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FULL Download Ebook PDF Introduction To Psychology 3rd Edition by Charles Stangor PDF Ebook
FULL Download Ebook PDF Introduction To Psychology 3rd Edition by Charles Stangor PDF Ebook
Index 589
Charles Stangor is a professor of psychology at the University of Maryland. He has also
taught at the New School for Social Research in New York, Michigan State University,
and at the University of Tu.bingen in Germany. He received his BA from Beloit College
in 1973 and his PhD from New York University in 1986. Dr. Stangor is the recipient of
research grants from the National Institute of Mental Health and from the National
Science Foundation. He has published seven books and over 70 research articles and
book chapters and has served as an associate editor of the European Journal of Social
Psychology. He is a charter fellow of the Association for Psychological Science. He has
served as the chair of the executive committee and as executive officer for the Society
for Experimental Social Psychology. Dr. Stangor regularly teaches Social Psychology,
Research Methods, and at the graduate level, Fundamentals of Social Psychology and
Group Processes. Dr. Stangor has served as Associate Chair in the psychology depart-
ment, and has won the distinguished teaching award from the University of Maryland.
Dr. Stangor's research interests concern the enhancement and assessment of academic
achievement in higher education, with a particular focus on reducing educational
achievement gaps between men and women and among ethnic groups.
NOTES FOR VERSION 3.0
I would like to thank the team at FlatWorld, including Vicki Brentnall and KB Mello, who worked closely with me on all aspects of
the project. Also, many thanks to the following colleagues (including those who wish to remain anonymous) whose comprehensive
feedback and suggestions for improving the material helped make the third edition of Introduction to Psychology a better text.
• Dr. Denise Arellano, Ph.D., McNeese State University
• Dr. David Baskind, Delta College
• Dr. Robert Becklen, Ph.D., Ramapo College of New Jersey
• Janell Campbell, Colorado State University-Pueblo
• Dr. Kimberly Chandler, Ph.D., Eastfield College
• Dr. James Collins, Middle Georgia College
• Sister Marie Kathleen Daugherty, Donnelly College
• J. David Eisenberg, Evergreen Valley College
• Daniella Errett, Pennsylvania Highlands Community College
• Jerry Green, Tarrant County College
• Deana Julka, University of Portland
• Dr. Caleb Lack, University of Central Oklahoma
• Dr. Thomas Link, Pierce College
• Richard P. Martielli, Ph.D., Washington University in Saint Louis
• Tom Myers, Queensborough Community College
• John Norland, Blackhawk Technical College
• Dr. Mary Ann O'Grady, Southern New Hampshire University
• Sharon Olsen, St. Petersburg College
• Sheldon H. Rifkin, Ph.D., Kennesaw State University
• Dr. Michael Spiegler, Ph.D., Providence College
• Dr. Wayne Stein, Brevard Community College
• Barry Stennett, Athens Technical College; North Georgia College
• Dr. Aaron Wichman, Western Kentucky University
VERSION 1.0
The development of Introduction to Psychology was made possible through the combined efforts of many people, each of whom
brought special skills to the project.
One important resource was an advisory board of instructors from across the country. Their thoughtful and insightful feedback
throughout development was invaluable in creating this first edition. I am deeply grateful to the following people for their time and
effort:
• M. Janelle Cambron-Mellott, University of Alabama; Birmingham Southern College
• Celeste Doerr, Florida State University
• Jerry Green, Tarrant County College-NW Campus
• Richard Hass, University of Delaware
• Adam Hutcheson, University of South Carolina
• Matthew I. Isaak, University of Louisiana at Lafayette
• Kerry Jordan, Utah State University
• Jerwen Jou, University of Texas-Pan American
• Peggy Norwood, Community College of Aurora
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 3
PEDAGOGICAL GOALS
This book is designed to facilitate student learning. It uses a wide variety of pedagogy to help instructors and students, including the
following:
• Chapter Openers to Stimulate Student Interest. I open each chapter by showcasing an interesting real-world example of
people who are dealing with psychological questions and who use psychology to help them answer those questions. These
chapter openers will draw your students into the chapter and create an interest in learning about the topic.
• Psychology in Everyday Life. Each chapter contains one or two features designed to link the principles from the chapter to
real-world applications in business, environment, health, law, education, and other relevant domains. For instance, the ap-
plication in Chapter 6- «What Makes a Good Parent?"- applies the concepts of parenting styles in a mini-handbook about
parenting, and the application in Chapter 3 is about the difficulties that left-handed people face performing everyday tasks
in a right-handed world.
• Research Foci to Reinforce the Importance of Empiricism. I attempt to emphasize empiricism throughout the text, but
without making it a distraction from the main story line. Each chapter also presents two close-ups on research- well-articu-
lated and specific examples of research within the content area, each including a summary of the hypotheses, methods, res-
ults, and interpretations. This feature provides a continuous thread that reminds students of the importance of empirical re-
search. The research foci also emphasize the fact that findings are not always predictable ahead of time (dispelling the myth
of hindsight bias) and help students understand how research really works.
• Quiz Questions. A set of quiz questions is found at the end of every main chapter section. Students can use these to test
their learning. Frequent testing is a key to student success and these quizzes help meet that objective.
PREFACE 5
• Learning Objectives. Each main chapter section lays out the learning objetives for that section.
• Marginal Glossary of Key Terms. Placing the key terms in the margins allows students to easily review them by skimming
through the text.
• Key Takeaways. Students can review the highlights of the chapters.
• Exercises and Critical Thinking Activities. These are thought questions that can be used to stimulate discussion and help
students form opinions about the chapter section content.
CONTEMPORARY THEMES
Two topics that are of particular interest to contemporary psychologists involve the treatment of Nature and Nurture, and the role of
Gender and Culture. These themes are introduced in Chapter 1 and revisited throughout the book.
Nature and Nurture. Although some competing texts have a separate chapter on the nature-nurture question, version 3 contin-
ues to weave this important topic throughout the text. Discussion about the role of nature and nurture appear in the following
chapters:
Chapter 1
• Introduction to the Gene and to Evolutionary Psychology
• Plato vs. Aristotle
• Research Focus: Do We Have Free Will?
Chapter6
• Epigenetics- Developing and Inheriting Traits without Changes in DNA
Chapter9
• Is Intelligence Inherited?
• Sex Differences in Intelligence
• Theories of Language Acquisition
Chapter 10
• Nature versus Nurture in Sexual Orientation
Chapter 12
• Is Personality more Nature or Nurture?
• Using Twin Studies to Study Personality
• Using Molecular Genetics to Understand Personality
Chapter 13
• The Role of Genetics and Environment in Schizophrenia, Depression, and Anxiety
• Research Focus: Discovering Common Genetic Determinants of Psychological Disorders
Similarity versus Difference. I frame issues of gender and culture in terms of the broader psychological principle of similarity versus
difference, and these important topics are addressed in virtually every chapter of the text.
Gender Differences
Chapter 1
• Gender Differences in Depression
Chapter 2
• Gender Similarities in Response to Violent Video Games
Chapter 3
• Gender Differences in Color Perception
• Sex Differences and Sex Hormones Including Testosterone and Oxytocin
Chapter4
• Gender Differences in Sexual Interest
Chapter 5
• Development of Sexual Knowledge
6 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY VERSION 3.0
• Updated Psychology in the Public Interest: Critically Evaluating the Validity of Websites
• In addition to the existing Critical Thinking Exercises on Correlation and causation, I have added new exercises on non-
representative samples and small samples.
Chapter 3: Brains, bodies and behavior:
• I have added new discussion and citations regarding the role of culture in brain plasticity.
• New images ofbrainbow mapping of brains.
Chapter 5: Consciousness, Body Rhythms, and Mental States
• New Psychology in Everyday Life- Opioid Addiction in the United States
Chapter 6: Growing and Developing Across the Life Span
• New Research Focus: Beyond Nature and Nurture: Transmission via Epigenetics
Chapter 10: Emotions, Motivations, Stress and Health
• I have provided a more nuanced description of the physiological responses to stress.
• Expanded discussion of variation in, and influence of, sexual orientation
Chapter 11: Psychology in our Social Lives
• New Research Focus: How Helping Others makes us Happy.
Chapter 12: Personality
• Update on Big 5 Personality Traits findings and descriptions
Chapter 14: Treating Psychological Disorders
• New chapter opener on Using Mindfulness to Reduce Depression and Anxiety
I hope you will agree that Introduction to Psychology provides a useful and productive synthesis between the goals of instructors and
students. I have tried to focus on the forest rather than the trees and to bring psychology to life- in ways that really matter for stu-
dents. At the same time, the book maintains content and conceptual rigor, with a strong focus on the fundamental principles of em-
piricism and the scientific method. I am grateful for being able to help so many instructors at so many universities communicate the
world of psychology to their students.
_ _( l:J A e I E_
•
UCIll
Psychology is the scientific study ofmind and behavior. The word "psychology" comes from the Greek words psychology
"psyche," meaning life, and "logos," meaning explanation. Psychology is a popular major for students, a popular The scientific study of mind
and behavior.
topic in the public media, and a part of our everyday lives. Television shows such as Dr. Phil feature psychologists
who provide personal advice to those with personal or family difficulties. Crime dramas such as CS!, Bones, Dexter,
and others feature the work of forensic psychologists who use psychological principles to help solve crimes. And
many people have direct knowledge about psychology because they have visited psychologists, for instance,
Because we are frequently exposed to the work of psychologists in our everyday lives, we all have an idea
about what psychology is and what psychologists do. In many ways I am sure that your conceptions are correct.
Psychologists do work in forensic fields, and they do provide counseling and therapy for people in distress. But
there are hundreds of thousands of psychologists around the world, working together to learn about human
behavior and to help people who are in psychological distress cope with their difficulties. Psychology is a fast-
growing global effort which aims to understand how people think and act, and to create a better world for all of us.
Most psychologists work in research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they study the
behavior of humans and animals. For instance, my colleagues in the Psychology Department at the University of
Maryland study such diverse topics as how college students learn new material, the interpretation of dreams, the
effects of caffeine on thinking, how birds recognize each other, how praying mantises hear, how people from
different cultures react differently in negotiation, and the factors that lead people to engage in terrorism. Other
psychologists study such topics as alcohol and drug addiction, memory, emotion, hypnosis, love, what makes
people aggressive or helpful, and the psychologies of politics, prejudice, culture, and religion. Psychologists also
work in health care settings, schools, and businesses, and they use a variety of methods-including observation,
This chapter provides an introduction to the broad field of psychology and the many approaches that
psychologists take to understanding human behavior. We will consider how psychologists conduct scientific
research, with an overview of some of the most important approaches used and topics studied by psychologists,
and also consider the variety of fields in which psychologists work. I expect that you may find that at least some of
your preconceptions about psychology will be challenged and changed, and you will learn that psychology is a
field that will provide you with new ways of thinking about your own thoughts, feelings, and actions.
10 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY VERSION 3.0
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Source: © Thinkstock.
In addition to learning about its content, your study of psychology will also provide you with another important
benefit. Psychologists think carefully and critically about the world around them. They systematically differentiate
opinions that are based on values and preconceptions from those that are based on rational, scientific, and
empirical evidence. The ability to make appropriate judgments and decisions based on available information is
known as critical thinking. According to the American Psychological Association (2013)/ 11good critical thinkers have
The ability to think critically is important because critical thinking is a strong predictor of your future success,
including your performance in postgraduate education and in your working career. Students with psychology
degrees are highly sought after by employers in various domains, and critical thinking skills are an important part of
the market value of a psychology degree. Among others, a degree in psychology can prepare you for the jobs
Potential careers with a bachelor's degree in Careers that require a degree beyond the bachelor's
psychology degree in psychology
Health care facility administrator Multicultural counselor
High school teacher Music therapist
Host/hostess Navy cl inical psychologist
Human resources advisor Neurologist
Information specialist Neuropathologist
Job analyst Neuropsychologist
Labor relations manager Neurosurgeon
Loan officer Nurse
Management analyst Occupational t herapist
Market research analyst Optometrist
Mental health social worker Pediatrician
Neu ropsycholog ist Penolog ist
News writer Personnel psycholog ist
Occupational analyst Pharmacologist
Patient resources and reimbursement agent Physiatrist
Personnel recruiter Physical therapist
Police officer Physician
Polygraph examiner Primary therapist
Preschool teacher Psychiatric social worker
Probation/parole officer Psychiat rist
Psych iatric aide/attendant Psychological anthropolog ist
Psychiatric techn ician Psychometrician
Psychological stress evaluator Psychotherapist
Public health director Rehabilitation psychologist
Public health socia l worker School psychologist
Public relations representative School social worker
Purchasing agent Social psycholog ist
Real estate agent Speech pathologist
Recreation leader Sports psychologist
Recreation supervisor Therapist for the blind
Recreational therapist Veterinarian
Research assistant Vocational rehabi litation counselor
Retail salesperson
Sales clerk
Social group worker
Social services aide
Substance abuse counselor
Systems analyst
Teacher for the emotiona lly impaired
Teacher for the hearing impaired
Teacher for t he learning disabled
Teacher for t he mentally impaired
Teacher for t he visually impaired
Techn ical writer
Veterans contact representative
Veterans counselor
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY 13
Potential careers with a bachelor's degree in Careers that require a degree beyond the bachelor's
psychology degree in psychology
Victims' advocate
Vocational training teacher
Volunteer coordinator
Writer
1. PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain why using our intuition about everyday behavior is insufficient for a complete under-
standing of the causes of behavior.
2. Describe the difference between values and facts and explain how the scientific method is used
to differentiate between the two.
Despite the differences in their interests, areas of study, and approaches, all psychologists have one
thing in common: They rely on scientific methods. Research psychologists use scientific methods to cre-
ate new knowledge about the causes of behavior, whereas psychologist-practitioners- such as clinical,
counseling, industrial-organizational, and school psychologists- use existing research to enhance the
everyday lives of others. The science of psychology is important for both researchers and practitioners.
In a sense, all humans are scientists. We all have an interest in asking and answering questions data
about our world. We want to know why things happen, when and if they are likely to happen again,
Any information collected
and how to reproduce or change them. Such knowledge enables us to predict our own behavior and
through formal observation
that of others. We may even collect data (i.e., any information collected through formal observation or or measurement.
measurement) to aid us in this undertaking. It has been argued that people are ''everyday scientists''
who conduct research projects to answer questions about behavior (Nisbett & Ross, 1980).[3] When we
perform poorly on an important test, we try to understand what caused our failure to remember or un-
derstand the material and what might help us do better the next time. When our good friends Monisha
and Charlie break up, despite the fact that they appeared to have a relationship made in heaven, we try
to determine what happened. When we contemplate the rise of terrorist acts around the world, we try
to investigate the causes of this problem by looking at the terrorists themselves, the situation around
them, and others' responses to them.
The problem, however, with the way people collect and interpret data in their everyday lives is that
they are not always particularly thorough. Often, when one explanation for an event seems "right," we
adopt that explanation as the truth even when other explanations are possible and potentially more ac-
curate. For example, eyewitnesses to violent crimes are often extremely confident in their identifica-
tions of the perpetrators of these crimes. But scientific research finds that eyewitnesses are no less con-
fident in their identifications when they are incorrect than when they are correct ( Cutler & Wells, 2009;
Wells & Hasel, 2008).[s] People may also become convinced of the existence of extrasensory perception
(ESP), or the predictive value of astrology, when there is no actual evidence for either ( Gilovich ,
1993).(61 Furthermore, psychologists have also found that there are a variety of cognitive and motiva-
tional biases that frequently influence our perceptions and lead us to draw erroneous conclusions
(Fiske & Taylor, 2007; Hsee & Hastie, 2006). [7] In summary, accepting explanations for events without
testing them thoroughly may lead us to think that we know the causes of things when we really do not.
The critical thinking skills that you learn as you study psychology will help you critically evaluate evid-
ence to draw valid conclusions.
Research Focus: Unconscious Preferences for the Letters of Our Own Name
A study reported in the Journal of Consumer Research (Brendl, Chattopadhyay, Pelham, & Carvallo, 2005)[SJ
demonstrates the extent to which people can be unaware of the causes of their own behavior. The research
demonstrated that, at least under certain conditions (and although they do not know it), people frequently
prefer brand names that contain the letters of their own name to brand names that do not contain the letters
of their own name.
The research participants were recruited in pairs and were told that the research was a taste test of different
types of tea. For each pair of participants, the experimenter created two teas and named them by adding the
word stem "oki" to the first three letters of each participant's first name. For example, for Jonathan and Elisa-
beth, the names of the teas would have been Jonoki and Elioki.
The participants were then shown 20 packets of tea that were supposedly being tested. Eighteen packets
were labeled with made-up Japanese names (e.g., "Mataku" or "Somuta''), and two were labeled with the
brand names constructed from the participants' names. The experimenter explained that each participant
would taste only two teas and would be allowed to choose one packet of these two to take home.
One of the two participants was asked to draw slips of paper to select the two brands that would be tasted at
this session. However, the drawing was rigged so that the two brands containing the participants' name stems
were always chosen for tasting. Then, while the teas were being brewed, the participants completed a task de-
signed to heighten their needs for self-esteem, and that was expected to increase their desire to choose a
brand that had the letters of their own name. Specifically, the participants all wrote about an aspect of them-
selves that they would like to change.
After the teas were ready, the participants tasted them and then chose to take a packet of one of the teas
home with them. After they made their choice, the participants were asked why they chose the tea they had
chosen, and then the true purpose of the study was explained to them.
The results of this study found that participants chose the tea that included the first three letters of their own
name significantly more frequently (64% of the time) than they chose the tea that included the first three let-
ters of their partner's name (only 36% of the time). Furthermore, the decisions were made unconsciously; the
participants did not know why they chose the tea they chose. When they were asked, more than 90% of the
participants thought that they had chosen on the basis of taste, whereas only 5% of them mentioned the real
cause-that the brand name contained the letters of their name.
Once we learn about the outcome of a given event (e.g., when we read about the results of a research
project), we frequently believe that we would have been able to predict the outcome ahead of time. For
instance, if half of a class of students is told that research concerning attraction between people has
demonstrated that "opposites attract" and the other half is told that research has demonstrated that
"birds of a feather flock together," most of the students will report believing that the outcome that they
just read about is true, and that they would have predicted the outcome before they had read about it.
Of course, both of these contradictory outcomes cannot be true. (In fact, psychological research finds
that "birds of a feather flock together" is generally the case.) The problem is that just reading a descrip-
tion of research findings leads us to think of the many cases we know that support the findings, and
thus makes them seem believable.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY 15
The tendency to think that we could have predicted something that has already occurred that we
hindsight bias
probably would not have been able to predict is called the hindsight bias, and many people in many
The tendency to think that
different places succumb to it (Roese & Vohs, 2012). [91
Medical doctors, as an example, often do not
we cou ld have predict ed
learn from prior cases that they are required to study, because once they hear the correct answer, they something t hat has already
think that they would easily have been able to make the correct diagnosis (Arkes, 2013). [lO] And jurors occurred that we probably
are likely to judge people who made bad decisions harshly because they erroneously think that the per- wou ld not have been able to
son should have been able to see the negative outcome ahead of time (Fleischhut, Meder, & Gigerenzer, predict.
2017). [ll] The hindsight bias creates overconfidence, leading us to be more sure that we know things
than we really are.
Although scientific research is an important method of studying human behavior, not all questions can
be answered using scientific approaches. Statements that cannot be objectively measured or objectively
determined to be true or false are not within the domain of scientific inquiry. Scientists therefore draw
a distinction between values and facts. Values are personal statements such as "Abortion should not be
permitted in this country," "I will go to heaven when I die," or "It is important to study psychology."
Facts are objective statements determined to be accurate through empirical study. Examples are "There
were more than 21,000 homicides in the United States in 2009," or "Research demonstrates that indi-
viduals who are exposed to highly stressful situations over long periods of time develop more health
problems than those who are not."
Because values cannot be considered to be either true or false, science cannot prove or disprove
them. Nevertheless, as shown in Table 1.2, research can sometimes provide facts that can help people
develop their values. For instance, science may be able to objectively measure the impact of unwanted
children on a society or the psychological trauma suffered by women who have abortions. The effect of
capital punishment on the crime rate in the United States may also be determinable. This factual in-
formation can and should be made available to help people formulate their values about abortion and
capital punishment, as well as to enable governments to articulate appropriate policies. Values also fre-
quently come into play in determining what research is appropriate or important to conduct. For in-
stance, the U.S. government has supported and provided funding for research on HIV, AIDS, and cy-
berterrorism, while denying funding for research using human stem cells.
16 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY VERSION 3.0
Although scientists use research to help establish facts, the distinction between values and facts is not
always clear-cut. Sometimes statements that scientists consider to be factual later, on the basis of fur-
ther research, turn out to be partially or even entirely incorrect. Although scientific procedures do not
necessarily guarantee that the answers to questions will be objective and unbiased, science is still the
best method for drawing objective conclusions about the world around us. When old facts are dis-
carded, they are replaced with new facts based on newer and more correct data. Although science is not
perfect, the requirements of empiricism and objectivity result in a much greater chance of producing
an accurate understanding of human behavior than is available through other approaches.