Introduction to Biosensors and Bioinstrumentation

(ELEC 4810)

FINAL EXAMINATION

DATE: December 17, 2022

TIME: 8:30AM - 11:30AM
Venue: G010, CYT Bldg

PLEDGE OF HONOR
On my honor as a student of Hong Kong University of Science and
Technology, I have neither received aid from others nor given aid to
others while taking this exam. All of the answers represent my own work.

Signature: __________________ Date: ________________

Student Name:
Student Number:
TOTAL: 46 marks + 5 marks BONUS.

1. (22 pts.) Biopotentials

a) (i) Explain the regenerative nature of action potential. (ii) Explain how Na+/ K+
pumps work and why they are so important and consume roughly 25% energy from
our body. (iii) Describe the details of generation of action potential in nerve cells
and muscle fibers. Explain why their waveforms are different.
b) (i) Motor units control the skeletal muscles and are the driving force behind every
movement you make. Explain how motor unit works and draw a diagram of a motor
unit. (ii)The EMG is a stochastic signal with a random amplitude and phase with
respect to the underlying muscle signals, while the ECG shows a deterministic
structure. However, both signals originate from contracting muscle fibers. Explain
why the ECG and EMG differ in this way?
c) In order to obtain improved measurements of the ECG, one can put an electrode
into an esophageal sensor to measure ECG from esophagus. The advantages are that
(1) the esophagus passes very close to the heart, and that (2) esophagus does not
sweat, or have a layer of dead cells like the skin. Briefly discuss each effect, and
explain why they enable improved ECG measurements.
d) (i) For patient safety it is important to have electrically isolated instrumentation for
ECG measurement. Describe briefly the function of electrical isolation. (ii)
Describe the opto-isolator circuit to prevent high voltages of external circuit from
being directly connected to the patient. Draw a typical opto-isolator circuit and
explain how it works.
e) (i) Define Lead I, II, III ECG signals. (ii) Design a system that has as inputs the
scalar voltages of lead II and lead III and as output the scalar voltage of the cardiac
vector P.
f) (i) What are the differences between EEG and evoked potential (EP)? (ii) Visual
evoked response (VER) test can diagnose problems with the optic nerves that affect
sight. Sketch a typical recording arrangement for visual evoked potentials. (iii) The
table below is a recommended recording parameters for the measurements of
VER(VEP) – Visual evoked response (potential); BAER –Brainstem auditory
evoked response; SEP –Somatosensory evoked potential; ERP –Event-related
potential, psychological response to stimuli. Which signal is easiest to measure and
which is hardest to measure? Why? Estimate the relative signal strengths of VEP,
BAER, SEP, ERP.
2. (22 pts.) Measurement of Blood Pressure and Flow
a) The continuity equation describes the transport of some quantity and particularly
steady one-dimensional flow. (i) Describe the equation and use it to explain the
mechanism of blood pressure measurement based on Korotkoff sounds. (ii) Draw
an arrangement of a blood pressure Sphygmomanometer and describe how to
determine systolic and diastolic pressure.
b) In Lab 5, you did an experiment to estimate your blood pulse wave transit time and
velocity. (i) Describe the details of the experiment and explain how the blood pulse
wave transit time/velocity was estimated. (ii) The blood pressure measurements
based on Korotkoff sounds and oscillometric method are cuff-based methods and
have certain disadvantages, which limit their use in certain clinical or home settings.
For example, continuous blood pressure cannot be measured using cuff-based
methods. People proposed a cuff-free blood pressure estimation using pulse transit
time/velocity and heart rate. Take your best effort to imagine/explain how it works
and sketch a schematic diagram of the measurement system.
c) (i) What are Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids? Why is blood a non-Newtonian
fluid? (ii) What is the difference between laminar and turbulent flow? (iii) As shown
in the figure below, the blood flow in large arteries is turbulent and the blood flow
in small arteries is mainly considered laminar flow. Explain why in detail.

d) (i) What is the piezoelectric effect? Explain how to generate and detect ultrasound
waves based on the effect. (ii) Why is the ultrasound frequency of the blood
flowmeter set in the range of 2-10 MHz? (iii) Phased array (PA) ultrasonics is an
advanced method of ultrasonic testing that has applications in medical imaging.
Explain how the ultrasound beam is steered electronically by using PA technique.
e) An ultrasonic flow meter is a type of flow meter that measures the velocity of a
fluid with ultrasound to calculate volume flow. (i) Prove the flow speed, Doppler
frequency shift between the ultrasonic frequency source, the receiver, and the
𝑐
measurement geometry can be related with the equation: 𝑉𝑖 = −𝑓𝐷 𝑓∙(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ).
𝑠 𝑟
 (ii) The most significant advantage of Doppler ultrasonic flowmetry is its
noninvasiveness. However, it does have a few key problems. Discuss at least four
limitations of the technology.
f) Considering the blood flow can be assumed as laminar flow and approximately
described with a parabolic blood velocity profile across the vessel,
  r 2 
V (r ) = Vmax 1 −    , r  (0, r0 ), where r0, the radius of the blood vessel, is 2.5
  r0  
 
mm, find the maximal, minimal and mean Doppler shift frequencies when the
maximal velocity at the center of the vessel is about 100 cm/s, 𝜃𝑠 = 30and 𝜃𝑟 = 45.
(Assume the size of ultrasonic beam is much larger than that of blood vessel.)

3. (7 pts.) Monitoring of Respiratory System

a) (i) Explain the transport mechanisms of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
circulation system. (ii) Why is there a large amount of oxygen in venous blood and
carbon dioxide in arterial blood?
b) Describe the compartmental (Beer-Lambert) model of tissue and explain the
mechanism of pulse oximetry based on the optical absorption of arterial blood.
c) (i) Based on the absorption spectra of hemoglobin (Hb) and oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
shown in figure below, we chose 660 nm and 805 nm to build a oximeter. Why? (ii)
Find a pair of wavelengths shorter than 600 nm which can be used for the
measurement of oxygen saturation as well. Discuss its disadvantage in comparison
with the wavelength pair of 660 nm and 805 nm.