Module 8: Aircraft Materials and Avionics

Chapter 8.1 Introduction Avionics fundamental

● WAAS – wide area augmentation system- developed by FAA to improve precision of

GPS
● LORAN – Long range navigation system – operated at lower frequency and offers a
range up to 1500 mile
● ARINC 708 (Aeronautical Radio, Incorporated) is a weather radar. ACARS (Aircraft
communication addressing and reporting system) - transmitting short messages between
aircraft and ground station.
● ARINC 429 – data transfer standard for aircraft avionics – alternative of MIL-STD-
1553- is has a self-synchronizing and self-clocking data bus – it has 32 bit data bus
● ARINC 661 – defines the interface between cockpit display and avionics equipment
● TFR (Terrain following radar) helps flying aircraft at low altitude
● Airbus 320neo – new engine option
● Doppler device - separates any clutter from the aircraft by the frequency spectrum.
● RADAR - use radio waves LIDAR - uses infrared light from laser
● CTEF (Continuous trailing edge flap) - instrument to improve the reliability and
stability of the aircraft
● SVS (synthetic vision system) - realistic 3D view of the outside world
● The ambient pressure at 40000 ft is 0.2bar
● ECS (Environmental control system)
● Vertical stabilizer control and adjust the yaw of an aircraft
● Stabilizers with the roll control function are called tailerons.
● Integral fuel tank= wet wing

Flight recorder:
a. CVR (Cockpit voice recorder)
a. 4 channels (pilot, co-pilot, crew and center area)
b. recording duration is 2 hours
c. Mounted in the rear part of the aircraft
b. FDR (Flight data recorder)
a. It must withstand an acceleration/impact of 3400 g for 6.5 millisecond
b. Bright orange colour is used because of heat resistance and provides high
visibility.
c. It is mounted in the tail section.
d. Verification check is done annually
c. CVR and FDR must be able to withstand a crushing distance of 45 cm and resists the
impact velocity of 270 knots

Material selection for design:

● Metals, polymers, elastomers, ceramics, glasses, hybrid composite materials

● Materials that are not resistant to corrosion can be painted with a protective layer of
another metal. A few examples of metals are chromium, nickel or zinc.
● Fatigue strength: The highest point up to which the material can resist cycles of
stress.
● Reliability of a material is important to maintain the quality of the material.

● Fuselage = Al alloy

● Aircraft windows = Plexiglass (good strength and transparency)

● Helicopter = Magnesium and its alloy (lighter than aluminium)

● Oil tank = Al and its alloys and sometimes Mg as well. Sheet thickness =0.889 to
12.44mm
● Covering for the wing of aircraft = AL and its alloy and other fabric and plywood
can be also used
● aircraft wings = titanium alloy

● Control part = steels or Al alloy

● Seats of aircraft = Magnesium alloy sheet and Al alloy as well

● Wood =propeller blades, wing ribs flooring

● Bolts = nickel steel

● Douglas fir = type of wood whose wood can be used in manufacturing a wing beam

● wheels = thick rubber (Nitrogen gas is filled)

● wingtips and stabilizer tips = non metallic material

● Common materials used in the aircraft industry:

o Composites, aluminum, titanium, steel, GLARE(glass reinforced composites
epoxy adhesive)
o Graphene, carbon nanotube- future aeronautical materials
● Basis of human-machine interface:

● Fly by wire:
o The first aircraft to have FBW- F-16 in 1973.
o The FBW system provides high-integrity automatic stabilization to
compensate for the loss of stability and provide overall better performance. so
they use a smaller tail area.
o The fly-by-wire system uses actuators to move the control surfaces to
maintain the stability of an aircraft. The signals sent by the pilot via the
control stick are intercepted by the flight controller computer and signals
are sent to the respective actuators to move the control surfaces.
o Time-division multiplexing is used where signals can be transmitted along a
network consisting only of two wires. The FBW system uses this.
o ARINC 629 links and bus use an unscreened twisted pair of wires
o Mil-STD 1553 uses screened twisted pair cables.
o Rate gyro is a motion sensor acts as a feedback in FBW system
 o An FBW control stick is referred to as an FBW inceptor. (types- active and
passive )
o An aircraft is said to be negatively stable when its tailplane produces a
positive lift.
o FBW system requires an air data system (airspeed, height(density of air),
angle of attack and temperature) for control and stability
o Side slip angle: this is the angle between directions of an aircraft travelling
and direction of its nose pointing. It is in the Yaw plane.
o Dampers are essential in control interceptors - acts as a low bypass filter
on the control stick movement
o Control system - derivative provide = reduced overshoot and integral
provide = low steady state error.
● Radio wave propagation:

● Satellite communication:

● Flight management system and autopilot system:

o FMS performs various functions: Automatic navigation and guidance
including ‘4D’ navigation, Presentation of information, Management of
aircraft systems, Efficient management of fuel, and Reduction of operating
costs.

Chapter 8.4 Aircraft Instruments and electrical system

● Altimeter and its types:

o Measure airspeed and altitude of aircraft from the sea level, angle of
inclination of a plane
o Primary flight instrument are: autopilot, altitude indicator, air speed indicator
o Radio altimeter are used up to 2500 feet to measure the flight altitude
o Radar altimeter: greater the frequency shift further the distance travel
● VSI (Vertical speed indicator)
o Used to determine the vertical airspeed of an airplane
o Mounted on the aircraft wing tip or one on the fuselage.
o Calibrated in knots per hr or ft per sec
o First used in B-17
o Display: green line – altitude and red line –airspeed
o variometer – device that detects the air pressure
o it indicate rate at which the altitude change
o the measurement of +4 means ascent of 4000 ft per minute
o the measurement of -1.5 means descent of 1500 ft per minute
● ASI (Air speed indicator) – also called speedometer
o Used to measure the speed of the aircraft with the ground and airflow flow
velocity around an aircraft
o It has a range of 0-9999 knots (miles per hr)
 o It has 2 bar, one forwards (Y- axis) and another backward (X) and represents
how fast the airplane moves in that direction
o Static port is mounted on the fuselage of an aircraft. Alternative port is
located inside the cabin of an aircraft. Static port determines altitude,
mach no. and air speed
o Pitot tube – located in the wing assembly of an aircraft. Ram air enters the
system through it. Pitot pressure is used only to determine the airspeed
o Dynamic pressure – difference between static pressure and pitot pressure
o TAS (true air speed): It increases as the altitude increases.
● Horizontal situation indicator (HIS):
o It shows the heading of an aircraft, course – direction of flight, bearing-
showing orientation point and lateral deviation- deviation of actual vs wanted
flight direction of an aircraft.
● Engine parameter indicating system (EICAS) – engine indicating and crew alerting
system
o It display engine parameter and other like fuel quantity, cabin pressure/
landing gear, flap/slat position, cargo doors
o 3 types of indication: performance indication – RPM, engine pressure ratio,
operation indication- fuel flow, oil pressure and temperature, discrete
indication (ON/OFF)
● Head up display:
o maintaining full visual concentration to the outside world.
o It consists of airspeed, altimeter, heading, slip/skid indicator, turn/bank
indicator, artificial horizon lining, angle of attack indicator, vertical speed
indicator, flight path vector and much more depending upon the customer
requirements.
o A collimated display is a display in which the rays of light emitted/reflected is
parallel to the display
o The path of light - CRT -> mirror -> collimating lens -> combiner glass ->
pilot
o The Instantaneous field of vision is given by: IFOV=2tan-1 D/2L
o The various controls and functions carried out by the HUD processor are
display formats, axis conversion, parameter conversion, format
management, brightness and contrast control, power supply and
calibration.
o The contrast ratio= brightness of real world light: brightness of CRT light =
70: 30 = 7: 3. So that CRT display is used.
o It is transparent display
o Primarily designed for military although used in commercial as well
o 3 primary components: a projector unit, a combiner unit, and a video
generation unit
o HUD is classified into 4 generation
▪ 1st generation – it uses CRD to generate the image. They use
phosphor screens to generate the image.
 ▪ 2nd generation – they sue solid state light source

▪ 3rd generation – it uses optical waveguides to produce the image

▪ 4th generation – it uses scanning laser to display the image

o Size of the box is 5 lateral and 6 longitudinal inches in size
o HUD helps in low visibility take off
o Boresight – it is used to indicate the direction in which the nose of aircraft is
pointing

● Head down display

o four electromechanical devices retained while making an avionics update for
old aircraft: altimeter, airspeed indicator, heading indicator, artificial
horizon
o Five primary flight display are: altimeter, vertical speed indicator, artificial
horizon, heading/compass indicator and Mach meter
o A typical civil aircraft cockpit will have 4 displays, 2 Primary Flight Displays
(these are the same display for both pilots), and 2 Multi-Functional Displays.
o The standby attitude indicator, standby altimeter, and standby airspeed
indicator are replaced with a single solid-state integrated standby instrument
system packaged in a 3 ATI case. They consist of solid-state gyros and
accelerometers, solid-state pressure sensors along with a microprocessor and
color AMLCD.
● HMD
o Head angle acts as a pointer to direct air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons.
o HOTAS (Hands on Throttle-And-Stick): provides all critical controls on the
throttle and stick.

● Aircraft batteries:
o Delivers the DC and converts chemical into electrical energy
o Types: lead-acid batteries and Nickel-cadmium batteries
o Used in light, radios, bells and engine
o It provides the power in the startup and during emergency provides the short
term source
o In aircraft one battery is on APU and one is cabin electrical equipment area
● Aircraft external ground power:
o Ground power unit, battery pack and industrial power unit are external power
o They are used in servicing or maintenance.
● Circuit protection system:
o Fuses – protect the cable, diodes- check the valve in hydraulics, circuit
breaker- same as fuse but the can be resettle and Generator control unit-
protection of DC generation system, sensing and regulation.

Autopilot
 ● Control wheel steering (CWS): midway between auto and manual operation
○ The pilot handles the autopilot by feeding inputs using the yoke.
● Three axis system of aircraft are: Roll, pitch and yaw simultaneously
● stability augmentation system (SAS) : Yaw damper is the most common type
Flight management system
● Functions: Automatic navigation and guidance including ‘4D’ navigation,
Presentation of information, Management of aircraft systems, Efficient management
of fuel, Reduction of operating costs.
● FMS contain the navigation data base which is given by ARNIC 424 and database
are updated every 4 weeks
● VNAV or vertical navigation is the FMS mode for the vertical flight plan.
● The flight plan generally appears as a magenta line
● First introduced B767
Chapter 8.5: Navigation and communication systems
● Avionics are powered by DC 14 /28 volt, much larger aircraft are powered by AC
400Hz, 115V
● the protocol of ACARS was designed by = ARINC (Aeronautical radio
incorporated)
● FANS-B (Future air navigation system) = A320 family

● FANS-1/A =B787 and A380 and are defined by ARINC 622

● ACARS refers to Aircraft communications addressing and reporting system

● MFD (multi function display): referred to glare shield panel

● Navigation and Guidance Systems

o When the state vector(6) is measured and calculated on board, the process is
called navigation. When it is calculated outside the vehicle, the process is
called surveillance or position location.
o Navigation system
▪ Positioning: the state vector without regard to the path travelled by the
vehicle in the past. Types are radio systems, celestial systems and
mapping navigation systems
▪ Dead reckoning: There are two types

● one uses the gyroscope and accelerometer

● while the other depends on radio stations

● Doppler navigation system:

o It works on the Doppler effect.
● Inertial Navigation system (INS)
o to measure the acceleration and angular velocity
 o self-contained source of position, ground speed, and heading and it does not
need a receiver
● Global Positioning System (GPS – Provides the data on horizontal position,
velocity and altitude
o Receiver works at the frequency of 1572.45 MHz
o System of 24 satellites, 4/5 of which are in view at all times.

Ground based navigation and landing

o Automatic direction finder (ADF):
▪ It determines the direction or bearing relative to the aircraft by using a
combination of directional or non directional antennae to sense the direction.
▪ This display looks like a compass card with a needle superimposed.

▪ It uses bearings from NDB for navigation purposes

o Radio navigation- VHF omnidirectional radio range (VOR)

▪ VOR broadcast 360 radials form the station in all the direction

▪ It broadcast 2 signals – the reference signal (360) and rotating signal

▪ it measures bearing accuracy, signal level, presence of notches

▪ VHF - requires very high frequency and the are the short range radio navigation
method.
▪ The line of position is called radial from the VOR

▪ developed in US

▪ the transmitted signals are competent up to 200 miles

▪ VOR + NDB = GPS (they are replaced by GPS/RNAV)

▪ VOR> NDB (accuracy)

▪ ROR station depends on line of sight

▪ Spacing between VOR channels is 50 kHz

▪ predicated accuracy= 1.4 degree and 99.94% outcome

▪ It requires VHF transmission signal

▪ It is short range radio navigation

▪ It allows the aircraft to determine its position while flying help align in
desired path
▪ The predictable accuracy for VOR is 90m
 ▪ VOR are assigned the radio channel between 108 MHz to 117.95MHZ

o Distance measuring equipment (DME):

▪ combination of ground and airborne equipment which gives a continuous slant
range distance-from-station readout by measuring time-lapse of a signal
transmitted by the aircraft to the station and responded back
▪ DMEs can also provide ground speed and time-to-station readouts by
differentiation
▪ Channel assignment specifies the carrier frequency and the spacing between the
pulses.
▪ Agencies that sets the standards for DME = RTCA, EASA, ICAO

▪ it falls under UHF

▪ developed in Australia

▪ time taken by the radio signal to travel 1 Nautical mile (1852m) to the target
and back is 12.36 microsecond
▪ the accuracy of DME on the ground station is 185m or 0.25 nautical mile

▪ slant range is the distance between aircraft antenna and DME transponder

▪ the spacing of all the channel is 1MHz

▪ it has 2700 interrogation per second

▪ range frequency of receiving channel 1025 to 1150 MHz and transmitting

channel is 962 to 1213MHz
▪ they are paired with VOR frequencies

● Non-directional Bacon (NDB):

o A radio beacon operating in the MF(300 to 3000) o or LF(3 to 300KHz)
bandwidths.
o NDBs transmit Omni-directional signals to an antenna on board the
aircraft
o NDBs transmit a signal of equal strength in all directions. The signal
contains a coded element which is used for station identification (normally 1-
3 letters)

Global navigation satellite system (GNSS):

● Position, velocity and time determination

● Types
o GPS – USA
 o GALILEO – Europe
o Global orbiting navigation system – Russia
o beiDou navigation satellite system (BDS) – china

Instrument landing system (ILS): also known as instrument guidance system

● A radio based approach guidance system installed at major airports and airfields
where the runway length exceeds 1800 m which provides guidance in poor visibility
conditions during the approach to the runway.
● ILS beam intended to use in only one direction are called back beam

● there are 40 channels in ILS

● Radio altimeter is used to determine decision height of CATII (cut off with in 2 sec
after detecting error) and CAT III approaches
o CAT I - 10 sec- wide area augmentation system provides the guidance
● Main components:localiser transmitter -lateral guidance
o (VHF range from 108-122 MHz) ie 110MHz
o provides information to the aircraft as to whether it is flying to the left or
right of the centerline of the runway
o angular deviation: Yl
o located beyond the departure end of a runway.
● glide slope transmitter - vertical guidance or G/S signal
o UHF frequencies from 329.3 to 335 MHz frequency ie 330MHz
o provides information to the aircraft as to whether it is flying above or below
the defined descent path of nominally 2.5◦
o Angular deviation:YV
● Enables the pilot to take the instrumental approach to landing if they are unable to
establish visual contacts with the runway

Communication system:
o HF (high frequency) Radio- Frequency range; 2.8 to 22 MHz, long-distance
communication subsystem based on ionosphere reflections
o VHF (Very high frequency) Radio- Frequency range; 118 to 138 MHz, used for line of
sight voice and data communications.
o UHF (ultra high frequency) - the portion of the electro-magnetic spectrum having the
wavelength between 0.1 and 1 m and f between 3000 to 300 MHz. Used in TV
broadcasting.
o Long Range Navigation (LORAN)
o Space based support
o Radio Navigation and landing
o Weather
o Communication and navigation
o Performance based navigation
o EHF (Extra high frequency)
▪ 30000 to 300000 MHz
o SHF (Super high frequency)
▪ 3000 to 30000 MHz
o UHF
▪ 300 to 3000MHz

▪ the portion of the electro-magnetic spectrum having the wavelength between 0.1
and 1m
▪ used in TV broadcasting
o VHF
▪ VHF (frequency 30 to 300 MHz) (air band of 136.975 MHz)

▪ The transmission range of an aircraft flying at 35000 ft is 200 miles

▪ Air band uses the frequency between 108 to 137 MHz.

▪ Used for line of sight voice and data communications.

o HF
▪ It is also known as Decameter band

▪ They shortwave radio communication

▪ Wavelength range = 100m to 10 m

▪ Frequency range= 3 to 30 MHz

▪ They are best for long distance communication and for mountain terrains based on
ionosphere reflections
o MF
▪ Known as Hectometer band

▪ Wavelength range – 1000 to 100m

▪ Frequency range is 300KHz to 3000KHz i.e. 0.3 to 3 MHz

▪ They are used trans-oceanic ATC control and maritime ship to shore
communication
o LF
▪ Known as kilometer band

▪ 30 to 300 KHz i.e. 0.3 to 0.03 MHz

o VLF
▪ 3 to 30 KHz i.e. 0.03 to 0.003 MHz
 ● Communication system
o Satellite communication (SATCOM)
o Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS)
o Interphone communication system
o Passenger address (PA) system
o Audio management system
● Flight Management System
o Air traffic management
o Surface management
o Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA)
o The Flight Management Computer (FMC);
o The Automatic Flight Control or Automatic Flight Guidance System (AFCS or
AFGS) ;
o The Aircraft Navigation System
o Electronic flight instrument system (FIS) or equivalent electromechanical
instrumentation.

Chapter 8.6 Transponder and RADAR (Radio detection and ranging)

● RADAR determines range, angle and velocity. LIDAR is similar to radar

● they use horizontal, vertical, linear and circular polarization

o It can detect objects along with information about weather formation and
terrain. It determine the range, angle, velocity
o Radar uses the radio wave
o Rayleigh scattering is the effect that creates earth blue sky and red sunsets
o Active radar system – transmit a signal reflected back to the receiver
o Passive radar system- reply on the object to send the signal to the receiver
o Radar mile – time taken by radar pulse in order to travel 1 Nautical mile and
return back to radar antenna
o Radar polarization: In order to detect different types of reflection
▪ Horizontal –

▪ Circular – the interference caused due to rain

▪ Random – it is used in the hard surface like rock

▪ Vertical

▪ Linear- return usually indicate metal surface

o radar strength is proportional to (1/distance4)

● Primary surveillance radar: (reflected pulse -Echo)

o PSR transmits electromagnetic signal energy towards the target i.e. aircraft.
The aircraft acts as a passive element and reflects the EM energy back towards
 the primary radar antenna.
Eg. ATC radar i.e. Air Traffic Control radar
o cannot measure the height of the aircraft but can measure the range and
distance of the aircraft
o identify the friends or foe is also not possible
o it uses the pulse technique
o Military aircraft uses very low RCS (radar cross section)

● Secondary surveillance radar: (reflected pulse - Reply)

o SSR transmits pulses and receives digital data coming from the aircraft
transponder. These transponders are used to establish flight identity in military
applications.
Eg. IFF Radar i.e. Identification Friend or Foe Radar

o requires more power than primary for the same amount of coverage because
here pulse is one way
o It can identify the an aircraft flying in its range
o The strength of the secondary radar varies inversely with distance to the 2nd
power.

● Weather avoidance radar (Weather surveillance radar -WSR)

o It is mounted in the front nose section of aircraft
o A weather radar system can show conditions at a distance of up to 200 nmi.
o The weather radar operates at a frequency of 9375 MHz, corresponding to a
wavelength of 3 cm (1 to 10 cm)
o They make use of radio waves
o Pulse based Doppler radars are used in modern aircraft -The ARINC 708 is
the primary specification for weather radar systems
o The weather radars used in aircrafts emit directional pulses of microwave
radiation
o X-band radar system - used for the short range units (3cm)
o Level 0- Black - background
o Level 1- green- weak = radar return – minor precipitation
o Level 2-Yellow (moderate)
o Level 3- red - strong to very strong - heavy precipitation (structural damage)
o Level 4-magenta - intense to extreme extremely heavy precipitation

● Pulse radar- continuous pulses are transmitted by measuring a round trip time of a
pulsed microwave signal
● Doppler radar - signal / power is continuously radiated by transmitting antenna

● Receiver is more sensitive than transmitter

● Narrow beam antenna width is used this gives more accurate position of the objects
● Monostatic radar- same antenna is used for both transmission and reception. If the
target cross section is changing monopulse is used
● Bistatic - 2 antennas are used. they are used in missile fire control

● Radar cross section means = scattering ability of the target

● Types of interrogations in the ATCRBS

o Mode A - identity only time lag is 8 μs
o Mode B - identity and altitude of the aircraft time lag is 21 μs
● capture area = the ability of the antenna to turn radiated energy into conducted
energy
● Clutter - they are the undesirable responses from the buildings and clouds

● TCAS system (Traffic alert and collision avoidance system)

o The time between the collisions of two aircraft on a collision course is called
Tau.
o The threshold number for Tau, whether it is 10 sec or 100 sec depends on
the ability of the aircraft to maneuver and avoid a collision.
o The range of a general TCAS system is around 4 minutes before collision.
At 45 seconds before collision, TCAS gives traffic advisory and at 25
seconds before collision provides resolution advisory.
o TCAS uses two different methods to avoid garbling.
▪ One is whisper shout and

▪ The other is using directional interrogations.

o TCAS I - provides proximity to warning and aids the pilot in visual
identification of threats
● Automatic dependent surveillance broadcast (ADS-B)
o It broadcasts periodically aircraft’s ‘Identification’, ‘Position’, and
‘Velocity‘ at 1090 MHz
● Weather avoidance radar
o It is mounted in the front nose section of aircraft with an
electromagnetically transparent radome in the nose cone to display weather
conditions ahead.
o Range of weather radar = 200 nmi.
o The weather radar operates at a frequency of 9375 MHz, corresponding to a
wavelength of 3 cm
o the gain required by weather radar antenna is 25dB
o The minimum safe approach distance to weather radar is 4ft
● Power density at the scatter /amount of energy incident on the target

where Pt =power transmitted by antenna G=antenna gain

● Radar range: wavelength =c/f