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It deals with phenomena that occur at the surfaces or interfaces.

Separating the bulk phases

Gaseous molecules
Solid-Gas Interface
Types of interfaces :
• Liquid - Liquid
• Liquid - Gas
• Liquid - Solid
Solid
• Solid - Gas
• Solid - Solid

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When a substance is uniformly distributed throughout the body of a solid or liquid, the
phenomenon is called absorption.

The phenomenon of increase in concentration at the surface due to molecular surface

force is known as adsorption.

Adsorbate : The substances solids, gases or liquids

which are adsorbed on the surface of adsorbent.
Adsorbent : The solid or liquid substance on the surface
of which adsorption takes place.
Examples : Activated charcoal, 𝑃𝑡, 𝑃𝑑, 𝑁𝑖, Silica gel,
gelatin, 𝐴𝑙 𝑂 , starch.

Absorption + Adsorption = Sorption

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Absorption Adsorption
It occurs throughout the body of the
It is a surface phenomenon
material.
It involves uniform distribution of the It involves uniform distribution of the
molecular species throughout the bulk molecules at the surface of a
of a substance. substance
It is rapid in the beginning and slows
It occurs at a uniform rate.
down near the equilibrium
It is a slow process It is a fast process

Water vapours are adsorbed by silica gel

Water vapours are absorbed by anhydrous CaCl2

Note :
• Reverse process of adsorption is called desorption.
• Adsorption of gases on metal surface voids is called
occulation.

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• Adsorption occurs at any surface due to residual force acting in the surface
molecules of adsorbent.
• The force of attraction between the adsorbate and surface molecule decreases the
residual force and brings stability to system (decrease in surface energy).

• Δ𝐻 < 0, due formation of bond.

• Δ𝑆 < 0, as the freedom of movement of
adsorbate molecules decreases.
Solid
• Δ𝐺 < 0, as it is a spontaneous process.
Note : At higher temperature rate of adsorption becomes very slow as spontaneity of
process decreases. Δ𝐺 = Δ𝐻 − 𝑇Δ𝑆

Which one of the following characteristics is associated with adsorption ?

a) Δ𝐺 and Δ𝑆 are negative but Δ𝐻 is positive
b) Δ𝐺 is negative but Δ𝐻 and Δ𝑆 are positive
c) Δ𝐺, Δ𝐻 and Δ𝑆 all are negative
d) Δ𝐺 and Δ𝐻 are negative but Δ𝑆 is positive

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Pd can adsorb 900 times its volume of hydrogen. This is called :-

a) Absorption
b) Adsorption
c) Occulation
d) b and c both

Adsorption

Physical Adsorption Chemical Adsorption

• Also called Physisorption. • Also called Chemisorption.

• Due to weak Van der waal forces. • Due to strong chemical bond.

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Physisorption Chemisorption
• Lack of specific nature. • Highly specific nature.

Different gases Different gases

Weak Vander
Chemical bond
Waal Forces

Adsorbent Adsorbent

• Amount of adsorption of gas ∝ critical

temperature of gas.

On the basis of T given in the following table, arrange the given gases in the
increasing order of adsorption under identical conditions.

Gas H2 CO2 CH4 NH3

TC (K) 33 304 190 406

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Physisorption Chemisorption
• Reversible in nature. • Irreversible in nature.

Different gases Different gases

Weak Vander
Chemical bond
Waal Forces

Adsorbent Adsorbent
• Strong chemical bond between
adsorbate and adsorbent hence,
difficult to separate.

Physisorption Chemisorption
• Effect of Pressure.
Amount of adsorption ∝ P Amount of adsorption ∝ P
Adsorption amount

• Le-chatelier’s Priniciple

Pressure

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Physisorption Chemisorption
• No activation energy. • High activation energy.

Different gases Different gases

Weak Vander
Chemical bond
Waal Forces

Adsorbent Adsorbent

• No appreciable activation energy is

required.

Physisorption Chemisorption
• Effect of Temperature.
1 Amount of chemisorption ∝ T
Amount of physisorption ∝ IMF ∝
T
Adsorption amount

Adsorption amount

Temperature Temperature

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Physisorption Chemisorption
• Low Enthalpy of Adsorption. • High Enthalpy of Adsorption.

Different gases Different gases

Weak Vander
Chemical bond
Waal Forces

Adsorbent Adsorbent

• Less amount of energy is released. • Large amount of energy is released.

• 20 − 40 𝑘𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 • 80 − 240 𝑘𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙

Physisorption Chemisorption
• Multimolecular layer adsorption. • Unimolecular layer adsorption.

Adsorbent Adsorbent

• It is due to lack of specificity.

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Physisorption Chemisorption
• Van der Waals’ forces • Chemical bonds
• Not specific nature • Highly specific
• Reversible nature • Irreversible nature
• Low enthalpy of adsorption • High enthalpy of adsorption

• No activation energy • High activation energy

• Multimolecular layers • Unimolecular layer

The rate of physical adsorption:

a) Decreases with increase of pressure
b) Is independent at high pressure
c) Is maximum at one atmospheric pressure
d) Always increases with increase of pressure

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• Plot between amount of adsorbate adsorbed and pressure at constant temperature.

• Freundlich adsorption isotherm is obeyed by the adsorption where the adsorbate
forms single layer on the surface of the adsorbent.
x
= kp
m
x/m = Extent of adsorption
x = Mass of gas adsorbed

m
x
m = Mass of adsorbent
p = Pressure
Depend on nature of gas, k = Constant P

adsorbent and temperature n = Constant

x
= kp
m
• At low pressure : = 1

x
m
x

= kp ⇒ Linear
m
• At high pressure : = 0

x P
= kp = k ⇒ constant T
m
T
• At moderate pressure : 0 < <1
m
x

T
T <T <T
x
= kp ⇒ non − linear
m P

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x
= kp
m
Taking log on both sides : 1
Slope =
n

m
x 1

x
log
log = log k + log P
m n
y = c + mx … Straight line log k

Limitations of Freundlich adsorption isotherm :

log P
• Freundlich equation has no theoretical basis.
• Equation does not explain the independent nature of adsorption at high pressure.
• Constants k and n are not real constants as they depend on temperature and
nature of the gas.

A curve between log x/m and log p is found to be straight line with a slope of 45° and
intercept 0.3010. Calculate the amount of gas adsorbed at 0.2 atm pressure.

1
Slope =
n
m
x
log

log k

log P

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Solids can adsorb solutes from solutions

Animal charcoal
Colourless
Litmus solution
solution

Pressure → Concentration

x
= kC 1
m Slope =

m
x
n

log
Taking log on both sides :
x 1
log = log k + log C log k
m n
log C

Some important observations for adsorption from solution phase :

• Extent of adsorption depends on the nature of the adsorbent and the adsorbate

• Extent of adsorption ∝

• Extent of adsorption ∝ Surface area of the adsorbent

• Extent of adsorption ∝ Concentration of the solute in solution

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1 g of charcoal having surface area 3.02 × 10 m is mixed in 100 ml of 0.5 M acetic

acid solution; after few times concentrations of solution becomes 0.49 M what will be
surface area occupied one molecule of acetic acid ?
a) 2 × 10 m
b) 5 × 10 m
c) 6 × 10 m
d) 10 m

For chemical adsorption.

Postulate–1 : The particles of adsorbate can only form a single layer in depth on the
surface of adsorbent.
Postulate–2 : There is no interaction in between the adjacent adsorbed particles.
Postulate–3 : There is a dynamic equilibrium in between the process of adsorption
and desorption.
Postulate–4 : All surface sides have equal tendency to attract and retain the particles
of adsorbate.

x aP
=
m 1 + bP Where a and b are Langmuir constants.

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x aP
=
m 1 + bP
At low pressure,

m
x
bp ≪ 1 ⇒ 1 + bP ≈ 1
x x
= aP ⇒ ∝ P
m m
At high pressure, P
bp ≫ 1 ⇒ 1 + bP ≈ bP

x aP a x
= = ⇒ ∝P
m bP b m

If x is amount of adsorbate and m is amount of adsorbent, which of the following

relations is not related to adsorption process ?
a) x/m = f(p) at constant T
b) x/m = f(T) at constant p
c) p = f(T) at constant (x/m)
d) x/m=P×T

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Assertion : In case of chemical adsorption, x/m first increase then decrease with
temperature.
Reason : The initial increase is due to the fact that heat supplied acts as activation
energy. The decrease afterwards is due to the exothermic nature of adsorption at
equilibrium.

• Production of high vacuum : Remaining traces of air can be

adsorbed by charcoal from a vessel evacuated by a vacuum
pump to provide a very high vacuum.
• Gas masks : Gas mask loaded with activated charcoal or any
other safe adsorbents is usually used for breathing in coal
mines to adsorb poisonous gases.
• Control of humidity : Silica and aluminium gels can adsorb
moisture very effectively.
• Removal of colouring matter : Animal charcoal removes
colours of solutions by adsorbing coloured impurities.

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• Separation of inert gases : A mixture of noble gases can be separated by adsorption

on coconut charcoal at different temperatures due different degree of adsorption.
• In curing diseases : Adsorption of drug on the germs can kill them or stop their
growth.
• Heterogeneous catalysis : Adsorption of reactants on the solid surface of the
catalysts increases the rate of reaction.

𝐶 𝐻 𝑔 +𝐻 𝑔 𝐶 𝐻 𝑔

Substances, which alters the rate of a chemical reaction and themselves remain
chemically and quantitatively unchanged after the reaction, are known as catalysts,
and the phenomenon is known as catalysis.

2KClO 2KCl + O … Slow

2KClO 2KCl + O … Fast

MnO

Mass and composition Can alter rate

Catalyst
remains unchanged of reaction

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Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Catalysis Catalysis
When the reactants and the catalyst are in the When the reactants and the catalyst are in the
same phase (i.e. liquid or gas). different phases.
Lead chamber process : Haber process :
( )
2SO (g) + O g 2SO g N (g) + 3H g 2NH g
Inversion of cane sugar : Decomposition of H O :

C H O aq + H O l C H O aq 2H O l 2H O(l) + O (g)
+C H O (aq)

Which one of the following is not the example of homogeneous catalysis :

(1) Formation of 𝑆𝑂 in the chamber process
(2) Formation of 𝑆𝑂 in the contact process
(3) Hydrolysis of an ester in presence of acid
(4) Decomposition of 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂 in presence of 𝑀𝑛𝑂

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Positive Catalyst Negative Catalyst/Inhibitors

Increases rate of reaction by decreasing Decreases rate of reaction by increasing
the activation energy required for the the activation energy required for the
reaction. New activated complex
reaction.

New activated complex

𝐸
𝐸 𝐸
Energy

Energy
𝑅 𝑅

𝑃 𝑃
Reaction Coordinate Reaction Coordinate

Promoters Poisons

Increases the activity of catalyst. Decreases the activity of catalyst.

Haber process : Haber process :

N g + 3H g 2NH g N g + 3H g 2NH g
Mo(s) acts as promoter. H S g acts as poison.
Autocatalysts : When one of the product of the reaction begin to act as a catalyst, it is
called auto catalyst.
Autocatalyst
CH COOC H + H O → CH COOH + C H OH

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• Remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition but can change their
physical state.
• Only a very small amount of catalyst is sufficient to catalyse a reaction.
• Does not initiate a reaction.
• Does not change the equilibrium state of a reaction but helps to decrease time to
achieve the equilibrium state.
• Generally specific in nature.
• Participates in reaction mechanism and provide new path for the reaction.
• Does not change Δ𝐻, Δ𝐺 𝑜𝑟 Δ𝑆 for the reaction, as they are state functions.

There are three main theories related to catalysis.

Old Adsorption Modern Adsorption

Intermediate Theory
Theory Theory

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• For reaction in gaseous or solution phase.

• Reactants adsorbed on the surface of solid catalyst.
• This increases the concentration of reactants on the surface and increases the rate.
• Since adsorption is exothermic, the heat released also get utilised in increasing the
rate of reaction.
Example :

𝑁 𝑔 + 3𝐻 𝑔 2𝑁𝐻 (𝑔)

• The catalyst combines with one of the reactants to give an intermediate compound.
• The intermediate compound reacts with the other reactants and gives the product
and regenerates the catalyst in its original form.
• The reactants do not directly combine with each other, instead they react through
the catalyst which provides an alternative pathway which involves lesser energy of
activation.
Example :
2𝑆𝑂 𝑔 + 𝑂 𝑔 2𝑆𝑂 (𝑔)
Mechanism :
2𝑁𝑂 𝑔 + 𝑂 𝑔 → 2𝑁𝑂 (𝑔)
2𝑁𝑂 𝑔 + 2𝑆𝑂 𝑔 → 2𝑆𝑂 𝑔 + 2𝑁𝑂 𝑔

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• The reactant molecules are adsorbed on the surface of

the catalyst at adjacent points. It leads to higher
concentration of the reactants on the surface of catalyst.
• The heat released provide the necessary activation
A
energy for the chemical reaction to proceed.
• The reactant molecules of sufficient energy combine
B
together and with the surface of the catalyst to form
surface activated complex. This adsorbed activated
complex is decomposed to form products at a definite
faster rate.

• The product molecules rapidly leave the catalyst surface

to make room for the other reactant molecules to get
adsorbed.
• Thus the chemical combination between reactant
A
molecules goes on at the surface of the catalyst at a
much faster rate.
B

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Shape Selective Catalysis

A catalytic reaction that depends upon -

Pore structure of the Size of the reactant and

catalyst product molecules

• Zeolites (3D aluminosilicate) are good shape-selective

catalysts.
• The pore size is generally in range 260-740 pm.

• Zeolites are widely used as catalysts in petrochemical industries for cracking of

hydrocarbons.
• An important zeolite catalyst used in the petroleum industry is ZSM-5. It converts
alcohols directly into gasoline (petrol) by dehydrating them.
• As water softner & cationic exchanger (Exchange only cation from hard water).
𝑁𝑎 𝑍 + 𝐶𝑎 → 𝐶𝑎𝑍 ↓ + 2𝑁𝑎

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Which one of the following statements about the zeolites is false :

a) Some of the 𝑆𝑖𝑂 units are replaced by 𝐴𝑙𝑂 and 𝐴𝑙𝑂 ions in zeolites
b) They are used as cation exchangers
c) They have open structure which enables them to take up small molecules
d) Zeolites are aluminosilicates having three dimensional network

• Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compounds which are produced by

living plants and animals.
• They are actually protein molecules of high molecular mass (15000-1000000 g
/mol) which act as biocatalyst.
• Many reactions occur in bodies of animals and plants to maintain life process are
catalysed by enzymes.
Inversion of Cane Sugar :
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻 𝑂 𝑙 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 (𝑎𝑞)
Fermentation of Glucose :
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 𝑎𝑞 2𝐶 𝐻 𝑂𝐻 𝑎𝑞 + 2𝐶𝑂 𝑔

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Lock and Key Model :

Enzyme Substrate Enzyme Product

Enzyme-Substrate Complex Enzyme-Product Complex

• Highly efficient : One molecule of an enzyme may transform one million molecules
of the reactant per minute.
• Highly specific nature : One catalyst cannot catalyse more than one reaction.
• Highly active under optimum temperature (298 K to 310 K).
• Highly active under optimum pH (5 to 7).
• Increasing activity in presence of cofactor (𝑁𝑎 , 𝑀𝑛 , 𝐶𝑜 , 𝐶𝑢 etc. ) and co-
enzymes.

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Which one of the following statements is incorrect about enzyme catalysis?

a) Enzymes are denaturated by ultraviolet rays and at high temperature.
b) Enzymes are least reactive at optimum temperature.
c) Enzymes are mostly proteinous in nature.
d) Enzyme action is specific.

On the basis of size of particles

True Solution Colloid Suspension

• Homogeneous system. • Heterogeneous system. • Heterogeneous system.

• The size of particles • The size of particles • The size of particles is
less than 1 nm. b/w 1 nm and 1 𝜇. greater than 1 𝜇.
• Pass through filter • Pass through filter • Can not pass through
paper. paper. filter paper.
• No settling of particles. • No settling of particles. • Settling of particles.

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• Colloid is a heterogeneous system.

• Size of dispersed particles is between 1 nm-1000 nm (i.e.
10 − 10 m).
• Particles are not large enough to be seen with naked eye.
• Particles can be seen with the help of an ultra microscope.
• Colloidal solutions can pass through ordinary filter paper but
not through an animal membrane.
• Colloidal particles have an enormous surface area per unit
mass as a result of their small size .
• Examples : Solution of Gum Arabic, gelatin, glue etc. in water.

Colloid = Dispersed Phase + Dispersion Medium

• The substance distributed as the colloidal particles is called dispersed phase or
internal phase or the discontinuous phase.
• The continuous phase in which the colloidal particles are dispersed is called
dispersion medium.
Dispersed Phase

Dispersion Medium

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Colloids

Based on the state of DM Based on the Interaction Based on the types of DP

and DP b/w DM & DP particles

Lyophilic Macromolecular

Lyophobic Multimolecular

Associated

Dispersed Dispersion
Type of Colloid Example
Phase Medium
Solid Solid Solid sol Ruby glass, Gem stones, Minerals
Solid Liquid Sol Ink, Colloidal gold, Paints
Solid Gas Aerosol Dust, Soot in air, smoke
Liquid Solid Gel Cheese, curd, Jellies, Butter
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, Hair cream, Cold Cream
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, Mist, Clouds, Insecticide sprays
Gas Solid Solid Foam Cork, Pumice stone, Bread, Cake
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving Cream, Soda water, Lather
Note : A colloidal dispersion of one gas in another is not possible since the two gases
would give a homogeneous mixture.

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If dispersed phase is liquid and the dispersion medium is solid, the colloid is known as
a) A sol
b) A gel
c) An emulsion
d) A foam

Fog is a colloidal solution of

a) Liquid in gas
b) Gas in liquid
c) Solid in gas
d) Gas in gas

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Lyophilic Sol : Colloidal solutions in which the dispersed phase has considerable
affinity for the dispersion medium.
Examples : Dispersion of gelatin, starch, gum and proteins in water
Lyophobic Sol : Colloidal solutions in which the dispersed phase has no affinity or
attraction for the medium.
Examples : Metals and their sulphides sols.

Property Lyophilic Sol Lyophobic Sol

Can be easily prepared by
Can not be prepared easily
Preparation shaking or warming the
Special methods are required
substance with solvent
Stability More stable Less stable
Reversibility Reversible Irreversible
Viscosity Much higher than solvent Nearly same as solvent
Surface Tension Low Nearly same as solvent
Charge Small or No charge Relatively higher charge
Solvation Highly Solvated Less solvated
Coagulation or Precipitated by high Precipitated by low
Precipitation concentration of electrolytes concentration of electrolytes

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Which of the following statement is incorrect?

a) Lyophilic sols are reversible.
b) Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols.
c) Lyophobic sols require stabilising agent for their preservation.
d) Lyophobic sols can be formed by direct mixing of dispersed phase and dispersion
medium.

1. Macromolecular Colloids : The size of the DP particle is in the colloidal range.

Examples : Starch, Cellulose, Protein
2. Multimolecular Colloids : DP particle is formed by aggregation of a large number of
atoms or smaller molecules of substance.
Examples : Gold Sol (Au), Sulphur sol (S )

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3. Associated Colloids : the substances which behave as normal electrolytes at low

concentration but get associated at higher concentration and behave as colloidal
solutions.
• These associated particles are also called micelles.
Examples : Soaps and Detergents.
Stearate ion ∶ 𝐶 𝐻 𝐶𝑂𝑂
O

Hydrophobic Part Hydrophilic part

Micelles

• Compounds must have hydrophobic part means long chain alkyl group.
• Compounds must have hydrophilic part means −𝐶𝑂𝑂 , −𝑁𝐻 , −𝑆𝑂 groups.
• Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC) : The concentration above which associated
colloids or Micelles are formed.
• CMC of soap is 10 𝑡𝑜 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐿 .
• Kraft Temperature 𝑇 : Temperature above which Micelles are formed or
temperature above which the solubility becomes greater than CMC.
Note : All these compounds which forms micelle are also known as surfactants. They
are surface active agents which reduces surface tension.

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Micelles have :
a) higher colligative properties as compared to common colloidal sols
b) lower colligative properties
c) same colligative properties
d) All of the above

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• Lyophilic Sols can be prepared simply by grinding and mixing dispersed phase in
dispersion medium.
• Lyophobic Sols require special methods for the preparation.
1. Chemical Methods :
As O + 3H S → As S (yellow sol) + 3H O … Double decomposition
2H S + SO → 3S sol + 2H O … Oxidation
2AuCl + 3SnCl → 3SnCl + 2Au sol … Reduction
FeCl + 3H O → Fe OH sol + 3HCl … Hydrolysis

2. Peptization : The process of converting a precipitate into colloidal solution by

shaking it with dispersion medium in the presence of small amount of electrolyte.
• The electrolyte used is called a Peptizing agent. S
2H S + CdS ↓→ Cds S : 2H
CdS
FeCl + Fe OH ↓→ Fe OH Fe : 3Cl
NaOH + Fe OH ↓→ Fe OH OH : Na S S

• This involves the adsorption of suitable ions (supplied by the electrolyte added-
particularly a common ion) and electrically charged particles then split from the
precipitate as colloidal particles.

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3. Electro-dispersion (Bredig's arc method) : This method is suitable for the

preparation of colloidal solutions of metals like gold, silver, platinum etc.
• Electric arc is struck between electrodes of metal in dispersion medium.
• The intense heat produced by arc vaporizes some of the metal which condenses
under cold dispersion medium to form colloidal particles .

By which method we can convert precipitate to colloidal solution :-

a) Peptization
b) Homogenisation
c) Dispersion
d) Solvation

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*Colloidal Gold can be prepared by

a) Bredig’s are method
b) Reduction of 𝐴𝑢𝐶𝑙
c) Hydrolysis
d) Peptization

1. Dialysis: The process of separating the particles of

colloid from those of crystalloid, by means of
diffusion through a suitable membrane.
• Membrane allows to pass impurities only with water.
Note : Dialysis for long duration can cause coagulation of
colloids.
2. Electrodialysis: The process of dialysis can be made
faster by applying electric field across the solution.

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3. Ultrafiltration : Sol particles directly pass through ordinary

filter paper because their pores are larger than the size of sol
particles.
• The pores are made smaller by soaking the filter paper in a
solution of gelatin or collodion and further hardened by soaking
in formaldehyde.
• The filter paper is now known as ultrafilter paper and the
process of separating colloids by using ultra-filters is known as
ultrafiltration.
• Collodion is a 4% solution of nitrocellulose in mixture of alcohol
and ether.
Collodion

1. Surface tension and Viscosity :

• For Lyophobic sols, surface tension and viscosity are not very different from those
of the medium, as there is very less interaction between the phase and the medium.
• For Lyophilic sols show a high degree of solvation of the particles and therefore, the
viscosity is much higher for the sol than for the medium and the surface tension of
the sol is lower than that of pure medium.
2. Colligative Properties : The total no. of particles of solute in solution are very less
due to large size and hence these solutions exhibit colligative properties to lesser
extent.

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3. Tyndall Effect: When a beam of light is passed

through a colloidal solution, its path becomes visible
when viewed at right angles to the beam of light.
• It is due to scattering of light by the colloidal particles.
The Tyndall effect is observed under the following conditions :
a) The diameter of the dispersed particles must not be much smaller than the
wavelength of light employed.
b) The refractive indices of the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium must
differ widely.

4. Brownian movement : Colloids particles exhibit a

ceaseless random and swarming motion.
• Brownian movement does not allow the colloidal
particles to settle down due to gravity and thus is
responsible for their stability.

5. Colour : The colour of colloidal solution depends on the wavelength of the light
scattered by the dispersed particles.
• The wavelength of the scattered light depends on the size and nature of particles.
Example : Finest gold sol is red in colour as size of particle increases it appears purple
then blue and finally golden.

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When a lyophobic colloidal solution is observed , we can see

a) light scattered by colloidal particle
b) size of the colloidal particle
c) shape of the colloidal particle
d) relative size of the colloidal particle

A liquid is found to scatter a beam of light but leaves no residue when passed through
the filter paper. The liquid can be described as
a) A suspension
b) Oil
c) A colloidal sol
d) A true solution

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Adsorbed ions
6. Charge on Colloids : Colloidal particles always carry
𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑒 𝐹𝑒
an electric charge. 𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑒
• The forces of repulsion between similar charged 𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑒 𝑂𝐻 𝐹𝑒

𝐹𝑒
particles prevent them from aggregating and settling 𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑒

under the action of gravity.

Positive Sols
Metal Hydroxides and oxides :
𝐶𝑟 𝑂𝐻 , 𝐹𝑒 𝑂 . 𝑥𝐻 𝑂
Basic dye in acid medium : Methylene Blue
Haemoglobin
Proteins in acidic medium
Negative Sols
Metal Sulphides : 𝐴𝑠 𝑆 , 𝐶𝑑𝑆
Acidic dye in basic medium : Congo red
Metal Sols : 𝐴𝑢, 𝐴𝑔, 𝐶𝑢, 𝑃𝑡
Proteins in basic medium, starch, gum, clay

𝐶𝑙 𝐶𝑙
• Preferential Adsorption : Adsorption of common ion 𝐶𝑙
𝐹𝑒 𝐶𝑙
𝐹𝑒 𝐹𝑒
occurs on the surface of colloid. 𝐶𝑙 𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑒
𝐶𝑙
𝐾𝐼 + 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂 → 𝐴𝑔𝐼 𝑠𝑜𝑙 + 𝐾𝑁𝑂 𝑎𝑞 𝐹𝑒 𝑂𝐻 𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑒
𝐶𝑙 𝐹𝑒
• 𝐴𝑔𝐼 sol in excess of 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂 ⇒ 𝐴𝑔𝐼/𝐴𝑔 : Positive Sol 𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑒 𝐹𝑒 𝐶𝑙

• 𝐴𝑔𝐼 sol in excess of 𝐾𝐼 ⇒ 𝐴𝑔𝐼/𝐼 : Negative Sol 𝐶𝑙

𝐶𝑙
𝐶𝑙

Compact/Fixed Layer
Diffused/Mobile Layer

• The combination of the two layers of +𝑣𝑒 and −𝑣𝑒 charges around the sol particle is
called Helmholtz double layer.
• The potential difference between the fixed layer and the diffused layer of opposite
charge is called Electrokinetic Potential or Zeta Potential.

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7. Electrophoresis : The movement of sol particles under an

applied electric potential is called Electrophoresis. Cathode Anode
+ −
• Depending upon the direction of movement of particles
+
towards cathode or anode electrophoresis can be called −
+

+ −
“Cataphoresis” or “Anaphoresis”.
− +
• The movement of dispersion medium under the influence of +
−
applied potential is known as Electro-osmosis.(In presence − +

of plasma membrane) + −
−

8. Coagulation : The removal of charge by any means will lead +

+
+
+
to the aggregation of particles and hence precipitation will +
− +
occur immediately. The flocculation and settling down of the +

+ +
dispersed phase particles is called coagulation. + +

• The precipitation can be brought about in five ways -

a) By addition of electrolyte.
b) By electrophoresis.
c) By mixing two oppositely charged sols.
d) By boiling.
e) By repeated dialysis.

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• The ion responsible for neutralization of charge and aggregation of particles is

called the flocculating ion.
Hardy Schulze Rule : This rule states that the precipitating effect of an ion on dispersed
phase of opposite charge increases with the valency of the ion.
• The higher the valency of the flocculating ion, the greater is its coagulating power.
• For −𝑣𝑒 sol the coagulating power of cations : 𝐴𝑙 > 𝐵𝑎 > 𝑁𝑎
• For +𝑣𝑒 sol the coagulating power of anions : [𝐹𝑒 𝐶𝑁 ] > 𝑆𝑂 > 𝐶𝑙
• The minimum concentration of an electrolyte in millimoles required to cause
precipitation of 1 litre sol in two hours is called Flocculation Value.
• Smaller the flocculating value, the higher will be the coagulating power of the ion.

A negatively charged suspension of clay in water needs for precipitation the minimum
amount of:
a) Aluminium chloride
b) Potassium sulphate
c) Sodium hydroxide
d) Hydrochloric acid

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Which of the following has minimum flocculation value:

a) Pb
b) Pb
c) Sr
d) Na

Which property of colloids is not dependent on the charge on colloidal particles ?

a) Coagulation
b) Electrophoresis
c) Electro - osmosis
d) Tyndall effect

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• Lyophobic sols are readily precipitated by adding small

amounts of electrolytes. These sols are stabilized by the
adding small amount of lyophilic sols. Lyophobic sols
• The property of lyophilic sols to prevent the precipitation or
coagulation of a lyophobic sol is called protection and
Lyophilic sols
lyophilic sol is called protective colloid.
• The protective power is measured in terms of gold number.
Gold Number : The number of milligrams of a lyophilic colloid used to just prevent the
precipitation of 10 ml of standard gold sol on addition of 1 ml of 10% NaCl solution.

mass of lyophilic sol (mg) mg of

Gold Number = × 10
Volume of lyophobic sol (ml) Lyophilic Sol 1 ml
10% NaCl

Lyophilic Sol Gold Number

Gelatine 0.005-0.01
Egg albumen 0.08-0.1
Gum arabic 0.1-0.15
Starch 25 10 ml Gold Sol

• The smaller the gold number of a lyophilic colloid, greater is its protecting power.

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Gold number of haemoglobin is 0.03. Hence, 100mL of gold sol will require
haeomoglobin so that gold is not coagulated by 10 mL of 10% NaCl solution.
a) 0.03 mg
b) 30 mg
c) 0.30mg
d) 3 mg

Gold number of haemoglobin is 0.03. Hence, 100mL of gold sol will require
haeomoglobin so that gold is not coagulated by 10 mL of 10% NaCl solution.
a) 0.03 mg
b) 30 mg
c) 0.30mg
d) 3 mg

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Emulsions are liquid-liquid colloidal system.

Emulsion

Oil dispersed in water (O/W type) Water dispersed in oil (W/O type)

Oil Water

Oil
Water
Examples : milk and vanishing cream. Examples : Butter, cold cream, and cod
In milk, liquid fat is dispersed in water. liver oil etc.

• Emulsions of oil and water are unstable and

sometimes they separate into two layers on standing.
• For stabilization of an emulsion, a third component
called emulsifying agent is usually added.
• The emulsifying agent forms an interfacial film
between suspended particles and the medium.
• The o/w emulsions : Proteins, gums, soaps, etc.
• For w/o emulsion : Heavy metal salts of fatty acids,
long chain alcohol, lamp black.

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• Colloids Arround Us.

• Applications of Colloids.

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