatic lathes, the widespread commercial use of limit gauges,
and the interchangeable system of manufacture.
In a generalization such as this, the broad lines of influence must
be given the chief consideration. Some of the most valuable general
tools, such as the universal miller and the grinder, and parts of the
standard tools, as the apron in the lathe, are of American origin. But,
with all allowances, most of the general machine tools were
developed in England and spread from there throughout the world
either by utilization of their design or by actual sale. On the other
hand, the interchangeable system of manufacture, in a well-
developed form, was in operation in England in the manufacture of
ships’ blocks at Portsmouth shortly after 1800; and yet this block-
making machinery had been running for two generations with little or
no influence on the general manufacturing of the country, when
England, in 1855, imported from America the Enfield gun machinery
and adopted what they themselves styled the “American”
interchangeable system of gun making.[7]
[7] See page 139.
The second question as to who brought this change about is not

so simple. It is not easy to assign the credit of an invention. Mere
priority of suggestion or even of experiment seems hardly sufficient.
Nearly every great improvement has been invented independently by
a number of men, sometimes almost simultaneously, but often in
widely separated times and places. Of these, the man who made it a
success is usually found to have united to the element of invention a
superior mechanical skill. He is the one who first embodied the
invention in such proportions and mechanical design as to make it
commercially available, and from him its permanent influence
spreads. The chief credit is due to him because he impressed it on
the world. Some examples may illustrate this point.
Leonardo da Vinci in the fifteenth century anticipated many of the
modern tools.[8] His sketches are fascinating and show a wonderful
and fertile ingenuity, but, while we wonder, we smile at their
proportions. Had not a later generation of mechanics arisen to re-
invent and re-design these tools, mechanical engineering would still
be as unknown as when he died.
[8] American Machinist, Vol. 32, Part 2, pp. 821 and 868.
Take the slide-rest. It is clearly shown in the French encyclopedia

of 1772, see Fig. 3, and even in an edition of 1717. Bramah,
Bentham and Brunel, in England, and Sylvanus Brown,[9] in America,
are all said to have invented it. David Wilkinson, of Pawtucket, R. I.,
was granted a patent for it in 1798.[10] But the invention has been,
and will always be, credited to Henry Maudslay, of London. It is right
that it should be, for he first designed and built it properly, developed
its possibilities, and made it generally useful. The modern slide-rest
is a lineal descendant from his.
[9] Goodrich: “History of Pawtucket,” pp. 47-48. Pawtucket, 1876.
[10] Ibid., p. 51.
Blanchard was by no means the first to turn irregular forms on a

lathe. The old French rose engine lathe, shown in Fig. 4, embodied
the idea, but Blanchard accomplished it in a way more mechanical,
of a far wider range of usefulness, and his machine is in general use
to this day.
Figure 3. French Slide-Rest, 1772
Figure 4. French Lathe for Turning Ovals, 1772
The spindle swings sidewise under the influence of the two cams which bear
against the upright stops
JOSEPH BRAMAH Sir SAMUEL Sir MARC I.
1748-1814 BENTHAM BRUNEL
Invented Lock, Hydraulic 1757-1831 1769-1849
press, 4-way cock, and 44 NEW MACHINES.
wood working machinery. BLOCK M’CHRY-1800-08
HENRY MAUDSLAY
1771-1831
Slide rest for metal work, Block machinery, Flour,
Sawmill and Mint mach’ry, Punches, Mill and Marine
Steam Engines, Fine screw cutting. Laid basis for
Lathe, Planer and Slotter
JOSEPH CLEMENT
1779-1844
Slide Lathe, Planer 1820 and 1824
Manufactured Taps and Dies Standard
Screw Threads
MATT. JAMES RICH’D. JOSEPH JAMES
MURRAY FOX ROBERTS WHITWORTH NASMYTH
1803-87 1808-90
Engines D- Index Versatile Std. Screw Index
Valve Cutting of Inventor, Threads Milling
Planer Gears Planer Foremost tool Shaper
Lathes, builder of the Steam
Planer 19th Century Hammer
Am. Machinist
Figure 5. Genealogy of the Early English Tool Builders
To the third question as to why this development when once begun

should have been so rapid, there are probably two answers. First, an
entirely new demand for accurate tools arose during these years,
springing from the inventions of Arkwright, Whitney, Watt, Fulton,
Stephenson and others. The textile industries, the steam engine,
railways, and the scores of industries they called into being, all called
for better and stronger means of production. While the rapidity of the
development was due partly to the pressure of this demand, a
second element, that of cumulative experience, was present, and
can be clearly traced. Wilkinson was somewhat of an exception, as
he was primarily an iron master and not a tool builder, so his
relationship to other tool builders is not so direct or clear. But the
connection between Bramah, Maudslay, Clement, Whitworth and
Nasmyth, is shown in the “genealogical” table in Fig. 5.
Bramah had a shop in London where, for many years, he
manufactured locks and built hydraulic machinery and woodworking
tools. Maudslay, probably the finest mechanician of his day, went to
work for Bramah when only eighteen years old and became his
foreman in less than a year. He left after a few years and started in
for himself, later taking Field into partnership, and Maudslay &
Field’s became one of the most famous shops in the world.
Sir Samuel Bentham, who was inspector general of the British
navy, began the design of a set of machines for manufacturing pulley
blocks at the Portsmouth navy yard. He soon met Marc Isambard
Brunel, a brilliant young Royalist officer, who had been driven out of
France during the Revolution, and had started working on block
machinery through a conversation held at Alexander Hamilton’s
dinner table while in America a few years before. Bentham saw the
superiority of Brunel’s plans, substituted them for his own, and
commissioned him to go ahead.
In his search for someone to build the machinery, Brunel was
referred to Maudslay, then just starting in for himself. Maudslay built
the machines, forty-four in all, and they were a brilliant success.
There has been considerable controversy as to whether Bentham or
Brunel designed them. While Maudslay’s skill appears in the
practical details, the general scheme was undoubtedly Brunel’s. In a
few of the machines Bentham’s designs seem to have been used,
but he was able enough and generous enough to set aside most of
his own designs for the better ones of Brunel.
Of the earlier tool builders, Maudslay was the greatest. He, more
than any other, developed the slide-rest and he laid the basis for the
lathe, planer and slotter. His powerful personality is brought out in
Nasmyth’s autobiography written many years later. Nasmyth was a
young boy, eager, with rare mechanical skill and one ambition, to go
to London and work for the great Mr. Maudslay. He tells of their
meeting, of the interest aroused in the older man, and of his being
taken into Maudslay’s personal office to work beside him. It is a
pleasing picture, the young man and the older one, two of the best
mechanics in all England, working side by side, equally proud of
each other.
Joseph Clement came to London and worked for Bramah as chief
draftsman and as superintendent of his works. After Bramah’s death
he went to Maudslay’s and later went into business for himself. He
was an exquisite draftsman, a fertile inventor, and had a very
important part in the development of the screw-cutting lathe and
planer. Joseph Whitworth, the most influential tool builder of the
nineteenth century, worked for Maudslay and for Clement and took
up their work at the point where they left off. Under his influence
machine tools were given a strength and precision which they had
never had before. Richard Roberts was another pupil of Maudslay’s
whose influence, though important, was not so great as that of the
others.
We have an excellent example of what this succession meant.
Nasmyth tells of the beautiful set of taps and dies which Maudslay
made for his own use, and that he standardized the screw-thread
practice of his own shop. Clement carried this further. He established
a definite number of threads per inch for each size, extended the
standardization of threads, and began the regular manufacture of
dies and taps. He fluted the taps by means of milling cutters and
made them with small shanks, so that they might drop through the
tapped hole. Whitworth, taking up Clement’s work, standardized the
screw threads for all England and brought order out of chaos.
Some account of the growth of machine tools in the hands of
these men will be given later. Enough has been said here to show
the cumulative effect of their experience, and its part in the industrial
advance of the first half of the nineteenth century. Similar
successions of American mechanics will be shown later.
Writing from the standpoint of fifty years ago, Smiles quotes Sir
William Fairbairn: “‘The mechanical operations of the present day
could not have been accomplished at any cost thirty years ago; and
what was then considered impossible is now performed with an
exactitude that never fails to accomplish the end in view.’ For this we
are mainly indebted to the almost creative power of modern machine
tools, and the facilities which they present for the production and
reproduction of other machines.”[11]
[11] Smiles: “Industrial Biography,” p. 399.
CHAPTER II
WILKINSON AND BRAMAH
In the previous chapter it was stated that John Wilkinson, of
Bersham, made the steam engine commercially possible by first
boring Watt’s cylinders with the degree of accuracy necessary, and
that his boring machine was probably the first metal-cutting tool
capable of doing large work with anything like modern accuracy.
Although Wilkinson was not primarily a tool builder but an iron
master, this achievement alone is sufficient to make him interesting
to the tool builders of today.
He was born in 1728. His father made his financial start by
manufacturing a crimping iron for ironing the fancy ruffles of the day.
John Wilkinson first started a blast furnace at Belston and later
joined his father in an iron works the latter had built at Bersham, near
Chester. By developing a method of smelting and puddling iron with
coal instead of wood-charcoal, he obtained an immense commercial
advantage over his rivals and soon became a powerful factor in the
iron industry. Later, he built other works, notably one at Broseley,
near Coalbrookdale on the Severn.
One of the important branches of his work was the casting and
finishing of cannon. It was in connection with this that he invented
the boring machine referred to. He bored the first cylinder for Boulton
& Watt in 1775. Farey, in his “History of the Steam Engine,” says:
In the old method, the borer for cutting the metal was not guided in its
progress,[12] and therefore followed the incorrect form given to the cylinder in
casting it; it was scarcely insured that every part of the cylinder should be circular;
and there was no certainty that the cylinder would be straight. This method was
thought sufficient for old engines; but Mr. Watt’s engines required greater
precision.
[12] See Fig. 1.
Mr. Wilkinson’s machine, which is now the common boring-machine, has a
straight central bar of great strength, which occupies the central axis of the
cylinder, during the operation of boring; and the borer, or cutting instrument, is
accurately fitted to slide along this bar, which, being made perfectly straight,
serves as a sort of ruler, to give a rectilinear direction to the borer in its progress,
so as to produce a cylinder equally straight in the length, and circular in the
circumference. This method insures all the accuracy the subject is capable of; for if
the cylinder is cast ever so crooked, the machine will bore it straight and true,
provided there is metal enough to form the required cylinder by cutting away the
superfluities.[13]
[13] Farey: “Treatise on the Steam Engine,” p. 326. 1827.
Wilkinson’s relations with Boulton & Watt became very intimate.

He showed his confidence in the new engine by ordering the first
one built at Soho to blow the bellows of his iron works at Broseley.
Great interest was felt in the success of this engine. Other iron
manufacturers suspended their building operations to see what the
engine could do and Watt himself superintended every detail of its
construction and erection. Before it was finished Boulton wrote to
Watt:
Pray tell Mr. Wilkinson to get a dozen cylinders cast and bored from 12 to 50
inches in diameter, and as many condensers of suitable sizes; the latter must be
sent here, as we will keep them ready fitted up, and then an engine can be turned
out of hand in two or three weeks. I have fixed my mind upon making from 12 to 15
reciprocating, and 50 rotative engines per annum.[14]
[14] Smiles: “Boulton & Watt,” p. 185. London, 1904.
This letter is interesting as showing Boulton’s clear grasp of the

principles of manufacturing. Later, when Boulton & Watt were hard
pressed financially, Wilkinson took a considerable share in their
business and when the rotative engine was developed he ordered
the first one. He consequently has the honor of being the purchaser
of the first reciprocating and the first rotary engine turned out by
Watt. Later, when Watt was educating his son to take up his work, he
sent him for a year to Wilkinson’s iron works at Bersham, to learn
their methods.
Fig. 7, taken from an old encyclopedia of manufacturing and
engineering, shows the boring machine used for boring Watt’s steam
cylinders.
On two oaken stringers SS, frames FF were mounted which
carried a hollow boring bar A driven from the end. The cylinder to be
bored was clamped to saddles, as shown. The cutters were carried
on a head which rotated with the bar and was fed along it by means
of an internal feed-rod and rack. In the machine shown the feeding
was done by a weight and lever which actuated a pinion gearing with
the rack R, but later a positive feed, through a train of gears
operated by the main boring-bar, was used. Two roughing cuts and a
finishing cut were used, and the average feed is given as ¹⁄₁₆ inch
per revolution. While this machine may seem crude, a comparison
with Smeaton’s boring machine, Fig. 1, will show how great an
advance it was over the best which preceded it.
Wilkinson was a pioneer in many lines. He built and launched the
first iron vessel and in a letter dated July 14, 1787, says:
Yesterday week my iron boat was launched. It answers all my expectations, and
has convinced the unbelievers who were 999 in a thousand. It will be only a nine
days wonder, and then be like Columbus’s egg.[15]
[15] “Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technik und Industrie,” 3. Band. S.
227. Berlin, 1911.
In another letter written a little over a year later, he says:

There have been launched two Iron Vessels in my service since Sept. 1st: one is
a canal boat for this [i.e., Birmingham] navigation, the other a barge of 40 tons for
the River Severn. The last was floated on Monday and is, I expect, at Stourport
with a loading of bar iron. My clerk at Broseley advises me that she swims
remarkably light and exceeds my expectations.[16]
[16] Ibid., 3. Band. S. 227.
In 1788 William Symington built and ran a steam-operated boat on

Dalswinton Loch in Scotland, which was a small, light craft with two
hulls, made of tinned sheet-iron plates.[17] It has been erroneously
claimed that this was the first iron boat. It was at best the second.
Although of no commercial importance, it is of very great historical
interest as it antedated Fulton’s “Clermont” by many years.
[17] Autobiography of James Nasmyth, p. 30. London, 1883.
Twenty-three years later, in 1810, Onions & Son of Broseley built
the next iron boats, also for use upon the Severn. Five years later
Mr. Jervons of Liverpool built a small iron boat for use on the Mersey.
In 1821 an iron vessel was built at the Horsley works in
Staffordshire, which sailed from London to Havre and went up the
Seine to Paris.[18] Iron vessels were built from time to time after that,
but it was fully twenty-five years before they came into general use.
[18] Smiles: “Men of Invention and Industry,” pp. 51-52. New York, 1885.
Figure 6. John Wilkinson
Figure 7. Wilkinson’s Boring Machine
Used for Machining the Cylinders of Watt Engines
With Abraham Darby, 3d, Wilkinson has the honor of having built,
in 1779, the first iron bridge, which spanned the Severn at Broseley.
This bridge had a span of 100 feet 6 inches, and a clear height of 48
feet, and is standing today as good as ever.[19] He invented also the
method of making continuous lead pipe.
[19] Smiles: “Industrial Biography,” p. 119. Boston, 1864. Also, Beiträge,
etc., 3. Band. S. 226.
He was a man of great ability, strong and masterful. Boulton wrote

of him to Watt:
I can’t say but that I admire John Wilkinson for his decisive, clear, and distinct
character, which is, I think, a first-rate one of its kind.[20]
[20] Smiles: “Boulton & Watt,” p. 438. London, 1904.
There is a note of qualification in the last clause. With all his

admirable qualities Wilkinson was not always amiable and he was in
constant feud with the other members of his family. He became very
wealthy, but his large estate was dissipated in a famous lawsuit
between his heirs.
Forceful and able as Wilkinson was, another man, Joseph
Bramah, living in London about the same time, had a much more
direct influence on tool building. Bramah was a Yorkshire farmer’s
boy, born in 1748, and lame.[21] As he could not work on the farm he
learned the cabinet maker’s trade, went to London, and, in the
course of his work which took him into the well-to-do houses about
town, he made his first successful invention—the modern water-
closet. He patented it in 1778 and 1783, and it continues to this day
in substantially the same form. In 1784 he patented a lock, which
was an improvement on Barron’s, invented ten years before, and
was one of the most successful ever invented. For many years it had
the reputation of being absolutely unpickable. Confident of this,
Bramah placed a large padlock on a board in his shop window in
Piccadilly and posted beneath it the following notice:
“The artist who can make an instrument that will pick or open this lock shall
receive two hundred guineas the moment it is produced.”
[21] The best account of Bramah is given in Smiles’ “Industrial
Biography,” pp. 228-244. Boston, 1864.
Many tried to open it. In one attempt made in 1817, a clever

mechanic named Russell spent a week on it and gave it up in
despair. In 1851 Alfred C. Hobbs, an American, mastered it and won
the money. He was allowed a month in which to work and the
Committee of Referees in their report stated that he spent sixteen
days, and an actual working time of fifty-one hours, in doing it. This
gave Hobbs a great reputation, which he enhanced by picking every
other lock well known in England at that time, and then showing how
it was done.
This started up the liveliest kind of a controversy and gave
everyone a chance to write to the Times. They all began first picking,
then tearing each other’s locks. Headlines of “Love (Hobbs?) Laughs
at Locksmiths,” “Equivocator” and other like terms appeared.[22]
[22] Price: “Fire and Thief-proof Depositories, and Locks and Keys.”
It was finally recognized that any lock could be picked by a skillful

mechanic with a knowledge of locks, if he were given time enough.
The old Bramah lock, made, by the way, by Henry Maudslay himself,
did not fare so badly. Hobbs had unmolested access to it for days
with any tools he could bring or devise; and though he finally opened
it, a lock probably sixty years old which could stand such an assault
for fifty hours was secure for all ordinary purposes.[23]
[23] Anyone who is interested can find an account of the affair in Price’s
“Fire and Thief-proof Depositories, and Locks and Keys,” published in 1856,
and Mr. Hobbs has given his own personal account of it, explaining how the
work was done, in the Trans. of the A. S. M. E., Vol. VI, pp. 248-253.
When Bramah began manufacturing the locks he found almost

immediately that they called for a better quality of workmanship than
was available, with even the best manual skill about him. A series of
machine tools had to be devised if they were to be made in the
quantities and of the quality desired. He turned first to an old
German in Moodie’s shop who had the reputation of being the most
ingenious workman in London; but while he, with Bramah, saw the
need, he could not meet it. One of his shopmates, however,
suggested a young man at the Woolwich Arsenal named Henry
Maudslay, then only eighteen years old.
Bramah sent for him and Maudslay soon became his right-hand
man, and was made superintendent of the works at nineteen. The
work of these two men in developing the tools needed laid the
foundation for the standard metal-cutting tools of today. The most
important improvement was the slide-rest. Nasmyth later said that he
had seen the first one, made by Maudslay, running in Bramah’s shop
and that “in it were all those arrangements which are to be found in
the most modern slide-rest of our own day” (i.e., fifty years later).
Other parts of the metal-cutting lathe also began to take shape; it
has been said that parts of the lock were milled on a lathe with rotary
cutters, and that the beginnings of the planer were made. How much
of this work was Bramah’s and how much Maudslay’s it would be
hard to say. Bramah was a fertile, clever inventor; but Maudslay was
the better general mechanic, had a surer judgment and a greater
influence on subsequent tool design.
About this time Bramah invented the hydraulic press. As he first
built it, the ram was packed with a stuffing-box and gland. This
gripped the ram, retarded the return stroke, and gave him a lot of
trouble until Maudslay substituted the self-tightening cup-leather
packing for the stuffing-box, an improvement which made the device
a success.
Bramah’s restless ingenuity was continually at work. He invented a
very successful beer-pump in 1797, the four-way cock, a quill
sharpener which was in general use until quills were superseded by
steel pens, and he dabbled with the steam engine. He was a bitter
opponent of Watt and testified against him in the famous suit of
Boulton & Watt against Hornblower. He maintained the superiority of
the old Newcomen engines and said that the principle of the
separate condenser was fallacious, that Watt had added nothing
new which was not worthless, and that his so-called improvements
were “monstrous stupidity.”
In 1802 Bramah obtained a patent for woodworking machinery
second only in importance to that granted Bentham in 1791. Like
Bentham, he aimed to replace manual labor “for producing straight,
smooth, and parallel surfaces on wood and other materials requiring
truth, in a manner much more expeditious and perfect than can be
performed by the use of axes, saws, planes, and other cutting
instruments used by hand in the ordinary way.” His tools were
carried in fixed frames and driven by machinery. In his planing
machine, one of which was running in the Woolwich Arsenal for fifty
years, the cutter-head, which carried twenty-eight tools, was
mounted on a vertical shaft and swept across the work in a
horizontal plane. He used this same method in planing the metal
parts for his locks, which corresponds, of course, to our modern
face-milling. He provided for cutting spherical and concave surfaces
and used his device for making wooden bowls.
In 1806 he devised an automatic machine which the Bank of
England used many years in numbering their banknotes, eliminating
error and saving the labor of many clerks.
Maudslay was in his employ from 1789 to 1797. He was getting as
superintendent 30s. ($7.50) a week. A growing family and “the high
cost of living” rendered this insufficient and he applied for more. He
was refused so curtly that he gave up his position and started in for
himself in a small workshop on Oxford Street in London. Later he
took Field in as partner under the firm name of Maudslay & Field.
In 1813 Bramah engaged another man who later had a great
influence, Joseph Clement. Clement soon became his chief
draftsman and superintendent. Salaries had gone up somewhat by

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Agriculture: A Biological Approach 5th

Chapter 1 The Science of Agriculture 3

Chapter 2 Soil: The Source of Life 37

Chapter 3 Cells: Agriculture’s Building Blocks 69

Chapter 4 The Science of Genetics 89

Chapter 5 Genetic Engineering 115

Chapter 6 The Classification of Agricultural Organisms 143

Chapter 7 Plant Systems 163

Chapter 8 Plant Reproduction 191

Chapter 9 Plant Growth 217

Chapter 10 Animal Systems 243

Chapter 11 Animal Reproduction 273

Chapter 12 Animal Growth 303

Chapter 13 Plant and Animal Diseases 321

Chapter 14 Weed Science 343

Chapter 15 Agricultural Entomology 369

Chapter 16 The Science of Forestry 401

Chapter 17 The Science of Aquaculture 429

Chapter 18 Agriculture and the Environment 459

Chapter 19 Wildlife Management 487

Chapter 20 A Safe Food Supply 513

Chapter 21 The Science of Food Preservation 543

Chapter 22 The Science of Fiber Production 567

Chapter 23 Producing Organically Grown Products 587

Chapter 24 New Directions in Agriculture 613

Chapter 25 Energy from Agriculture 639

Chapter 26 Careers in Agricultural Science 659

Chapter 27 The Agriscience Fair 677

Chapter 28 Laboratory Safety 695

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✺ The Basis of Civilization

The Beginning of Agriculture

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