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vi Contents
CHAPTER 13 HIGHLIGHT 15
THE TRACE MINERALS 452 15.7 Foetal alcohol syndrome 558
13.1 The trace minerals – an overview 453 CHAPTER 16

13.2 Iron 454 LIFE CYCLE NUTRITION:
13.3 Zinc 464 INFANCY, CHILDHOOD
13.4 Iodine 468 AND ADOLESCENCE 563
13.5 Selenium 470
13.6 Copper 472 16.1 Nutrition during infancy 564
13.7 Manganese 473 16.2 Nutrition during childhood 576
13.8 Fluoride 474 16.3 Nutrition during adolescence 588
13.9 Chromium 475 CHAPTER ACTIVITIES 592
13.10 Molybdenum 476 HIGHLIGHT 16
13.11 Other trace minerals 477 16.4 Childhood obesity and the early
CHAPTER ACTIVITIES 480 development of chronic diseases 594
HIGHLIGHT 13
Peas are rich in 13.12 Phytochemicals and functional foods 483 CHAPTER 17
antioxidants and LIFE CYCLE NUTRITION:
add great texture
ADULTHOOD AND THE
to everything from CHAPTER 14
salads to soups LATER YEARS 600
FITNESS: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY,
NUTRIENTS AND BODY 17.1 Nutrition and longevity 602
ADAPTATIONS 491 17.2 The ageing process 605
14.1 Fitness 492 17.3 Energy and nutrient needs
14.2 Energy systems and fuels to of older adults 609
support activity 498 17.4 Nutrition-related concerns
14.3 Vitamins and minerals to of older adults 612
support activity 508 17.5 Food choices and eating habits
14.4 Fluids and electrolytes to of older adults 617
support activity 510 CHAPTER ACTIVITIES 621
14.5 Diets for physically active people 515 HIGHLIGHT 17
CHAPTER ACTIVITIES 518 17.6 Nutrient–drug interactions 623
HIGHLIGHT 14
14.6 Supplements as ergogenic aids 520 CHAPTER 18
DIET-RELATED DISEASE 629
CHAPTER 15 18.1 Nutrition and infectious diseases 630
LIFE CYCLE NUTRITION: 18.2 Nutrition and chronic diseases 632
PREGNANCY AND
18.3 Cardiovascular disease 635
LACTATION 527
18.4 Hypertension 642
15.1 Nutrition prior to pregnancy 528 18.5 Diabetes mellitus 646
15.2 Growth and development 18.6 Cancer 652
during pregnancy 528 18.7 Recommendations for
15.3 Maternal weight 534 chronic disease prevention 656
15.4 Nutrition during pregnancy 537 CHAPTER ACTIVITIES 658
15.5 High-risk pregnancies 543 HIGHLIGHT 18
15.6 Nutrition during lactation 550 18.8 Complementary and
CHAPTER ACTIVITIES 556 alternative medicine 660
Contents vii
CHAPTER 19 Appendix B Basic chemistry concepts 708

CONSUMER CONCERNS Appendix C Biochemical
ABOUT FOODS AND WATER 669 structures and pathways 717
Appendix D Measures of
19.1 Food safety and food-borne illnesses 671
protein quality 735
19.2 Environmental contaminants 680
19.3 Natural toxins in foods 682 Appendix E Nutrition assessment 738
19.4 Pesticides 683 Appendix F Physical activity
19.5 Food additives 686 and energy requirements 762
19.6 Consumer concerns about water 690 Appendix G Aids to calculation 765
CHAPTER ACTIVITIES 694 Answers 767
Glossary 771
HIGHLIGHT 19
Index 791
19.7 Food biotechnology 696
Appendix A Cells, hormones

and nerves 703
Salmon is rich in the

essential omega-3 fatty
acids EPA and DHA
viii
Guide to the text

As you read this text you will find a number of features in
every chapter to enhance your study of nutrition and help you
understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
CHAPTER OPENING FEATURES
CHAPTER
Connect Nutrition in your life with the 1

essential chapter concepts right from the
beginning of each chapter.
AN OVERVIEW
OF NUTRITION
Think about your intuitive beliefs related to Nutrition in your life

Believe it or not, you have probably eaten at least 20 000 meals in your life. Without any
conscious effort on your part, your body uses the nutrients from those meals to make all its
the nutrition topics covered in the chapter components, fuel all its activities and defend itself against diseases. How successfully your
body handles these tasks depends, in part, on your food choices. Nutritious food choices
support healthy bodies.
by taking the Common sense test at the PUTTING COMMON SENSE TO THE TEST
Circle your answer
start of every chapter. Check your answers T

T
F
F
What we eat is largely driven by how hungry we are.
Fat has twice the number of kilojoules as carbohydrates or protein.
T F All published research should be treated with some level of critical appraisal.
in the margins when the topic is discussed, T

T
F
F
An RDI for a nutrient is the amount that everyone needs to consume each day.
Changing our diet will do little to reduce the risk of many chronic diseases.
which are explained further in the end-of- LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1.1 Describe how various factors influence 1.5 Explain how the four assessment methods
chapter review. 1.2

personal food choices.
Name six major classes of nutrients and
identify which are organic and which yield 1.6
are used to detect energy and nutrient
deficiencies and excesses.
Identify several risk factors and explain
energy. their relationships to chronic diseases.
1.3 Explain the scientific method and how 1.7 Recognise misinformation and describe how
scientists use various types of research to identify reliable nutrition information.
studies and methods to acquire nutritional
information.
1.4 Define the four categories of the Nutrient
Reference Values (NRVs) and explain their
Identify the key concepts that the chapter purpose.
Blackberries
are a very
will cover with the Learning objectives at

good source of
vitamin C and
manganese
the start of each chapter.
590 Understanding nutrition
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS Calcium

Images/Shutterstock.com
Adolescence is a crucial time for bone development, and the requirement for
Calcium
calcium reaches its peak during these years. Unfortunately, between 82 and 89 per Chapter 1: An overview of nutrition 9
Images/Shutterstock.com
Adolescence is a crucial
cent of girls aged 12 to 16time forcalcium
have bone development,
intakes below and the requirement 61for
recommendations. Low
calcium reaches
calcium intakes its peaktimes
during duringofthese
activeyears. Unfortunately,
growth, especially ifbetween 82 and
paired with 89 per
physical
cent of girlscan
inactivity, aged 12 to 16 have
compromise thecalcium
development intakesofbelow recommendations.
peak bone
61
Low
mass. In fact, inactivity
calcium
may haveintakes during times ofimpact
active growth,
on boneespecially if poor
pairedcalcium
with physical
Monkey Business
a greater detrimental mass than intake

inactivity,
during thecan compromise
pubertal the development
years. Increasing of peakinbone
milk products mass.
the diet toIn fact,calcium
meet inactivity HOW TO: CALCULATE THE ENERGY AVAILABLE FROM FOODS
Monkey Business
Practise common nutrition tasks

may have a greater greatly
recommendations detrimental impact
increases bone ondensity.
bone mass Once than
again,poor calciumteenage
however, intake
Practise calculating the energy available from foods
during the pubertal years. Increasing milk products in the diet
girls are most vulnerable, for their milk – and therefore their calcium – intakes to meet calcium
Because their lunches rarely include fruits,
vegetables or milk, many teens fail to get all recommendations greatly increases bone density. Once again,
begin to decline at the time when their calcium needs are greatest. Furthermore, however, teenage 1. To calculate the energy available from a 16 g carbohydrate 3 17 kJ/g 5 272 kJ
such as comparing nutrient density

the vitamins and minerals they need each day. girls are have
mostmuch
vulnerable,
Because their lunches rarely include fruits,
vegetables or milk, many teens fail to get all
women greaterfor their
bone milkthan
losses – and
men therefore
in later their
life. calcium – intakes food, multiply the number of grams of 7 g protein 3 17 kJ/g 5 119 kJ
begin to decline at the time when their calcium needs are greatest. Furthermore, carbohydrate, protein and fat by 17, 17 9 g fat 3 37 kJ/g 5 333 kJ
the vitamins and minerals they need each day.
women have much greater bone losses than men in later life. and 37, respectively. Then add the results Total 5 724 kJ
or calculating your energy

Food choices and healthy habits
Food choices and healthy habits PUTTING Teenagers like the freedom to come and go as they choose. They eat what they want if it
together. For example, 1 slice of bread
with 1 tablespoon of peanut butter on it
contains 16 grams carbohydrate, 7 grams
requirements by working through COMMON SENSE is convenient and if they have the time. With a multitude of after-school, social and job
TO THE TEST
PUTTING Teenagers like the
activities, they freedom
almost to come
inevitably falland
intogo as they eating
irregular choose.habits.
They eat what
At any theytime
given wanton if any
it protein and 9 grams fat.
COMMON SENSE is convenient
given and if they
day, a teenager mayhave the time.
be skipping With aeating
a meal, multitude
a snack,of after-school,
preparing a meal socialorand job
consuming
The THE
calcium From the information you calculated in step 1, you can determine the percentage of
the How to boxes throughout the

TO TEST activities, they byalmost inevitably fall intoAdolescents
irregular eating
requirement for food prepared a parent or restaurant. who habits.
frequently At any
eat given
mealstimewithon any
their kilojoules each of the energy nutrients contributes to the total.
The calcium given day,however,
families, a teenagereat may
more befruits,
skipping a meal, eating
vegetables, grains aand
snack, preparingfoods,
calcium-rich a mealand or drink
consuming fewer
an adolescent is
requirement fooddrinks,
prepared by athose
parent orseldom
restaurant. Adolescents who frequently eat meals with also their
2. To determine the percentage of kilojoules 333 fat kJ 4 724 total kJ 5 0.46
reduced afterfor
the soft than who eat with their families. 62
Many adolescents begin to
book.
families, however, from fat, for example, divide the 333 fat
an adolescent
age of 14. is skip breakfast on aeat morebasis,
regular fruits,missing
vegetables,
out ongrains and calcium-rich
important nutrients that foods,areand
not drink
made fewer up at
soft drinks, than those whoTeenagers
seldom eat with kilojoules by the total 724 kilojoules.
eattheir families. Many adolescents also begin to
62
reduced after the later meals during the day. who breakfast are more likely to meet their nutrient
FALSE
age of 14. skip breakfast on a regular basis, missing out on important nutrients that are not made up at 3. Then multiply by 100 to get the 0.46 3 100 5 46%
intake recommendations.
laterIdeally,
meals in during percentage.
FALSE light the day. Teenagers
of adolescents’ busywho eat breakfast
schedules and desireare more likely to the
for freedom, meetadult
theircontinues
nutrient
intake
to play recommendations.
the role of gatekeeper, controlling the type and availability of food in the teenager’s Dietary recommendations that urge people to limit fat intake to 20 to 35 per cent of
Ideally, in light of adolescents’ busy schedules and desire for
home environment. Teenagers should find plenty of nutritious, easy-to-grab foods in the freedom, the adult continues
kilojoules refer to the day’s total energy intake, not to individual foods. Still, if the proportion
to play the role
refrigerator of gatekeeper,
(meats controlling
for sandwiches; low-fatthe type and
cheeses; availability
fresh, of foodand
raw vegetables in the teenager’s
fruits; fruit of fat in each food choice throughout a day exceeds 35 per cent of kilojoules, then the day’s
home
juices; environment.
and milk) andTeenagers
more in the should find plenty
cupboards of nutritious,
(wholegrain breads, easy-to-grab
nut pastes, foodsnuts, in the
popcorn total surely will, too. Knowing that this snack provides 46 per cent of its kilojoules from fat
refrigerator
and cereal).(meats for sandwiches; low-fat cheeses; fresh, raw vegetables and fruits; fruit alerts a person to the need to make lower-fat selections at other times that day.
juices; and milk) and more in the cupboards (wholegrain breads, nut pastes, nuts, popcorn
and cereal).
Snacks
AUSTRALIAN
Snacks typically provide at least a quarter of the average teenager’s daily food energy intake.
Snacks Vitamins
DIETARY Most often, favourite snacks are too high in saturated fat and sodium and too low in fibre to
GUIDELINES
AUSTRALIAN
Snacks
supporttypically
good futureprovide at least
health. Tablea 16.6
quarter of the
on page average
587 showsteenager’s daily food
how to combine energy
foods differentThe vitamins are also organic, but they do not provide energy. Instead, they facilitate the
fromintake.
2013
DIETARY Mostgroups
food often, favourite snacks are
to create healthy too high in saturated fat and sodium and too low in fibre to release of energy from carbohydrate, fat and protein and participate in numerous other
snacks.
Connect key Australian Dietary Guidelines to your understanding of the

---------------
GUIDELINES support good future health. Table 16.6 on page 587 shows how to combine foods from differentactivities throughout the body.
Eat a wide
2013variety food groups to create healthy snacks.
of ---------------
nutritious foods – Beverages Each of the 13 different vitamins has its own special role to play.* One vitamin enables
the eyes to see in dim light, another helps produce functional red blood cells, and still another
Eat
milk,a yoghurt,
wide variety
chapter.
Most frequently, adolescents drink soft drinks instead of fruit juice or milk. About the only
of nutritious Beverages helps make the sex hormones – among other things. When you cut yourself, one vitamin
cheese and/orfoods
their– time they select fruit juices is at breakfast. When teens drink milk, they are more likely to
milk, yoghurt,mostly Most frequently, adolescents drink soft drinks instead of fruit juice or milk. About the only helps stop the bleeding and another helps repair the skin. Vitamins busily help replace old red
alternatives, consume it with a meal (especially breakfast) than as a snack. Soft drinks, when chosen
cheese and/or their
reduced-fat. time
as thethey selectbeverage,
primary fruit juices
may is affect
at breakfast. When because
bone density teens drinktheymilk, theymilk
displace are more
from likely to blood cells and the lining of the digestive tract. Almost every action in the body requires the
the diet.
alternatives, mostly consumeofit their
with greater
a meal food
(especially breakfast) assistance of vitamins.
Because intakes, boys are than
moreas a snack.
likely thanSoft
girlsdrinks,
to drinkwhen chosen
enough milk to
reduced-fat. as thetheir
primary beverage, Vitamins can function only if they are intact, but because they are complex organic
meet calcium needs.may affect bone density because they displace milk from the diet.
Caffeine- Because milk tomolecules, they are vulnerable to destruction by heat, light and chemical agents. This is why
Over ofthetheir
pastgreater food intakes,
three decades, boys are more
teens (especially likely
girls) havethan
beengirls to drink
drinking more enough
soft drinks
containing soft drinks meetless
their calcium needs. who drink soft drinks regularly have a higher energy intake and a the body handles them carefully, and why nutrition-wise cooks do, too. The strategies of
Caffeine-
typically deliver and milk. 63
Adolescents
Extend your learning with the additional information notes highlighting

Over the past three decades, cooking vegetables at moderate temperatures for short times and using small amounts of water
containing
between 30soft anddrinks lower calcium intake than those teens
who do (especially
not; theygirls) havemore
are also beenlikely
drinking
to bemore soft drinks
overweight. 64
typically andSoft
less drinks
milk.63 containing
Adolescentscaffeine
who drink soft drinks regularly have aifhigher intake and a help to preserve the vitamins.
energyintake
55 mg ofdeliver
caffeine per present a different problem caffeine
between 30 and lower
becomes calcium intakeCaffeine
excessive. than those whotodobenot;
seems they are
relatively also more
harmless likely
when to be
used inoverweight.
64
moderate doses
can. For perspective,
interesting or important information

(theSoft
Minerals about the topic being discussed.
55 mg of caffeine per
a pharmacologically drinks containing
equivalent of fewer thancaffeine
threepresent
cans of acola
different problem
beverages if caffeine
a day). intake
In greater amounts,
can.
activeFor perspective,
dose of caffeine becomes excessive.
however, it can cause Caffeine seems toassociated
the symptoms be relatively
withharmless
anxiety,when
such used in moderate
as sweating, doses
tenseness
ais pharmacologically
defined as 200 mg. (the inability
and equivalent to of fewer than three cans of cola beverages a day). In greater amounts,
concentrate. In the body, some minerals are put together in orderly arrays in such structures as bones and
active dose of caffeine however, it can cause the symptoms associated with anxiety, such as sweating, tenseness teeth. Minerals are also found in the fluids of the body, which influences fluid properties.
is defined as 200 mg. and inability to concentrate. Whatever their roles, minerals do not yield energy.
* The water-soluble vitamins are vitamin C and the eight B vitamins: thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamins B6 and B12,
folate, biotin and pantothenic acid. The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E and K. The water-soluble vitamins are
the subject of Chapter 10 and the fat-soluble vitamins are discussed in Chapter 11.
Guide to the text ix
need diets rich in carbohydrate, and of course, meats have none to offer. Legumes, whole
grains and vegetables provide some protein with abundant carbohydrate. Table 14.5 (page 508)
shows recommended protein intakes for active people.
A performance diet example
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

A person who engages in vigorous physical activity on a daily basis could easily require more
than 12 000 kilojoules per day. To meet this need, the person can choose a variety of nutrient-
dense foods. Athletes who train exhaustively for endurance events may want to aim for
somewhat higher carbohydrate intakes. Beyond these specific concerns of total energy, protein
and carbohydrate, the diet most beneficial to athletic performance is remarkably similar to the
diet recommended for most people.
CURRENT RESEARCH IN NUTRITION
Athletes can excel on a vegetarian diet

When it comes to strength and fitness, research studies find that vegetarian athletes can
perform just as well as their omnivore opponents. In a new study, researchers recruited 27
vegetarian and 43 omnivore competitive endurance athletes.24 Each person in the vegetarian
Explore relevant and up-to-date group had followed the diet for at least two years, and there was a mixture of vegan and
lacto-ovo vegetarians amongst the group. Food intake, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max)
during treadmill running and leg strength were all assessed.
nutrition research in the Current For the males, there was little difference in cardio-respiratory fitness or strength between
the vegetarian and omnivores. The surprising finding though was in the women. Vegetarian
women had a 13 per cent greater VO2 max scores than women eating an omnivore diet.
research in nutrition boxes. There was no difference in protein intake according to body weight between vegetarians
and omnivores. Although vegetarians ate more carbohydrates and fibre, they do have less
vitamin B12, which is not so surprising. One interesting finding was that vegetarians had more
iron in their diet than omnivores. But because plant-based iron is less bioavailable than
animal-based iron, then this may bring the vegetarians back on par with omnivores.
A well-planned and varied vegetarian diet can meet the nutritional needs of an athlete
just as well as an omnivore diet. Such a diet poses little risk of sub-par performance, and for
some athletes it may even spur them on to higher levels of achievement.
Meals before and after competition

No single food improves speed, strength or skill in competitive events, although some kinds of
APPLICATIONS
foods OF NUTRITIONAL
do support performance better than RESEARCH
others, as already explained. Still, a competitor may
eat a particular food before or after an event for psychological reasons. One eats a steak the
The key dietary patterns of long-term health
night before wrestling. Another eats some honey just five minutes after diving. As long as these
High- Diet plays a big part in health. As the typical Western diet moved to more overly refined
practices remain harmless, they should be respected.
carbohydrate, liquid and energy dense foods, rates of obesity and type 2 diabetes mirrored this change. A major
Evaluate how current research in

pre-game fruit scientific review has taken things back to basics to reinforce where the best health gains are
smoothie ideas Pre-game
to be found meals
with diet.18
include: Science Theindicates that theatpre-game
review looked the dietmealand or snack disease
chronic should include
links fromplenty
304ofmeta-analyses
fluids and be and
• apple juice, frozen
the field informs our practical
light and easyreviews
systematic to digest. It should
published in provide
the last between
63 years.1200
Typeand 3300 kilojoules,
2 diabetes, overweightprimarily from
and obesity,
banana and carbohydrate-rich foods thatdisease
cancer and cardiovascular are familiar and accounted
together well tolerated
for by theof
most athlete. The meal
the chronic should
disease links
1 tablespoon of end three to four hours before competition to allow time for the stomach to empty before
found.
plain yoghurt
health and food choices in the

As for
exertion. dietary
Breads, patterns,pasta
potatoes, the findings
and fruitshowed
juices –that
thatplant-based foods werefoods
is, carbohydrate-rich more low
protective
in
• pineapple juice,
fatagainst the risk
and dietary of developing
fibre chronic
– form the basis disease
of the comparedmeal
best pre-game with (see
animal-based
Figure 14.3 foods. Among
for some
frozen strawberries
plant foods,
examples). grain-based
Bulky, fibre-richfoods
foods seemed to have
such as raw a small
vegetables or edge over fruits
wholegrain andalthough
cereals, vegetables.
and several mint
Applications of nutritional leaves So much

usually for theare
desirable, anti-grain sentiment
best avoided that is competition.
just before popular at theDietary
moment! fibre in the digestive tract
• reduced-fat milk, attractsForwater
animal-based foods,stomach
and can cause dairy products overall
discomfort wereperformance.
during considered neutral on health,
Liquid meals areandeasy
frozen banana and to digest, and many such meals are commercially available. Alternatively, athletes candisease
fish was considered protective. Red and processed meats were linked to a higher mix
research boxes in every chapter. vanilla essence. risk. For

fat-free milktea-lovers,
or juice, the research
frozen fruits confirmed this popular
and flavourings drink as being the most protective
in a blender.
against disease risk. On the other end of the spectrum, to no-one’s surprise, soft drinks had
few redeeming health benefits.
The findings from this major review are close to a carbon copy of existing dietary
guidelines that have changed little over decades. Eat more plant-based foods than animal
foods, choose whole grains over refined grains, limit red and processed meat and choose
other beverages in preference to soft drink. Such recommendations may not get media
attention, or help sell books in numbers like the latest fad diet, but they are the cornerstone
of long-term health. Chapter 3: Digestion, absorption and transport 85
Other risk factors, such as genetics, gender and age, also play important
Chapter roles
3: Digestion, in the and transport
absorption 85
development of chronic diseases, but they cannot be changed. Health recommendations
CHAPTER ACTIVITIES acknowledge the influence of such factors on the development of disease, but they must focus
on the factors that are changeable. For the two out of three Australians who do not smoke or
drink alcohol excessively, the one choice that can influence long-term health prospects more
CHAPTER ACTIVITIES
PUTTING COMMON
than any other is diet.
SENSE TO THE TEST: ANSWERS
END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES 1 The process of food

Within digestion
the range set bybegins in athe
genetics, mouth
person’s and of diet4influences
choice The gastrointestinal tract is
long-term health. sterile
Diet has throughout.
no FALSE
REVIEW IT
proceeds all the wayon

influence into the diseases
some large intestine. TRUE
but is linked closely to others. Personal life trillions
There are choices,ofsuch as engaging
bacteria in
found throughout the gastrointestinal
PUTTING COMMON SENSE TO THE TEST: ANSWERStract.
physical
Food digestion activity isand
and absorption using tobacco
a process or right
that occurs alcohol,
alongalso
the affect health for the better or worse.
1 gastrointestinal
The process tract.
of food digestion begins in the mouth and 4 The gastrointestinal
5 functions of thetract digestive tract
is sterile are an example
throughout. FALSEof the
2 Intestinal allcells
proceeds the are
way uniform all along
into the large the digestive
intestine. TRUE tract. process
There areof homeostasis.
trillions of bacteriaTRUE
found throughout the gastrointestinal
FALSE
Food digestionThe
and next
absorption is a process
several that provide
chapters occurs right along more
many the tract.
detailsThe digestive
about tract is regulated
nutrients and how at many
they different
supportlevels, from endocrine
At the end of each chapter you’ll find several tools to help you review, practise and extend
2
gastrointestinal
Intestinal
where they
Intestinal are
tract.
cells have
health.
found
cells
diseases. are
varying degrees
Whenever
along
of specialisation
appropriate,
therecommendations
uniform
Dietary digestive
depending onshows5how
the discussion
tract.the digestive
all along appeartract.
to
Theneural,
diet
process
again and again,
to maintain
functions of the
influences
as of
itseach
homeostasis.
each
functions.
digestive
nutrient’sTRUE
tract major
of today’s
relationships
are an example of the
3 Veins and
FALSE withlymphatic
health are vessels leaving
explored. Most thepeople
digestive
whotract
follow the recommendations will benefit
The digestive tract is regulated at many and canlevels, from endocrine
different
your knowledge of the key learning outcomes. carry nutrients

Intestinal
where
enjoy tovarying
good
cells have
they are
Both veins andfound
lymph
the
along
body.
health TRUE
into
degrees oftheir
the digestive
vessels
later years.
specialisation depending on
tract. avenues of nutrient
are important
to neural, to maintain its functions.
3 transportand
Veins fromlymphatic
the digestivevessels
tract. leaving the digestive tract
carry nutrients to the body. TRUE
• Reflect on your own personal Both veins and lymph vessels are important avenues of nutrient
transport from
NUTRITION the digestive tract.
PORTFOLIO Chapter 2: Planning a healthy diet 59
A healthy digestive system can adjust to almost any diet • Detail any GI discomforts you may experience
nutritional choices in the and can handle any combination of foods with ease.
•NUTRITION
Describe the PORTFOLIO
physical and emotional environment
regularly and include suggestions to alleviate or
prevent their occurrence (see Highlight 3).
Nutrition portfolio.
A that typically surrounds your meals, including
anyhow
dietit • List any changes you can make in your eating habits
3 healthy
Whichdigestive systemiscan
of the following adjust
consistent to almost
with the Australian • Detail
c Waterany GI discomforts you may experience
affects
and Dietary you and
can handle any how it might be
combination improved.
of foods with ease. to promote overall GI health.
regularly
Guidelines ? d Salt and include suggestions to alleviate or
• Describe the physical and emotional environment prevent their occurrence (see Highlight 3).
a Choose a diet restricted in fat and cholesterol. 7 ‘Low in salt’ is an example of a:
that typically
STUDY QUESTIONS surrounds your meals, including how it • List any changes you can make in your eating habits
b Eat plenty of vegetables, legumes and fruits. a promote
health claim
affects you and how it might be improved. to overall GI health.
Multiple choice questions
c Balance the food you eat with physical activity. 5 bThe nutrition
digestionfact
and absorption of carbohydrate occurs
Answers
d Eat canan beabundance
found at theof back
foodsoftothe book.nutrient
ensure cpredominantly in the:claim
nutrient content
1STUDY
A key QUESTIONS
adequacy.
secretion of the gall bladder is: a nutrition
d mouth advertising
Multiple
4 a choicetoquestions
According
trypsin the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, 5 b The small digestion and absorption of carbohydrate occurs
intestine
Answers can be found at the back of the book. Review questions in the:
the
b number
amylaseof serves of dairy foods recommended for cpredominantly
stomach
1 Name the diet-planning principles and briefly describe
1 boys
A
c key aged 12–13ofis:the gall bladder is:
secretion
bile d
a large mouthintestine
how each principle helps in diet planning. (Section 2.1)
• Review the major chapter 2 b
d 3
a insulin
trypsin
The 3.5
amylase
muscular contractions that move food through
6 b
2 What
small intestine
Absorption
ca stomach
Dietary
occurs primarily in the:
recommendation is modified in the Australian
mouth Guidelines
cthe GI
4
bile
tract are called: db largestomach intestine for children under the age of two
concepts in preparation for 5

d 4.5
a insulin
2 Foods
hydrolysis
within acontractions
The sphincters
b muscular given food group
that move Australian
of the food through
years?
6 cAbsorption
a
Why? (Section 2.1)
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(Section 7.2) and minerals
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NUTRITION elevated glycogen production
CALCULATIONS c All vitamins and minerals
c b higher
mucus levels of ketone bodies in the blood 5 d Describe howfat-soluble
the body recycles glucose from lactate.
These c problems
enzymes will give you practice in doing simple How
fats andmany kilojoules does this
vitamins amount of fat
d higher levels of insulinAlthough
in the blood (Section 7.2)
Master the common Nutrition

nutrition-related calculations. the situations represent?
•
d bicarbonate
10 hypothetical,
are During a fast,the thenumbers
body produces ketone
are real, bodies by:
and calculating 6 e WhatWhat are the differences
percentage between
of the deamination
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the answers
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comes from fat? (Section 7.2)
calculations introduced in the

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main tell you?in the metabolism
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How to chapter features. 8 h

(seequestions
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a surplus of theingredient
three energy in the
nutrients
product?to body fat stores. (Section 7.2)
contributes
1 a What
Define is the size anabolism
metabolism, of a servingand
of the product?give
catabolism;
i Have any nutrients been added to this product
b How many
an example kilojoules
of each. are 7.1)
(Section in a serving? 9 What adaptations does the body make during a fast?
(is it fortified)?
2 cHowHow
doesmuch fat is as
ATP work in a serving?
the high-energy currency of What are ketone bodies? Define ketosis. (Section 7.3)
cells? (Section 7.1) 10 Distinguish between a loss of fat and a loss of weight,
3NUTRITION ON THE NET
What are coenzymes, and what service do they and describe how each might happen. (Section 7.3)
provide
Analyse the in metabolism?
nutrient (Section
composition 7.1) online: To
of foods • Learn more about the Australian Guide to
learn more about the nutrient content of the foods you Healthy Eating: https://www.eatforhealth.gov.
eat, you can access
NUTRITION ON THEthe full
NETNUTTAB Food Composition au/guidelines/
Database provided by Food Standards Australia
online:New • Find New Zealand information on nutrition guidelines
• Expand your knowledge by
Analyse the nutrient composition of foods To com.au/factsheets/diets-intolerances/low-
Zealand
learn morefrom http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/
about the nutrient content of the foods you and food labels at http://www.foodstandards.govt.nz
carbohydrate-diets/
monitoringnutrients/pages/default.aspx
eat, you can access the full NUTTAB Food Composition •• Learn
Learn more
about about the Healthy
the effects Eating Pyramid
of intermittent fasting :on
exploring the online resources

• Search
Database for ‘foodbylabels’
provided at the FSANZ
Food Standards website:
Australia New http://www.nutritionaustralia.org
metabolism: https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au
Zealand from http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/ intermittent-fasting-metabolism
monitoringnutrients/pages/default.aspx
listed in Nutrition on the net and • Assess the evidence for low-carbohydrate diet from
Sports Dietitians Australia: https://www.sportsdietitians.
by completing the Search me! SEARCH ME! NUTRITION
nutrition research activity.

Keyword: intermittent fasting The science of going without will help answer these
What is intermittent fasting and what health benefits questions.
have been linked to it? The article Intermittent fasting:
x Guide to the text
HIGHLIGHTS
Every chapter is followed by a highlight that provides readers with an in-depth look at a
current, and often controversial, topic that relates to its companion chapter
• Develop your understanding of
these key topics by responding
to the critical thinking
questions. HIGHLIGHT
6.6 NUTRITIONAL GENOMICS
6
• Research these thought-
provoking topics further by
Imagine this scenario: A physician scrapes a sample of malnourished children given vitamin A supplements, and
cells from inside your cheek and submits it to a genomics biology has explored how such effects might be possible.
lab. The lab returns a report based on your genetic profile The process was slow as researchers collected information
exploring the weblinks listed in

that reveals which diseases you are most likely to develop on one gene, one action and one nutrient at a time.
and makes recommendations for specific diet and lifestyle Today’s research in nutritional genomics involves all of
changes that can help you maintain good health. You may the sciences coordinating their multiple findings and
Nutrition on the net. also be given a prescription for a dietary supplement that
will best meet your personal nutrient requirements. Such a
scenario may one day become reality as scientists uncover
explaining the interactions among several genes, actions
and nutrients in relatively little time. As a result, nutrition
knowledge is growing at an incredibly fast pace.
the genetic relationships between diet and disease.1 (Until The recent surge in genomics research grew from
then, however, consumers need to know that many current the Human Genome Project, an international effort by
genetic test kits commonly available on the Internet are industry and government scientists to identify and describe
unproven and quite likely fraudulent.) all of the genes in the human genome – that is, all the
Chapter 6: Protein: amino acids 211 genetic information contained within a person’s cells.
Completed in 2003, this project developed many of the
research technologies needed to study genes and genetic
variation. Scientists are now working to identify the
individual proteins made by the genes, the genes associated
HIGHLIGHT ACTIVITIES with diseases, and the dietary and lifestyle choices that
most influence the expression of those genes. Such
information will have major implications for society in
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS general, and for healthcare in particular.2
1 How might nutritional genomics influence healthcare against specific chronic diseases. No doubt marketers
Shutterstock.com/Darren Baker
in the future? will rush to fill supermarket shelves with foods
manufactured to match genetic profiles. Why do you
A genomics primer
2 You may have heard about the diet that is based
think these genetic approaches to diet and health Figure H6.1 shows the relationships among the materials
on a person’s blood type and claims to restore the
might be more or less appealing than eating patterns that comprise the genome. As the discussion of protein
body’s natural genetic rhythms and improve health.
that include a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole synthesis in Chapter 6 points out, genetic information is
Research may one day reveal exactly which foods
grains, milk products and meats? encoded in DNA molecules within the nucleus of cells.
might best turn on and off specific genes to defend Can your specific diet and lifestyle needs be decided in a laboratory?
The DNA molecules and associated proteins are packed
within 46 chromosomes. The genes are segments of a
NUTRITION ON THE NET
How nutrients influence gene activity and how genes DNA strand that can eventually be translated into one
Analyse the nutrient composition of foods online: To • Get information about humaninfluence genomicthe discoveries
activities of nutrients is the focus of a or more proteins. The sequence of nucleotide bases
learn more about the nutrient content of the foods you and how they can be used to improve health from the within each gene determines the amino acid sequence
new field of study called nutritional genomics. Unlike
eat, you can access the full NUTTAB Food Composition Public Health Genomics site of the US Centers for of a particular protein. Scientists currently estimate that
sciences in the twentieth century, nutritional genomics
Database provided by Food Standards Australia New Disease Control and Prevention: http://www.cdc.gov/ there are between 20 000 and 25 000 genes in the human
takes a comprehensive approach in analysing information
Zealand from http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/ genomics genome.
from several fields of study, providing an integrated
monitoringnutrients/pages/default.aspx As Figure 6.7 (page 185) explained, when cells make
understanding of the findings. Consider how multiple
disciplines contributed to our understanding of vitamin A proteins, a DNA sequence is used to make messenger
over the past several decades, for example. Biochemistry RNA. The nucleotide sequence in messenger RNA
REFERENCES revealed vitamin A’s three chemical structures. then determines the amino acid sequence to make
Immunology identified the anti-infective properties of a protein. This process – from genetic information
one of these structures, while physiology focused on to protein synthesis – is known as gene expression.
CHAPTER Gene expression can be determined by measuring
another structure and its role in vision. Epidemiology has
1 C. Taylor, P. Kavanagh, and B. Zuckerman, Sickle cell trait—neglected 10 G. A. Bray and coauthors, Effect of dietary protein
reported content on weight
improvements in the death rates and vision of the amounts of messenger RNA in a tissue sample.
opportunities in the era of genomic medicine, Journal of the American gain, energy expenditure, and body composition during overeating: A
Medical Association 311 (2014): 1495–6. randomized controlled trial, Journal of the American Medical Association
2 Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of 307 (2012): 47–55.
Canada: Vegetarian diets, Journal of the American Dietetic Association 11 A. Dougkas and E. Östman, Protein-enriched liquid preloads varying
109 (2009): 1266–1282. in macronutrient content modulate appetite and appetite-regulating
3 World Hunger Education Services (WHES), Hunger notes (2015), hormones in healthy adults, Journal of Nutrition 146 (2016): 637–45.
available at http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/Learn/child_ 12 M. Cuenca-Sánchez, D. Navas-Carillo, and E. Orenes-Piñero,
hunger_facts.htm Controversies surrounding high-protein diet intake: Satiating effect
4 H. Kismul and co-authors, Diet and kwashiorkor: a prospective and kidney and bone health, Advances in Nutrition 6 (2015): 260–6.
study from rural DR Congo, PeerJ 15 (2014): e350 https://dx.doi. 13 Q. J. Lew and coauthors, Red meat intake and risk of ESRD, Journal of
org/10.7717/peerj.350 the American Society of Nephrology 28 (2016): 304–12.
5 P. Guleria and co-authors, Genetic Engineering: A Possible Strategy for 14 National Health and Medical Research Council, Nutrient reference
Protein-Energy Malnutrition Regulation, Molecular Biotechnology 59 values for Australia and New Zealand, Canberra: Commonwealth of
(2017): 499–517. Australia (2006).
6 Committee on Dietary Reference Intakes, Dietary reference intakes: 15 R. J. Maughan, Quality assurance issues in the use of dietary
energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and supplement, with special reference to protein supplements, Journal of
amino acids (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2005), 694. Nutrition 143 (2013): 1843S–1847S.
7 U. N. Das, Nutritional factors in the prevention and management 16 S. M. Robinson and co-authors, Does nutrition play a role in the
of coronary artery disease and heart failure, Nutrition 31 (2015): prevention and management of sarcopenia?, Clinical Nutrition 37 (4)
283–91. (2018): 1121–32.
8 J. E. Baggott and T. Tamura, Homocysteine, iron and cardiovascular 17 C Beaudart and co-authors, Nutrition and physical activity in
disease: A hypothesis, Nutrients 7 (2015): 1108–18. the prevention and treatment of sarcopenia: systematic review,
9 J. D. Bihuniak and K. L. Insogna, The effects of dietary protein Osteoporosis International 28 (6) (2017): 1817–33.
and amino acids on skeletal metabolism, Molecular and Cellular
Endocrinology 410(2015): 78–86.
xi
Guide to the online resources

FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources

that will help you to prepare your lectures and assessments,
when you choose this textbook for your course.
Log in or request an account to access instructor resources
at cengage.com.au/instructors for Australia or
cengage.co.nz/instructors for New Zealand.
MINDTAP
Premium online teaching and learning tools are available on the MindTap platform – the
personalised eLearning solution.
MindTap is a flexible and easy-to-use platform that helps build student confidence and
gives you a clear picture of their progress. We partner with you to ease the transition to
digital – we’re with you every step of the way.
The Cengage Mobile App puts your course directly into students’ hands with course
materials available on their smartphone or tablet. Students can read on the go, complete
practise quizzes or participate in interactive real-time activities.
MindTap for Whitney’s Understanding Nutrition is full of innovative resources to support
critical thinking and help your students move from memorisation to mastery! Includes:
• Whitney’s Understanding Nutrition eBook
• Interactive nutrition calculations, Concept checks, Case activities, Videos, Quizzes
and more
MindTap is a premium purchasable eLearning tool.
Contact your Cengage learning consultant to find out
how MindTap can transform your course.
INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL
The Instructor’s Manual includes:
• Learning objectives • Worksheets and handouts
• Lecture presentation outlines and • Classroom activities
enrichments • New Zealand instructor information
• Answers to study questions
COGNERO® TEST BANK

A bank of questions has been developed in conjunction with the text for creating quizzes,
tests and exams for your students. Create multiple test versions in an instant and deliver
tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want using Cognero. Cognero test
generator is a flexible online system that allows you to import, edit, and manipulate
content from the text’s test bank or elsewhere, including your own favourite test questions.
xii Guide to the online resources
POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS
Use the chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint presentations to enhance your lecture
presentations and handouts to reinforce the key principles of your subject.
ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

Add the digital files of graphs, tables, pictures and flow charts into your course
management system, use them in student handouts, or copy them in your lecture
presentations.
FOR THE STUDENT
MINDTAP
MindTap is the next-level online learning tool that helps you get better grades!
MindTap gives you the resources you need to study – all in one place and available when
you need them. In the MindTap Reader, you can make notes, highlight text and even find a
definition directly from the page.
If your instructor has chosen MindTap for your subject this semester, log in to MindTap to:
• Get better grades
• Save time and get organised
• Connect with your instructor and peers
• Study when and where you want, online and mobile
• Complete assessment tasks as set by your instructor
When your instructor creates a course using MindTap,
they will let you know your course key so you can
access the content. Please purchase MindTap only
when directed by your instructor. Course length is set
by your instructor.
SEARCH ME! NUTRITION

Search Me! is an online research library customised to your subject, that puts the
information you need right at your fingertips.
Content is updated daily from hundreds of scholarly and popular journals, eBooks and
newspapers.
Plus, 24-hour access means you won’t be limited by library opening
times!
Log in using the code on the card inside the front cover.
xiii
A zucchini has
more potassium
PREFACE
than a banana
Nutrition is a science. The details of a nutrient’s chemistry or a cell’s biology can be overwhelming
and confusing to some, but it needn’t be. When the science is explained step by step and the facts are
connected one by one, the details become clear and understandable. That has been the goal since this
book was first developed and as it has continued to be updated in this fourth edition: to reveal the
fascination of science and share the excitement of nutrition with readers. We have learned from the
hundreds of university teachers and nutrition professionals and more than a million students who
have used previous editions of this book through the years that readers want to understand nutrition
so that they can make healthy choices in their daily lives.
With its focus on Australia and New Zealand, the text incorporates current nutrition
recommendations and public health issues, and food culture relevant to those studying and working
in nutrition in this region of the world.
Because nutrition is an active science, staying current is paramount. To that end, this edition
incorporates the latest in nutrition research. The connections between diet and disease have become
more apparent – and our interest in making smart health choices has followed. More people are living
longer and healthier lives. The science of nutrition has grown rapidly, with new research emerging
daily. In this edition, as with previous editions, every chapter has been substantially revised to reflect
the many changes that have occurred in the field of nutrition and in our daily lives over the years. We
hope that this book serves you well.
THE CHAPTERS
Understanding Nutrition presents the core information of an introductory nutrition course. The
early chapters introduce the nutrients and their work in the body, and the later chapters apply that
information to people’s lives – describing the role of foods and nutrients in energy balance and weight
control, in physical activity, in the life cycle and in disease prevention, and food safety. Each chapter
also clearly flags for the reader practical applications of nutrition research and presents the most
recent research in the topic area.
THE HIGHLIGHTS
Every chapter is followed by a highlight that provides readers with an in-depth look at a current, and
often controversial, topic that relates to its companion chapter. Highlight 11 features vitamin D and
the many health benefits now being linked to this ‘sunshine vitamin’. Each highlight closes with
critical thinking questions designed to encourage readers to develop clear, rational, open-minded and
informed thoughts based on the evidence presented in the text. New to this edition are clearly stated
learning objectives at the beginning of every chapter to outline the key concept areas to be covered.
THE APPENDICES
The appendices are valuable references for a number of purposes. Appendix A summarises background
information on the hormonal and nervous systems, complementing Appendices B and C on basic
chemistry, the chemical structures of nutrients and major metabolic pathways. Appendix D describes
measures of protein quality. Appendix E provides detailed coverage of nutrition assessment with
updated infant and child growth charts, and Appendix F presents estimated energy requirements for
men and women at various levels of physical activity. Appendix G presents common calculation and
conversion tips.
xiv Preface
THE COVERS
The book’s inside covers put commonly used information at your fingertips, including current
nutrient recommendations and suggested weight ranges for various heights.
We have taken great care to provide accurate information and have included many references at
the end of the book. However, to keep the number of references manageable, many statements appear
without references. All statements reflect current nutrition knowledge and the authors will supply
references upon request. In addition to supporting text statements, the references provide readers with
resources for finding a good overview or more details on a subject.
In this new edition, the art and layout have been carefully designed to be inviting while enhancing
student learning. For all chapters and highlights, content has been reviewed and updated. Several
new figures and tables have been created and others revised to enhance learning. Each chapter also
features a true–false ‘common sense’ test presented at the beginning to allow students to test their
core knowledge on practical nutrition concepts related to the topic. Answers to these commonsense
questions are revealed throughout the chapter and a brief explanation is given at the end. This new
edition has also been revised throughout to include more content and related nutrition issues that
are specific to New Zealand. For example, Chapter 2 features the newly released Eating and Activity
Guidelines for New Zealand Adults. And to acknowledge the growing interest in the gastrointestinal
microbiome in health, an expanded section in Chapter 3 has been added as well as a research focus in
Chapter 4.
Nutrition is a fascinating subject, and we hope our enthusiasm for it comes through on every
page.
Tim Crowe
Adam Walsh
Ellie Whitney
Sharon Rady Rolfes
Eggplant skin
is rich in
magnesium
xv
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Eleanor Noss Whitney, PhD, received her BA in Biology from Radcliffe College in 1960 and her
PhD in Biology from Washington University, St Louis, in 1970. Formerly on the faculties at Florida
State University and Florida A&M University and a dietitian registered with the American Dietetic
Association, Ellie now devotes full time to research, writing and consulting in nutrition, health and
environmental issues. Her earlier publications include articles in science, genetics, and other journals.
Her textbooks include Nutrition Concepts and Controversies 12th edn, Understanding Nutrition 12th
edn, Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition 9th edn and Nutrition and Diet Therapy 7th edn,
all with Cengage Wadsworth. She also recently co-authored Priceless Florida (Pineapple Press), a
comprehensive text examining the ecosystems in her home state. Her additional interests include
energy conservation, solar energy use, alternatively fuelled vehicles and ecosystem restoration.
Sharon Rady Rolfes received her MS in nutrition and food science from Florida State University.
She is a founding member of Nutrition and Health Associates, an information resource centre that
maintains a research database on over 1000 nutrition-related topics. Sharon’s publications include
the college textbooks Understanding Nutrition 12th edn and Nutrition for Health and Health Care 4th
edn. In addition to writing and research, she occasionally teaches at Florida State University and
serves as a consultant for various educational projects. Her volunteer work includes serving on the
board of Working Well, a community initiative dedicated to creating a healthy workforce.
Dr Tim Crowe is an Advanced Accredited Practising Dietitian who has spent most of his career in the
world of university nutrition teaching and research. He now works chiefly as a health and medical
writer and scientific consultant and speaks on many health topics to the public through both the
media, social media and writing for consumer publications.
Dr Adam Walsh is a Senior Lecturer in Nutrition and Dietetics in the School of Exercise and
Nutrition Sciences at Deakin University in Melbourne and an Accredited Practising Dietitian.
He teaches in the undergraduate and postgraduate nutrition and dietetics programs in the areas
of clinical dietetics, nutritional physiology and paediatric health. Adam’s area of research is the
influence of fathers on young children’s nutrition and physical activity behaviours.
The only fruit that

provides heart-healthy
monounsaturated fat
xvi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The adaptation and updating of this textbook has been a team effort with us all focused on
improving a book that has been well-received throughout nutrition courses in Australia and
New Zealand. Many thanks must go to the team of external reviewers who gave valuable
feedback and advice on each of the chapters in order to improve the relevance of the text
to the teaching of nutrition in Australia and New Zealand. The team at Cengage have been
instrumental in guiding us through the entire process and have been a pleasure to work with
through all stages of development. It is rewarding to see the text now in print after all our hard
work.
From Tim Crowe: Many thanks go to my nutrition and dietetic friends and colleagues who
have been down the publication path before and assured me that the late nights and long
weekends of writing and proofing would be time well spent in producing a piece of work to be
proud of.
From Adam Walsh: Thanks to my two wonderful boys for keeping me grounded. They have,
on more than one occasion, reminded me that even though I’m the dietitian in the house, I’m
still just Dad.
Substitute The authors and Cengage Learning would like to thank our reviewers who provided incisive
for rice to
increase your and helpful feedback:
fibre intake • Martin Stone – Australis College
• Anthony Villani – University of the Sunshine Coast
• Matt Sharman – University of Tasmania
• Kathleen (Katie) Lacy – Deakin University
• Preetha Thomas – The University of Queensland
• Janet Weber – Massey University
• Thea Werkhoven – The University of Sydney
• Aimee Dordevic – Monash University
• Jennifer McCann – Deakin University
• Judith Myers – Victoria University
• Karin Clark – Curtin University
• Ramon Hall - Deakin University
The authors and Cengage Learning would also like to thank the following supplementary
resource authors for their contributions to the first edition:
• Associate Professor Jack Antonas – Victoria University
• Dr Clare Wall – University of Auckland
• Dr Fiona Pelly – University of the Sunshine Coast
• Victoria Logan – Otago University
• Alisa Conlan – RMIT University.
1
CHAPTER
AN OVERVIEW
OF NUTRITION
Nutrition in your life

Believe it or not, you have probably eaten at least 20 000 meals in your life. Without any
conscious effort on your part, your body uses the nutrients from those meals to make all its
components, fuel all its activities and defend itself against diseases. How successfully your
body handles these tasks depends, in part, on your food choices. Nutritious food choices
support healthy bodies.
PUTTING COMMON SENSE TO THE TEST

Circle your answer
T F What we eat is largely driven by how hungry we are.
T F Fat has twice the number of kilojoules as carbohydrates or protein.
T F All published research should be treated with some level of critical appraisal.
T F An RDI for a nutrient is the amount that everyone needs to consume each day.
T F Changing our diet will do little to reduce the risk of many chronic diseases.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.1 Describe how various factors influence 1.5 Explain how the four assessment methods
personal food choices. are used to detect energy and nutrient
1.2 Name six major classes of nutrients and deficiencies and excesses.
identify which are organic and which yield 1.6 Identify several risk factors and explain
energy. their relationships to chronic diseases.
1.3 Explain the scientific method and how 1.7 Recognise misinformation and describe how
scientists use various types of research to identify reliable nutrition information.
studies and methods to acquire nutritional
information.
1.4 Define the four categories of the Nutrient
Reference Values (NRVs) and explain their
purpose.
Blackberries
are a very
good source of
vitamin C and
manganese
Welcome to the world of nutrition. Although you may not always have been aware of it,
nutrition has played a significant role in your life. And it will continue to affect you in major
ways, depending on the foods you select.
Every day, several times a day, you make food choices that influence your body’s health for
better or worse. Each day’s choices may benefit or harm your health only a little, but when
In general, a these choices are repeated over years and decades, the rewards or consequences become major.
chronic disease That being the case, paying close attention to good eating habits now can bring you health
progresses slowly or benefits later. Conversely, carelessness about food choices can contribute to many chronic
with little change and
diseases prevalent in later life, including heart disease and cancer. Of course, some people
lasts a long time. By
will become ill or die young no matter what choices they make, and others will live long lives
comparison, an acute
disease develops despite making poor choices. For the majority of us, however, the food choices we make each
quickly, produces and every day will benefit or impair our health in proportion to the wisdom of those choices.
sharp symptoms and Although most people realise that their food habits affect their health, they often choose
runs a short course. foods for other reasons. After all, foods bring to the table a variety of pleasures, traditions and
• chronos 5 time associations as well as nourishment. The challenge, then, is to combine favourite foods and
• acute 5 sharp fun times with a nutritionally balanced diet.
PUTTING 1.1 Food choices

COMMON SENSE
TO THE TEST People decide what to eat, when to eat and even whether to eat in highly personal ways, often
based on behavioural or social motives rather than on an awareness of nutrition’s importance
What we eat is to health.
largely driven by how Many different food choices can support good health, and an understanding of nutrition
hungry we are.
will help you to make sensible selections more often.
FALSE
Personal preference
As you might expect, the primary reason people choose foods is taste – they like certain
flavours. Two widely shared preferences are for the sweetness of sugar and for the savouriness
of salt. Liking high-fat foods also appears to be a universally common preference. Other
preferences might be for the hot chilli common in Mexican cooking or the curry spices of
Indian cuisine. Some research suggests that genetics may influence people’s food preferences.1
Habit
People sometimes select foods out of habit. They eat cereal every morning, for
example, simply because they have always eaten cereal for breakfast. Eating a
familiar food and not having to make any decisions can be comforting.
Ethnic heritage or tradition

Among the strongest influences on food choices are ethnic heritage and tradition.
People eat the foods they grew up eating. Every country – and, in fact, every
region of a country – has its own typical foods and ways of combining them into
meals. The ‘Australian diet’ includes many ethnic foods from various countries,
such as Greece, Italy, Thailand and China, all adding variety to the diet. The New
Zealand diet has been influenced by British, Pacific and, more recently, Asian
migrants. Recent trends in the New Zealand diet include a reduction in beef, lamb
and potatoes and an increase in poultry, pasta and rice, which is a reflection of
international food trends, food prices and ease of preparation.2
Getty Images/Fuse
Social interactions
Most people enjoy companionship while eating. It’s fun to go out with friends for
An enjoyable way to learn about other pizza or Thai. Meals are social events, and sharing food is part of hospitality. Social
cultures is to taste their ethnic foods.
customs invite people to accept food or drink offered by a host or shared by a group
Chapter 1: An overview of nutrition 3
regardless of hunger signals. Such social interactions can be a challenge for people trying to
limit their food intake; Chapter 9 describes how people tend to eat more food when socialising
with others. People also tend to eat the kinds of foods eaten by those in their social circles,
thus helping to explain why obesity seems to spread in social networks and weight loss is easier
with a partner.
Marketing
The food industry competes for our food dollars, persuading consumers to eat more – more
food, more often. These marketing efforts pay off well, generating billions of dollars in new
sales each year. In addition to building brand loyalty, food companies attract busy consumers
with their promises of convenience.
Availability, convenience and economy

People eat foods that are accessible, quick and easy to prepare, and within their financial
means. Today’s consumers value convenience and are willing to spend more than half of
their food budget on meals that require little, if any, further preparation.3 They frequently
eat out, bring home ready-to-eat meals or have food delivered. Even when they venture into
the kitchen, they want to prepare a meal in 15 to 20 minutes, using fewer than half a dozen
ingredients – and those ‘ingredients’ are often semiprepared foods, such as canned soups.
This emphasis on convenience limits food choices to the selections offered on menus and
products designed for quick preparation. Whether decisions based on convenience meet a
person’s nutrition needs depends on the choices made. Eating a banana or a chocolate
bar may be equally convenient, but the fruit offers more vitamins and minerals and less
sugar and fat.
Given the abundance of convenient food options, fewer adults are learning the cooking
skills needed to prepare meals at home, which has its downside. They are more likely to eat
out where the choice is often low-cost fast-food outlets. People who are competent in their
cooking skills eat more of their meals at home and tend to make healthier food choices.
Positive and negative associations

People tend to like particular foods associated with
happy occasions – such as meat pies at football games
or cake at birthday parties. By the same token, people
can develop aversions and dislike foods that they ate
when they felt sick or that were forced on them.4 By
using foods as rewards or punishments, parents may
inadvertently teach their children to like and dislike
certain foods.
Emotional comfort
Emotions are another factor that guide food choices
and eating behaviours. Some people cannot eat
when they are emotionally upset. Others may eat
in response to a variety of emotional stimuli – for
example, to relieve boredom or depression, or to calm
anxiety.5 A depressed person may choose to eat rather
Alamy/Wave Royalty Free
than to call a friend. A person who has returned

home from an exciting evening out may unwind with
a late-night snack. These people may find emotional
comfort, in part, because foods can influence the
brain’s chemistry and the mind’s response. Eating in
To enhance your health, keep nutrition in mind when selecting foods.
response to emotions can easily lead to overeating and
obesity, but it may be appropriate at times. For example, sharing food at times of grief serves
both the giver’s need to provide comfort and the receiver’s need to be cared for and to interact
with others, as well as to take nourishment.
Values
Food choices may reflect people’s religious beliefs, political views or environmental concerns.
For example, many Christians forgo meat during Lent (the period prior to Easter), Jewish
law includes an extensive set of dietary rules that govern the use of foods derived from
animals, and Muslims fast between sunrise and sunset during Ramadan (the ninth month
of the Islamic calendar). A concerned consumer may boycott fruit picked by migrant workers
who have been exploited. People may buy vegetables from local farmers to save the fuel and
environmental costs of foods shipped in from far away. They may also select foods packaged
in containers that can be reused or recycled. Some consumers accept or reject foods that have
been irradiated or genetically modified, depending on their approval of these processes (see
Chapter and Highlight 19 for a complete discussion).
Nutrition and health benefits

Finally, of course, many consumers make food choices that will benefit health. Making
healthy food choices 100 years ago was rather easy; the list of options was relatively short
and markets sold mostly fresh, whole foods. Examples of whole foods include vegetables
and legumes; fruits; seafood, meats, poultry, eggs, nuts, and seeds; milk; and whole grains.
Today, tens of thousands of food items fill the shelves of super-grocery stores and most of
those items are processed foods. Whether a processed food is a healthy choice depends,
in part, on how extensively the food was processed. When changes are minimal, processing
can provide an abundant, safe, convenient, affordable, and nutritious product.6 Examples of
minimally processed foods include frozen vegetables, fruit juices, smoked salmon, cheeses,
and breads. The nutritional value diminishes, however, when changes are extensive, creating
ultra-processed foods. Ultra-processed foods no longer resemble whole foods. They are
made from substances that are typically used in food preparation but not consumed as foods
themselves (such as oils, fats, flours, refined starches and sugars). These substances undergo
further processing by adding little, if any, processed foods, salt and other preservatives, and
additives such as flavours and colours. Examples of ultra-processed foods include soft drinks,
corn chips, confectionery, chicken nuggets, canned cheese spreads and pastries. Notably, these
foods cannot be made in a home kitchen using common grocery ingredients. Dominating
the global foods market, ultra-processed foods tend to be attractive, tasty and cheap – as well
as high in fat and sugar. Consumers who want to make healthy food choices will select fewer
ultra-processed foods and more whole foods and minimally processed foods.7
A person selects foods for a variety of reasons. Whatever those reasons may be, food choices
REVIEW IT
influence health. Individual food selections neither make nor break a diet’s healthfulness, but the
balance of foods selected over time can make an important difference to health. For this reason,
people are wise to think ‘nutrition’ when making their food choices.
1.2 The nutrients

Biologically speaking, people eat to receive nourishment. Do you ever think of yourself as a
biological being made of carefully arranged atoms, molecules, cells, tissues and organs? Are
you aware of the activity going on within your body even as you sit still? The atoms, molecules
and cells of your body continually move and change, even though the structures of your
tissues and organs and your external appearance remain relatively constant. Your skin, which
has covered you since your birth, is replaced entirely

by new cells every seven years. The fat beneath your
skin is not the same fat that was there a year ago.
Your oldest red blood cell is only 120 days old, and
the entire lining of your digestive tract is renewed
every three to five days. To maintain your ‘self’,
you must continually replenish, from foods, the
energy and the nutrients you deplete as your body
maintains itself.
Nutrients in foods
and in the body
Shutterstock/Maridav
Amazingly, our bodies can derive all the energy,
structural materials and regulating agents we need
from the foods we eat. This section introduces the
nutrients that foods deliver and shows how they
participate in the dynamic processes that keep people
alive and well.
Composition of foods FIGURE 1.1 Body composition of healthy-weight men

Chemical analysis of a food such as a tomato and women
shows that it is composed primarily of water The human body is made of compounds similar to those found in
(95 per cent). Most of the solid materials are foods – mostly water (60 per cent) and some fat (13 to 21 per cent for
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. If you young men, 23 to 36 per cent for young women who are of a healthy
weight), with carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, minerals and other
could remove these materials, you would find
minor constituents making up the remainder. (Chapter 8 describes
a tiny residue of vitamins, minerals and other the health hazards of too little or too much body fat.)
compounds. Water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
vitamins and some of the minerals found in foods
are nutrients – substances the body uses for the
growth, maintenance and repair of its tissues.
This book focuses mostly on the nutrients;
however, foods contain other compounds as well –
fibre, phytochemicals, pigments, additives, alcohols
and others. Some are beneficial, some are neutral
and a few are harmful. Later sections of the book
touch on these compounds and their significance.
Composition of the body

A complete chemical analysis of your body would
show that it is made of materials similar to those
found in foods (see Figure 1.1). A healthy 70 kg body
contains about 41 kg of water and about 9 to 21 kg
of fat. The remaining kilograms are mostly protein,
Key:
carbohydrate and the major minerals of the bones.
Getty Images/PhotoDisc
% Carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals in the body

Vitamins, other minerals and incidental extras
constitute a fraction of a kilogram. % Fat in the body
% Water in the body
Chemical composition of nutrients
The simplest of the nutrients are the minerals. Each As Chapter 5 explains,
mineral is a chemical element; its atoms are all alike. most lipids are fats.
As a result, its identity never changes. For example, iron may have different electrical charges,
but the individual iron atoms remain the same when they are in a food, when a person
eats the food, when the iron becomes part of a red blood cell, when the cell is broken down
and when the iron is lost from the body by excretion. The next simplest nutrient is water, a
compound made of two elements – hydrogen and oxygen. Minerals and water are inorganic
nutrients, which means they do not contain carbon.
The other four classes of nutrients (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and vitamins) are more
complex. In addition to hydrogen and oxygen, they all contain carbon, an element found in all
living things. They are therefore called organic compounds (meaning, literally, alive). Protein
and some vitamins also contain nitrogen and may contain other elements as well
(see Table 1.1). The use of the term ‘organic’ when describing the chemistry of substances
should not be confused with the use of this term in the farming and produce sense to describe
how food is grown under a certification system.
TABLE 1.1 Elements in the six classes of nutrients

Notice that organic nutrients contain carbon.
CARBON HYDROGEN OXYGEN NITROGEN MINERALS
Inorganic nutrients
Minerals ✓
Water ✓ ✓
Organic nutrients
Carbohydrates ✓ ✓ ✓
Lipids (fats) ✓ ✓ ✓
Proteinsa ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Vitaminsb ✓ ✓ ✓
a
Some proteins also contain the mineral sulphur.
b
Some vitamins contain nitrogen; some contain minerals.
Essential nutrients
The body can make some nutrients, but it cannot make all of them. Also, it makes some in
insufficient quantities to meet its needs and, therefore, must obtain these nutrients from
foods. The nutrients that foods must supply are essential nutrients. When used to refer to
nutrients, the word essential means more than just ‘necessary’; it means ‘needed from outside
the body’ – normally from foods.
Energy-yielding nutrients: carbohydrate,

fat and protein
In the body, three organic nutrients can be used to provide energy: carbohydrate, fat and
protein. In contrast to these energy-yielding nutrients, vitamins, minerals and water do not
yield energy in the human body.
Carbohydrate, fat, and protein are sometimes called macronutrients because the body
requires them in relatively large amounts (many grams daily). In contrast, vitamins and
minerals are micronutrients, required only in small amounts (milligrams or micrograms daily).
Table 1.2 summarises some of the ways the six classes of nutrients can be described.
TABLE 1.2 The six classes of nutrients

NUTRIENT ORGANIC INORGANIC ENERGY-YIELDING MACRONUTRIENT MICRONUTRIENT
Carbohydrates ✓ ✓ ✓
Lipids (fats) ✓ ✓ ✓
Proteins ✓ ✓ ✓
Vitamins ✓ ✓
Minerals ✓ ✓
Water ✓
Energy measured in kilojoules

The energy released from carbohydrates, fats and proteins can be measured in joules. In The international unit
some countries (particularly the United States), ‘calorie’ is still the preferred measure of food for measuring food energy
energy, though in this context it is actually kilocalories (or kcalories) that is the implied unit is the joule, a measure of
of energy measure for food and the prefix of ‘kilo’ is normally dropped in everyday speaking. work energy. The energy in
When you read in popular books or magazines that an apple provides ‘100 calories’, it actually food is normally expressed
means 100 kcalories, which is the same as 420 kilojoules. This book uses the term kilojoules in kilojoules. To convert
kcalories to kilojoules,
and its abbreviation kJ throughout.
multiply by 4.2; to convert
kilojoules to kcalories,
Energy from foods multiply by 0.24.
The amount of energy a food provides depends on how much carbohydrate, fat and protein
it contains. When completely broken down in the body, a gram of carbohydrate yields about
17 kilojoules (4 kcalories) of energy, a gram of protein also yields 17 kilojoules (4 kcalories) PUTTING
COMMON SENSE
and a gram of fat yields 37 kilojoules (9 kcalories) (see Table 1.3). Fat, therefore, has a greater TO THE TEST
energy density than either carbohydrate or protein. The energy yield from carbohydrate of
17 kilojoules per gram (kJ/g) is considered an average figure as monosaccharides (such as Fat has twice the
glucose), disaccharides (such as sucrose) and starch all yield slightly different amounts of number of kilojoules
than carbohydrates
energy per gram. The ‘How to’ box on page 9 explains how to calculate the energy available
or protein.
from foods.
TRUE
TABLE 1.3 Kilojoule and kcalorie values of energy nutrients

Nutrients Energy (kJ/g) Energy (kcal/g)
Carbohydrate 17 4
Protein 17 4
Fat 37 9
NOTE: Alcohol contributes 29 kilojoules per gram that can be used for energy, but it is not considered a
nutrient because it interferes with the body’s growth, maintenance and repair.
One other substance contributes energy – alcohol. Alcohol is not considered a nutrient
because it interferes with the growth, maintenance and repair of the body, but it does yield
energy (29 kilojoules or 7 kcalories per gram) when metabolised in the body. (Highlight 7 and
Chapter 18 present the potential harms and possible benefits of alcohol consumption.)
Most foods contain all three energy-yielding nutrients as well as water, vitamins, minerals
and other substances. For example, meat contains water, fat, vitamins and minerals as well as
protein. Bread contains water, a trace of fat, a little protein and some vitamins and minerals
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species of Trilobites belonging to 39 genera ranging from Lower
Cambrian to Carboniferous.
A “metastoma” or lower lip plate (Fig. 142, Ep) is found just
behind the hypostome in Triarthrus, but has not been noticed in any
other genus. Between the hypostome and the metastoma lies the
mouth.
The segments of the thorax are free, and their number varies
from two in Agnostus (Fig. 146) to twenty-six in Harpes (Fig. 150,
A). In the Trilobites confined to the Cambrian period the number
(except in the Agnostidae) is usually larger than in the genera found
in the Ordovician and later periods. Owing to the free thoracic
segments many Trilobites were able to curl up somewhat after the
manner of a Wood-louse (Figs. 137, D, 138). The axial part of each
thoracic segment is more or less considerably arched. Usually it
consists of three parts: (i.) the largest part (Fig. 137, C, a), called the
ring, is band-like in form, and is always visible whether the Trilobite
is extended or coiled up; (ii.) in front of the ring is a depressed,
groove-like part (Fig. 137, C, b) separating it from (iii.) the articular
portion (c) which is convex in front and extends beneath the ring of
the preceding segment; this part is only visible when the Trilobite is
coiled up or when the segments are separated. In some few genera
the axial part consists of a simple arched band without either a
groove or a specially modified articular portion. The pleurae (Fig.
137, A, l, C, d-f) are fixed firmly to the axis, and have the form of
narrow bands with the ends rounded, obtuse, pointed, or spinose. In
a few cases the pleurae have a plain surface; but usually they possess
either a ridge or a groove (Fig. 137, C, g); the former is generally
parallel to the margins of the pleura, the latter is generally oblique,
being inclined backwards from the axis. Sometimes in front of the
ridge there is a small groove. On the ventral surface each pleura
shows, at its outer extremity, a reflexed margin or doublure. At some
distance from the axis the pleurae are bent downwards and
backwards. The point where this bend occurs is called the “fulcrum”
(e); it divides the pleura into an internal and an external part: the
internal part (d-e) is flat or slightly convex, and just touches the front
and back margins of the adjacent pleurae; the external part (e-f) may
be (i.) narrower than the internal part, so that it is separated from
the previous and succeeding pleurae; such occurs principally in
pleurae with ridges, as in Cheirurus and Bronteus; or (ii.) it may be
in the form of a long cylindrical process, as in many species of
Acidaspis; or (iii.) the external part may be of the same width, either
throughout or in part, as the internal part, and may overlap the next
pleura behind; this type is found principally in pleurae with a groove
such as in Phacops, Calymene, Sao, Asaphus, Ellipsocephalus.
In some Trilobites there is beyond the fulcrum a smooth, flat,
triangular part at the front margin of the pleura; this part is known
as the “facet,” and forms a surface articulating with the preceding
segment which overlaps it.
In the remarkable form Deiphon (Fig. 151, E) the pleurae are
separate throughout their entire length.
In some Trilobites broad and narrow forms of the same species
occur—the difference being seen especially in the axis. The former
are regarded as females, the latter as males.[190]
The segments of the abdomen or pygidium (Fig. 137, A, 3) are
similar to those of the thorax, except that they are fused together. In
a few forms, such as Illaenus (Fig. 150, F) and Bumastus, the fusion
is so complete that no trace of segmentation can be seen on the
dorsal surface. Usually, however, the segments are easily
distinguishable; the number seen on the axis is commonly greater
than on the lateral parts of the pygidium; this difference is
particularly well shown in Encrinurus. In Trilobites which have
grooved pleurae the conspicuous grooves seen on the lateral parts of
the pygidium are the grooves of the pleurae, the sutures between the
pleurae being less distinct. The shape of the pygidium may be
semicircular, a segment of a circle, trapezoidal, triangular, semi-
parabolic, etc.; its size varies considerably; in the Cambrian forms it
is usually small, but in the Trilobites of later periods it becomes
relatively larger. The number of segments in the pygidium varies
from two to twenty-eight. The axis of the pygidium tapers more
rapidly than that of the thorax; sometimes it reaches quite to the
posterior end of the body, but is commonly shorter than the
pygidium; in Bronteus it is extremely short, and the grooves on the
lateral parts of the pygidium radiate from it in a fan-like manner.
Occasionally, as in Bumastus, the axis cannot be distinguished from
the lateral parts. In a few early Trilobites (Olenellus, Holmia, Fig.
148, Paradoxides, Fig. 147) the lateral parts of the pygidium are very
small. In some genera, such as Asaphus, the marginal part of the
pygidium forms a flattened or concave border. The margin may be
entire or produced into spines, and sometimes (Fig. 151, C) a caudal
spine comes off from the end of the axis. On the ventral surface of
the pygidium there is a marginal rim similar to the doublure of the
cephalic shield. The anus is on the ventral surface of the last segment
of the pygidium.
Although Trilobites are often found in abundance and in an
excellent state of preservation, it is only in very rare cases that
anything is seen of the ventral surface except the hypostome and the
reflexed borders of the cephalic shield, of the thoracic segments, and
of the pygidium. The usual absence of appendages is probably due
to their tenuity. Billings, in 1870, first obtained clear evidence of the
presence of pairs of appendages, in Asaphus platycephalus. Soon
afterwards Walcott[191] showed their existence in American
specimens of Asaphus megistos, Calymene senaria, and Cheirurus
pleurexacanthus. In the two latter species the appendages were
found by cutting sections of curled-up specimens obtained from the
Trenton Limestone; 2200 examples were sliced, of which 270
showed evidence of the existence of appendages. They were seen to
be present on the head, thorax, and pygidium; a ventral uncalcified
cuticle with transverse arches was also found. By means of sections
of curled-up specimens it was difficult to determine satisfactorily the
form and position of the appendages. Subsequently extended
specimens of Triarthrus (Fig. 142) and Trinucleus, showing the
ventral surface and appendages clearly, were discovered in the Utica
Slate (Ordovician) near Rome, New York. A full account of the
appendages in those specimens has been given by Beecher.[192]
In Triarthrus each segment, except the anal, bears a pair of
appendages, all of which, except the first, are biramous. There are
five pairs of cephalic appendages; the first pair are attached at each
side of the hypostome, and have the structure of antennae, each
consisting of a single flagellum formed of short conical joints. The
other cephalic appendages increase in size successively. At present
the second and third pairs are not satisfactorily known, but appear to
have been similar to the fourth and fifth pairs. The second pair is
attached at the level of the posterior end of the hypostome. The
fourth and fifth pairs have large, triangular coxopodites which served
as gnathobases, their inner edges
being denticulate; the
endopodites consist of stout
joints; the exopodites are slender,
and bear setae which are often
arranged in a fan-like manner.
The first pair of appendages
appear to be antennules, whilst
the second pair probably
represent the antennae, the third
pair the mandibles, and the
fourth and fifth pairs the maxillae
of other Crustacea. The
appendages of the thorax and
pygidium do not differ essentially
from the two posterior cephalic
appendages. Those on the
anterior part of the thorax are the
longest; the others gradually
decrease in size in passing
posteriorly. Each thoracic leg
(Fig. 142, B) consists of a short
coxopodite with an inward
cylindrical prolongation forming
a gnathobase which is best
developed on the anterior legs;
the endopodite and exopodite are
long and nearly equal; the former
consists of six joints tapering
gradually to the end; the latter, of Fig. 142.—Triarthrus becki, Green, ×
a long proximal joint with a 2½. Utica Slate (Ordovician), near
denticulate edge and a distal part Rome, New York. A, Ventral surface
of ten or more joints, and it bears with appendages; Ep, metastome; Hy,
hypostome. B, second thoracic
a row of setae along the whole of appendage; en, endopodite; ex,
the posterior edge. exopodite, × 12. (After Beecher.)
The anterior appendages of the
pygidium differ but little from the
posterior thoracic legs; but the phyllopodous character, which
appears in the latter, becomes more distinct in the appendages of the
pygidium, especially those near its posterior end, and is due to the
broad, flat, laminar joints of the endopodite.
The more striking features of the appendages of Triarthrus are the
small amount of differentiation which they show in different parts of
the body, especially the want of specialisation in the cephalic region;
the distinctly biramous character of all except the first pair; and the
presence of one pair of functional antennae only, and the occurrence
of thoracic gnathobases.
In Trinucleus the appendages are not so well known, but they are
considerably shorter than in Triarthrus.
In the Palaeozoic rocks of Bohemia, where Trilobites are very
perfectly preserved, Barrande[193] discovered the larval forms of
several species, and in some cases was able to trace out the
development very completely, but in others the earliest stages were
not found. In the strata in which Trilobites occur Barrande found
minute spheroidal bodies, usually of a black colour, and only a little
smaller than the youngest larval stages; those bodies are probably
the eggs of Trilobites. Since the publication of Barrande’s work the
development of some species found in North America has been
studied by Ford, Matthew, Walcott, and Beecher. But even now the
development is known in only a very small proportion of the total
number of genera of Trilobites. The early larval form (Fig. 143, A) is
similar in general character in the various species in which it has
been found. It is circular or ovoid in outline, with a length of from
0·4 to 1 mm., and consists of a large cephalic and a small pygidial
portion; the axis is distinct and usually shows more or less clear
indications of five cephalic segments; the eyes, when present, are
found at or near the front margin, and the free cheeks, if visible at all
on the dorsal surface, are narrow. For this early larval form Beecher
has proposed the name “protaspis”; he regards it as the
representative of the Nauplius of other Crustacea, but that view is
not accepted by Professor J. S. Kingsley.[194]
The general changes which occur in the course of development are:
modifications in the shape and relative size of the glabella, and of the
number and depth of the glabella-furrows; the growth of the free
cheeks and the consequent inward movement of the facial sutures
and eyes; the introduction of and gradual increase in number of the
thoracic segments, and the relative decrease in size of the head.
Sao hirsuta is a species found
in the Cambrian, the
development of which was fully
described by Barrande. Its
earliest protaspis stage (Fig. 143,
A) is circular in outline; the
glabella expands in front and
reaches the anterior margin; the
pygidial region is not distinctly
separated from the cephalic
Fig. 143.—Development of Sao hirsuta,
Barr. Cambrian. A, Protaspis; B-F,
region; segmentation is indicated
later stages; G, adult. The small in the former, and the neck-ring
outlines below each figure show the is present in the latter; the eye-
actual size of each specimen. (After line is seen on each side of the
Barrande.) glabella near the anterior margin.
In a later stage (Fig. 143, C) the
segmentation of the glabella becomes more distinct, indicating the
existence of five cephalic segments, and the facial suture appears
near the margin limiting a very narrow free cheek. Subsequently
(Fig. 143, D-F) the thoracic segments develop, and increase in
number until the adult stage (G) is reached; also the eyes appear at
the margin of the cephalic shield, and gradually move inwards, and
the glabella becomes narrower and rounded in front, and ceases to
reach the anterior margin. In this species the eye-line is present in
the adult.
In the protaspis of Triarthrus (Fig. 144), found in the Ordovician,
the glabella does not reach the front margin nor expand in front as it
does in Sao; an eye-line is present, but disappears before the adult
stage is reached.
Fig. 144.—Triarthrus becki, Green.
Ordovician. A, B, Two successive stages
of the protaspis, × 45. (After Beecher.)
Fig. 145.—Larval stages of Trilobites. A-D, Dalmanites socialis,

Barr. Ordovician, Bohemia. The small figures below show the
natural size of each specimen. (After Barrande.) E, Mesonacis
asaphoides, Emmons, × 10. Lower Cambrian, North America.
(After Walcott.) F, Acidaspis tuberculata, Conrad, × 20. Lower
Helderberg Group (Lower Devonian or Upper Silurian), Albany
County. (After Beecher.)
Dalmanites (Fig. 151, C) is a more advanced type than Sao and
Triarthrus, and is found in later deposits. In the earliest stage (Fig.
145, A) the head and pygidium are quite distinct, and there is no eye-
line present at this or any stage in development, but large ovoid eyes
are found on the front margin, and have their long axes placed
transversely to the axis of the body; the glabella is strongly
segmented and is rounded in front. In later stages (C, D) the
pygidium increases in size relatively, and the thoracic segments are
successively introduced; the facial sutures and free cheeks appear on
the dorsal surface, and as the free cheeks grow the eyes move
inwards and backwards, and gradually swing round until their long
axes become parallel with the axis of the body.
The larval form of Acidaspis (Fig. 145, F) is of interest since even
in the earliest stage it shows the spiny character which forms such a
striking feature of the adult (Fig. 151, F).
Before the discovery of the ventral surface of Trilobites it was
thought by some zoologists that their affinities were with the
Xiphosura rather than with the Crustacea. But the presence of
antennae, and of five pairs of cephalic appendages; the biramous
thoracic and pygidial appendages, the hypostome, and the character
of the larval form, as well as the absence of a genital operculum,
separate the Trilobites from the Xiphosura and connect them with
the Crustacea.
The position of the Trilobites in the Crustacea is, however, difficult
to determine. Already in the Cambrian period, at least five main
groups of the Crustacea were clearly differentiated, namely, the
Phyllopoda, Ostracoda, Cirripedia, Trilobita, and Leptostraca
(Phyllocarida), and probably also the Copepoda, but of the last no
remains have been preserved as fossils. Palaeontology, therefore,
furnishes no connecting links between any two of these orders.
The Crustacea to which the Trilobites show some resemblance are
the families Apodidae and Branchipodidae of the Order Phyllopoda
(see pp. 19–36). The Trilobita agree with those families in having a
large but variable number of trunk-segments, in the possession of a
large labrum (hypostome), and in the occurrence of gnathobases on
the thoracic appendages; also the foliation of some of the trunk-
appendages is somewhat similar. The points of difference, however,
are considerable; thus the cephalic appendages are much more
specialised in the Apodidae and Branchipodidae than in the
Trilobita; in the latter all, with the exception of the antennae, are
distinctly biramous, and whilst the basal joints were masticatory the
distal parts appear to have been locomotor organs. The appendages
of the trunk also differ considerably; in the Trilobita all are clearly
biramous, those of the thorax having a schizopodal form. In the
possession of a single pair of antennae the Trilobita differ from other
Crustacea; but in some forms of Apus the second pair of antennae
may be rudimentary or even absent.
There are still other features which characterise the Trilobita: thus
the eyes are borne on free cheeks, and differ in structure from those
of Phyllopods. The broad pygidium formed of fused segments and
without terminal fulcra is quite unlike the slender-jointed abdomen
of Apus and Branchipus; and whilst in the Trilobites all the segments
bear appendages, in the Phyllopods some, at any rate, of the
posterior segments are devoid of appendages. The distinct division of
the body into an axial and pleural region is not seen in Phyllopods,
and is probably a character of some importance, since it occurs in the
great majority of Trilobites, including all the early forms.
The existence of some relationship between the Trilobita and the
Leptostraca (Phyllocarida) has been maintained by Professor G. H.
Carpenter.[195] He points out that some of the earliest Trilobites, such
as Holmia kjerulfi (Fig. 148), possess nearly the same number of
segments as Nebalia (Fig. 76, p. 111), and that in the latter genus the
cephalic appendages, especially the mandibles and maxillae, are less
specialised than in Apus, and consequently differ less from those of
Trilobites than do the appendages of the Apodidae. Further, in
another genus of the Leptostraca, Paranebalia, the biramous
thoracic legs, in which both endopodite and exopodite are elongate,
approach those of Trilobites more nearly than do the thoracic legs of
Apus.
The view[196] that some connexion may exist between the Isopoda
and the Trilobita seems to have been based on the similar dorso-
ventral flattening of the body, its division into three regions—head,
thorax, and abdomen—and the presence of sessile eyes. Beyond this
it is difficult to find any resemblance; whilst the differences, such as
the variable number of thoracic segments and their biramous
appendages in Trilobites, are important.
At present, then, we can only conclude that the Trilobita are more
primitive than any other Crustacea, and that their resemblance to
some of the Phyllopoda is sufficient to make it probable that they had
some ancestral connexion;[197] the possibility of such a relationship
receives some support from the presence in the Lower Cambrian
rocks of Protocaris, a genus of the Phyllopoda which resembles
Apus.[198] The primitive characters of Trilobites are the variable and
often large number of segments in the thorax and pygidium; the
presence of a pair of appendages on every segment except the anal;
the biramous form of all except the first pair of appendages; and the
lack of specialisation shown by the appendages, especially those of
the head.
The classification of Trilobites is due largely to the work of
Barrande and Salter, and the families defined by those authors have
been, in the main, generally adopted. But the phylogenetic
relationship of the families has still, to a large extent, to be
established. Salter[199] arranged the families in four groups, but did
not claim that that classification was entirely natural. His groups
with the families included in each are:—
1. Agnostini. Without eyes or facial suture. Agnostidae.
2. Ampycini. Facial sutures obscure, or submarginal, or absent.
Eyes often absent. Trinucleidae.
3. Asaphini. Facial sutures ending on the posterior margin.
Acidaspidae, Lichadidae, Harpedidae, Calymenidae, Paradoxidae,
Conocephalidae, Olenidae, Asaphidae, Bronteidae, and Proëtidae.
4. Phacopini. Facial sutures ending on the lateral margins. Eyes
well developed. Phacopidae, Cheiruridae, and Encrinuridae.
A modification of Salter’s classification has been brought forward
by Beecher[200] who divides the Trilobita into three main groups:—
1. Hypoparia. Facial sutures at or near the margin, or ventral.
Compound eyes absent. This is equivalent to Salter’s Agnostini and
Ampycini with the addition of the Harpedidae.
2. Opisthoparia. Facial sutures extending from the posterior
margin to the front margin, but occasionally uniting in front of the
glabella. Eyes holochroal or prismatic, but sometimes absent. This
comprises the same families as Salter’s Asaphini with the exclusion
of the Harpedidae and Calymenidae.
3. Proparia. Facial sutures extending from the lateral margins,
and either cutting the anterior margin or uniting in front of the
glabella. Eyes holochroal or schizochroal; occasionally absent. This is
equivalent to Salter’s Phacopini with the addition of the
Calymenidae.
In each of the groups proposed Beecher regards as the more
primitive forms those which possess characters similar to those of
the early larval stages, such as narrow free cheeks, the absence of
compound eyes, and a glabella which is broad in front and reaches
the anterior margin of the head.
The modifications introduced by Beecher can scarcely be regarded
as making Salter’s classification more natural. For instance, the
Agnostidae differ so much from all other families that, at present,
there is no evidence to show that they have any close phylogenetic
relationship with the Trinucleidae and Harpedidae. Further, the
Calymenidae, which Salter recognised as related to the Olenidae,
have been shown by the careful work of Professor Pompeckj[201] to
have descended from the latter family, and to have no genetic
connexion with the Phacopidae with which they are grouped by
Beecher. Then in the Trinucleidae the earliest genus, Orometopus[202]
(Fig. 140, A), possesses compound eyes and facial sutures which
begin at the posterior margin and unite in front of the glabella; so
that, according to Beecher’s classification, that genus would belong
to the Opisthoparia, whereas the later genera (Trinucleus, etc.) of the
same family would be placed in the Hypoparia. At present, therefore,
the only classification of Trilobites which can be adopted is a division
into families, of which a short account is given below.
Fam. 1. Agnostidae (Fig. 146).—Small Trilobites, in which the
head and pygidium are of nearly the same size and shape. The thorax
is shorter than the head or pygidium, and consists of from two to
four segments with grooved pleurae. The length and width of the
head are commonly nearly equal, but sometimes the length is
greater. Eyes are absent. Facial sutures appear to be absent, but are
stated by Beecher to be at the margin of the cephalic shield. From the
absence of eyes, the probable absence of facial sutures, the few or
indistinct furrows on the glabella, and the smaller number of
thoracic segments, the Agnostidae appear to be degenerate forms.
Microdiscus is apparently less modified than Agnostus, on account
of the larger number of thoracic
segments, the more distinct
segmentation of the pygidium,
and, in some species, the larger
number of furrows on the
glabella. Cambrian and
Ordovician. Genera: Agnostus,
Microdiscus.
Fam. 2. Shumardiidae.—
The body is very small and oval.
The cephalic shield is nearly
semicircular and very convex,
with a broad glabella which
expands in front, and in which
the furrows, except the neck-
furrow, are indistinct. The facial
suture is marginal and eyes are
absent. There are six thoracic
segments with ridged pleurae; the
axis is broader than the pleurae.
The pygidium is large, and is
formed of about four segments
similar to those of the thorax.
Upper Cambrian and Ordovician.
Genus: Shumardia.
Fam. 3. Trinucleidae (Fig.
140).—The head is large and has a
flat border (except in Ampyx),
and long genal spines. In the
earliest genus (Orometopus) the Fig. 146.—Agnostus integer, Beyr., × 8.
facial sutures start from the Cambrian. (After Barrande.)
posterior margin (near the genal
angle) and pass obliquely inwards
to the compound eye, from whence they continue forward and unite
in front of the glabella. In Ampyx the suture starts from just within
the genal angle and passes to the front border, cutting off a narrow
free cheek; eyes are absent. In most specimens of Trinucleus no
sutures are seen, but some examples show indications of what may
be a facial suture (see p. 226), and a suture is sometimes found at the
margin of the cephalic border; eyes may occur (see p. 230). The
thorax consists of from five to eight segments, with grooved pleurae.
The pygidium is triangular. Principally Ordovician. Genera:
Orometopus (Upper Cambrian), Ampyx, Trinucleus, Dionide.
Fam. 4. Harpedidae (Figs. 139, G, H; 150, A).—The head is
large and has a broad, flat border which is finely punctate, and
extends backwards on each side in the form of a horn-like projection
nearly as far as the posterior end of the thorax. The glabella is convex
and does not reach the front margin. The cheeks are less convex than
the glabella, and bear eyes which usually consist of two or three
lenses. An eye-line connects the eye with the anterior part of the
glabella. A suture is stated to occur at the external margin of the flat
border. The thorax consists of from twenty-five to twenty-nine
segments; its axis is narrow, and the pleurae are long and grooved.
The pygidium is very small, and consists of three or four segments.
Ordovician to Devonian. Genus: Harpes.
Fam. 5. Paradoxidae (Figs. 147, 148, 149).—The cephalic shield
is large, and bears long genal spines. The glabella is more or less
swollen in front. The facial sutures appear to be absent in some
genera, and when present extend from the posterior to the anterior
margin. The palpebral lobes are long, and often more or less
semicircular or kidney-shaped. The thorax is long, and consists of
from sixteen to twenty segments with their pleurae produced into
spines. The pygidium is very small, and plate-like, or sometimes in
the form of a long spine. Cambrian. Genera: Olenellus, Holmia,
Mesonacis, Olenelloides, Paradoxides, Zacanthoides, Centropleura
(Anopolenus). Remopleurides (Fig. 150, D) from the Ordovician is
usually included in the Paradoxidae, but probably belongs to a
separate family.
Fam. 6. Conocephalidae (Conocoryphidae) (Fig. 150, E).—
The cephalic shield is semicircular, and larger than the pygidium.
The glabella narrows in front. The facial suture passes from near the
genal angle on the posterior border to the antero-lateral margin, and
limits a large fixed cheek and a narrow free cheek. Eyes are absent or
rudimentary, but an eye-line is usually present. The thorax consists
of from fourteen to seventeen segments with grooved pleurae, which
may be pointed, but are not usually produced into spines. The
pygidium is small, and formed of
few segments. Cambrian. Genera:
Conocoryphe, Atops,
Ctenocephalus, Bathynotus.
Fam. 7. Olenidae (Figs. 142,
143; 150, B, C).—The cephalic
shield is larger than the
pygidium. The glabella is either
rectangular or parabolic. The
facial suture passes from the
posterior to the anterior margin.
The palpebral lobes are of
moderate or rather large size, and
are connected by an eye-line with
the front part of the glabella. The
thorax includes from eleven
(occasionally fewer) to eighteen
segments with grooved pleurae.
The pygidium is usually small,
with from two to eight segments.
Principally Cambrian. Genera:
Ptychoparia, Angelina,
Solenopleura, Sao, Agraulos
(Arionellus), Ellipsocephalus,
Protolenus, Olenus, Peltura,
Acerocare, Eurycare, Ctenopyge,
Fig. 147.—Paradoxides bohemicus, Leptoplastus, Triarthrus,
Barr. × ½. Middle Cambrian. (After
Zittel.) Parabolina, Sphaerophthalmus,
Parabolinella, Ceratopyge
(position doubtful).
Dikelocephalus is usually placed in the Olenidae, but perhaps
belongs to a distinct family.
Fam. 8. Calymenidae (Figs. 136, 137).—The glabella is broadest
behind. The facial suture starts at or near the genal angle—
sometimes on the posterior border just inside the angle, sometimes
on the lateral border just in front of the angle; the suture may be
continuous with the other suture in front of the glabella, or may cut
the anterior margin, beneath which it is connected with the other
suture by means of a transverse
suture (Fig. 137, B, D). The eyes
are rather small. The thorax
consists of thirteen segments with
grooved pleurae; the pygidium of
from six to fourteen segments.
Ordovician to Devonian. Genera:
Calymene, Synhomalonotus,
Homalonotus.
Fig. 148.—Holmia kjerulfi, Linnars. ×

1. Lower Cambrian. (After Holm.)
Fig. 149.—Clenelloides armatus, Peach.
Lower Cambrian, × 3. (After Peach.)
Fig. 150.—A, Harpes ungula, Sternb., Ordovician. B,
Ellipsocephalus hoffi, Scloth., Cambrian. C, Olenus truncatus,
Brünn., Cambrian. (After Angelin.) D, Remopleurides radians,
Barr., Ordovician. E, Conocoryphe sulzeri, Barr., Cambrian. F,
Illaenus dalmanni, Volb., Ordovician. G, Proëtus bohemicus,
Corda, Silurian, × 1½. H, Aeglina prisca, Barr., Ordovician, × 3.
I, Phacops sternbergi, Barr., Devonian. (A, D, E, G, H, I, after
Barrande; B, F, from Zittel; natural size except G, H.)
Fam. 9. Asaphidae (Fig. 150, F).—The body is oval and
commonly rather large. The cephalic shield is large, with its glabella
often indistinctly limited and the glabella-furrows often obscure. The
facial suture starts from the posterior margin and usually cuts the
anterior margin, but is sometimes continued in front of the glabella.
The relative size of the fixed and free cheeks varies greatly. The eyes
are of variable size. The thorax consists of eight or ten (sometimes
fewer) segments; the pleurae are generally grooved, but sometimes
plane. The pygidium is large, often being similar in form and size to
the head; it consists of numerous segments which, however, may be
indistinctly shown; the axis in some forms is obsolete. Upper
Cambrian (Tremadoc) to Silurian; common in the Ordovician.
Genera: Asaphus (sub-genera, Megalaspis, Asaphellus,
Symphysurus, etc.), Ogygia, Barrandia, Niobe, Nileus, Illaenus,
Bumastus, Stygina. Aeglina (Fig. 150, H) is usually placed in this
family, but its systematic position is doubtful.
Fam. 10. Bronteidae.—The general form is similar to that of the
Asaphidae. The glabella broadens rapidly in front, and is marked
with furrows on each side, which are usually short, and may be
indistinct. The facial suture passes from the posterior margin to the
crescentic eye which is situated rather near the posterior border, and
from thence to the anterior margin. There are ten thoracic segments
with ridged pleurae. The pygidium is longer than the head, and has a
very short axis, from which the furrows on the pleural part radiate.
Ordovician to Devonian. Genus: Bronteus.
Fam. 11. Phacopidae (Figs. 138; 150, I; 151, C).—The head and
pygidium are of about the same size. The glabella is distinctly
limited, and wider in front than behind, with a neck-furrow and
three other furrows, of which some of the anterior may be indistinct
or obsolete. The eyes are schizochroal and usually large. The facial
suture begins at the lateral margin and unites with the suture of the
other side in front of the glabella. There are eleven thoracic segments
with grooved pleurae. The pygidium is usually large, with a distinct
axis and many segments. Ordovician to Devonian. Genera: Phacops,
Trimerocephalus, Acaste, Pterygometopus, Chasmops, Dalmanites,
Cryphaeus.
Fig. 151.—A, Phillipsia gemmulifera, Phill., Carboniferous. B,
Arethusina konincki, Barr., Ordovician. C, Dalmanites limulurus,
Green, Silurian. (After Hall.) D, Cheirurus insignis, Beyr.,
Silurian. E, Deiphon forbesi, Barr., Silurian. F, Acidaspis
dufrenoyi, Barr., Silurian. (A, B, from Zittel; D, E, F, after
Barrande; natural size.)
Fam. 12. Cheiruridae (Fig. 151, D, E).—The glabella is convex or

inflated, and distinctly defined. The facial suture passes from the
lateral to the front margin. The free cheeks are small, and the eyes
usually rather small. There are from nine to eighteen (usually eleven)
thoracic segments; the pleurae have ridges or grooves and free ends.
The pygidium is small, consisting of from three to five segments
often produced into spines. Upper Cambrian to Devonian. Genera:
Cheirurus, Deiphon, Placoparia, Sphaerexochus, Amphion,
Staurocephalus.
Fam. 13. Proëtidae (Figs. 150, G; 151, A, B).—The body is rather
small, and the head forms about a third of its entire length. The
glabella is sharply defined, and its furrows are sometimes indistinct;
the posterior furrow curves backward to the neck-furrow, thus
limiting a basal lobe on each side of the glabella. The eyes are often
large (Fig. 150, G); but in Arethusina (Fig. 151, B), in which an eye-
line is present, they are small. The facial sutures pass from the
posterior to the anterior margin. The free cheeks are large. There are
from eight to twenty-two thoracic segments with grooved pleurae.
The pygidium is usually formed of numerous segments, and its
margin is usually entire. Ordovician to Permian. Genera: Proëtus,
Arethusina, Cyphaspis, Phillipsia, Griffithides, Brachymetopus,
Dechenella.[203]
Fam. 14. Encrinuridae.—The cephalic shield is ornamented
with tubercles. The free cheeks are narrow, and the eyes very small.
The facial suture extends from the lateral margin (or from the genal
angle) to the anterior margin. There are from ten to twelve thoracic
segments with ridged pleurae. On the axis of the pygidium numerous
segments are seen, but usually fewer are indicated on the lateral
parts. Ordovician and Silurian. Genera: Encrinurus, Cybele,
Dindymene.
Fam. 15. Acidaspidae (Fig. 151, F).—The cephalic shield is
broad, with a spinose margin, genal spines, and sometimes spines on
the neck-ring. The glabella has a longitudinal furrow on each side,
due to the backward bending of the lateral furrows. The facial suture
passes from the posterior border (near the genal angle) to the
anterior border. The free cheeks are large; the eyes small. There are
from eight to ten thoracic segments with ridged pleurae, which are
produced into long backwardly directed spines. The pygidium is
short, and is formed of two or three segments with long spines at the
margin. Ordovician to Devonian. Genus: Acidaspis.

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13.1 The trace minerals – an overview 453 CHAPTER 16

CHAPTER 19 Appendix B Basic chemistry concepts 708

Appendix A Cells, hormones

Salmon is rich in the

Guide to the text

CHAPTER OPENING FEATURES

Connect Nutrition in your life with the 1

Think about your intuitive beliefs related to Nutrition in your life

start of every chapter. Check your answers T

in the margins when the topic is discussed, T

which are explained further in the end-of- LEARNING OBJECTIVES

chapter review. 1.2

Identify the key concepts that the chapter purpose.

will cover with the Learning objectives at

the start of each chapter.

590 Understanding nutrition

590 Understanding nutrition

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS Calcium

a greater detrimental mass than intake

Practise common nutrition tasks

such as comparing nutrient density

or calculating your energy

the How to boxes throughout the

Connect key Australian Dietary Guidelines to your understanding of the

Extend your learning with the additional information notes highlighting

interesting or important information

A performance diet example

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

CURRENT RESEARCH IN NUTRITION

Athletes can excel on a vegetarian diet

Meals before and after competition

Evaluate how current research in

health and food choices in the

Applications of nutritional leaves So much

research boxes in every chapter. vanilla essence. risk. For

END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES 1 The process of food

proceeds all the wayon

your knowledge of the key learning outcomes. carry nutrients

concepts in preparation for 5

exams by completing the

Master the common Nutrition

calculations introduced in the

How to chapter features. 8 h

exploring the online resources

by completing the Search me! SEARCH ME! NUTRITION

nutrition research activity.

exploring the weblinks listed in

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Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources

COGNERO® TEST BANK

ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

FOR THE STUDENT

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

The only fruit that

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PUTTING COMMON SENSE TO THE TEST

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