ENGL 412

SEMANTICS & PRAGMATICS Dr. Safaa Khalil

THE MEANING OF MEANING

2.1 Talking about the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.2 Denotational semantics vs. cognitive semantics . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Types of referring expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Sense vs. denotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Ambiguity ………………………………………..
2.1 TALKING ABOUT THE WORLD
How a speaker’s words are related to the thoughts or concepts he is
trying to express.
How a speaker’s words are related to the situation in the world that
he is trying to describe.
2.2 DENOTATIONAL SEMANTICS VS. COGNITIVE SEMANTICS

Semiotic Triangle

The diagram is a way of illustrating how speakers use language to

describe things, events, and situations in the world.
2.2 DENOTATIONAL SEMANTICS VS. COGNITIVE SEMANTICS

Semiotic & Semantics

Semantics is the study of the meaning and reference of linguistic
expressions
Semiotics is the general study of signs of all kinds and in all their
aspects.
Morris, in 1938, divided semiotics into three branches: syntax,
semantics and pragmatics.
Semantics is a part of Semiotics
2.2 DENOTATIONAL SEMANTICS VS. COGNITIVE SEMANTICS

Semiotic Triangle
The diagram is a way of illustrating how
speakers use language to describe
things, events, and situations in the
world.
What speakers actually describe is a
particular construal of, or way of
thinking about, the situation.
2.2 DENOTATIONAL SEMANTICS VS. COGNITIVE SEMANTICS

Denotational semantics
The link between linguistic expressions and the world.
The two foundational concepts for denotational semantics:
Truth and reference

Cognitive semantics
The link between linguistic expressions and mental representations.
2.2 DENOTATIONAL SEMANTICS VS. COGNITIVE SEMANTICS
The two foundational concepts for denotational semantics:
Truth and reference
Truth
It corresponds to the actual situation in the world which it is intended to
describe
Reference
The speaker’s use of words to “point to” something in the world;
to direct the hearer’s attention to something, or
to enable the hearer to identify something
2.3 TYPES OF REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
Reference
The speaker’s use of words to “point to” something in the world;
to direct the hearer’s attention to something, or
to enable the hearer to identify something
A referring expression is an expression (normally some kind of noun
phrase) which a speaker uses to refer to something.
Rigid designators?
Deictic elements?
2.3 TYPES OF REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
Reference
Rigid designators?
Words, proper names, in contexts where they have a single unambiguous
referent.)
a. Camels can travel long distances without drinking.
b. Methane is lighter than air and highly flammable
Deictic elements?
words which refer to something in the speech situation itself.
a. I refused to go out yesterday.
b. Susan refuses to marry George because he smokes.
2.3 TYPES OF REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
Reference
Pronouns can be used with quantifier phrases

a. [Every boy] should respect his mother.

b. [Every American male] loves football; #he watched three

games last weekend.
2.3 TYPES OF REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
Reference
Pronouns can be used with quantifier phrases
a. [Every boy] should respect his mother.
b. [Every American male] loves football; #he watched three
games last weekend.
The pronoun does not actually refer to any specific individual.
SO
Quantifier phrases are not referring expressions
2.3 TYPES OF REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
Reference
Pronouns can be used with quantifier phrases

a. John trusts himself is equivalent to: John trusts John.

b. Everyone trusts himself is not equivalent to: Everyone trusts
everyone.
Quantifier phrases are not referring expressions
2.5 AMBIGUITY
Ambiguity
An ambiguous sentence is one that has more than one sense
(meaning)
lexical ambiguity
a. A boiled egg is hard to beat.
b. The farmer allows walkers to cross the field for free, but the bull
charges.