PART -IV BS-1-35

SAMPLING ANDCOMPLETE
PURPOSE OF SAMPLING
PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING ENUMERATION
Principle of Statistical Regularity
Principle of Inertia of Large Numbers
METHODS OF SAMPLING
- Judgement Sampling
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
- Systematic Sampling
Multi-stage Sampling
Qugta Sampling
SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
METHOD OF REDUCING SAMPLING ERRORS
TRY YOURSELF

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

The need for adequate and reliable data is ever increasing for taking policy decisions in different
required infomation may be obtained
fields of human activity. There are two ways in which the
1. Complete enumeration survey, and
2. Sampling technique. every unit
data are collected for each andpopulation
enumeration survey method', or
Under complet as the case may be) belonging to the
field, shop, factory, etc., particular situation. For
(person, household, set of items which are of
interest in any
all the
universe** which is the. complete students of Madras University is to be obtained thendividing
example, if the average weight of the
weighed and the average weight willbe obtained by
will be
students in different colleges
students by the number of
students.
all the
the total weight of
method. sample is to be taken. For
method is also known as the census the aggregate from which the 10,000 students is taken to
"This Statistics denotes sample of
word 'universe as used in the Madras University and a
universe and 10,000 the sample size
"The
there are 150,000 studentssystem, then 1,50,000 constitute persons. It may consist of any objects
in the
his
example, if
attitudes towards semester
may not necessarily comprise cars and buses in Chennaithen
study their 'universe' number of
noted that the interested in knowing the thenumber of items is
should also be one is buses. which is that in
example, if number of cars and finite universe is oneIndia.
in
infinite universecases,
thungs. For total An the
comprise the or infinite.
A Chennai or in sky. In someleaves ona
unverse' will may be either finiteuniversity students in of stars in the number of
1ne
universe number of such as the number
intinite, such as, the
the determined,
mnable, such as,items cannot be it is
regarded as
of purposes
the number that for al! practical
niverse is so large
e.
 BS-136
The advantage of this type of survey will be that no unit is left out and hence yreato,
may be ensured. However, the elfort, money and time required for carrying
enumeration will many cases cost may be SO prohibitive
generally
very idea of collecting be extremely
information large
may be and in Hence
dropped. in modern time, very little
ot complete enumeration It is through the
srvey. lHow to ollect the data then? aspects of human
sampl1ng
collected technique
these days.that a large mass of data pertaining to different adoptiN
achyityar
of

In the technique instead of evey unit of the universe only a part of the
sampling
3ideg "8SACJrawn on that basis for the entire universe. unuVerse i,
place in recent
3r the eveopmet in he tleory of sampling has takenexarmined
the idea of peopl have a year,
gTains to ascertain the auality ofthe enlire lot. A housewife examines only two or threehandful
sampling Is pretty old. Since times immemorial of
grains of
rice to know whether the Dot of rice kept for cooking is ready.or not. Adoctor exarmires afey
drops of blood and draws conclusion about the blood constitution of the whole body A
businessman places orders for materials by examining only a small sample of the same. Ateacher
may put questions to one or two students and find out whether the class as a whole is following the
lesson. In fact there is hardly any field wherg the technique of sampling is not used either
consciously or unconsciously. 314|F50T
Purpose of SamplinAsample is not studied for its own sake. The basic objective of its study
i_ to draw.inference about the population. In other words, "samipling is only a tool which heps to
Know the characteristics of the universe or population_by examining only a small part of it. The
statistical results obtained from the study of a sample, such as the average and dispersion, are
known as ´statistics'. On the other hand, such values for the population are called parameters'
PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING
There are two important principles also known as 'Laws' on which the theory of samplingis based
1. Principle of 'Statistical Regularity', and.
2. Principle of 'Inertia of Large Numbers.
These principles are sometimes referred to as the laws of sampling'. However, they are not laws
in the strict sense of the term : they are, rather, tendencies which operate
universally.
Principle of Statistical Regularity
This principle /s derived from the mathematical theory of
of statistical regularity lays down that probability. In the words of King, "The law
a moderately large number of items chosen at
group are almost sure on the average to possess the randonn from a large
priniple points out that if a characteristics of the large group.' In other words, thus
almost the same characteristicssample is taken at random from a
as that of the population. This population, it is likely to p0ssess
very important point, that is, the desirability of principle directs our attention to one
By random selection we mean a choosing the sample at randon.
selection
equal chance of being selected in the sample. where each and every item of the
exercise of one's discretion. A sample selected in words, the selection mustpopulation
In other has at
this manner would be not be deliberate
population. If this condition is satisfied, it is possible representative t e
characteristics of the population by
praçtical significance because it
for one to depict fairly
studying only a part of it. Hence, this accurately
principle is of great
before any conclusion is drawn makes possible a considerable
study of the verage height of theregarding large universe. For
a reduction of the Work necessary
students of Madras example, if one intends to make a)
height of each and
their heights measuredevery student. Afew students may University, it is not to measure the/
and the average height of be necessary
selected at random from ever college
university students in general may be interree
duction to StatistiCs

Itshould be note hat the

pulation This is lor
the results denved from sample data 8S-1-37
p simple
tle
1sus method
averag° ilhegh o reason that the
Sample may be
is only a part of different from that of the
ncidence if thewhereas may mversity
be 159 cmstudents in Chennat may the
come out whole
or l61 to unwerse
uld not be muchheight omes out to
difference inthe
cm for
exactly l60 cm. bytheboth
be sample
be
taken lt would16)heCmjustby
results derived if the sample is the methods However, thet
inciple Inertia of Large Numbers
of selected at randon
eprinciple is a
ry of sampingconollary of lhe
Il states that, priniple of statistical
rate the resuls are ikely obe other things being cqual,regularity.
larger
It is of yreat
sgnte cance in the
Tlhis is, the stze of the sample, more
all Qnes. The
ditierenee nhe agyreyate becaueis large nunbers are more stable as conpared
sample is large, tor, when large numbersresult Inkely to he insign1ficant when the
are considered, the variations in the number
to
nd to balance each other and,
therefore,
ample, it a coin is tossed 10 times we shouldthe variation in the aggregate is component parts
ch. But since the experiment is tried a expect an equal nunber of headsinssgnificant.
and tails,
Fur
ie,
smal
actly 5 heads and 5 tails. The result may be a number of times it is likely that we may not get ple
tails or 7 heads and 3 tails. If the same experiment iscombination of 9 heads and 1tail, or 8 heads and
carried
D0 heads and 500 tails would be very high, ie, the result would be very
out 1,000 times the chance of getting tosse
near. to 50% heads nd
%tails. The basic rÁason for such likelihood is that the experiment has been carried out
ifficiently large number of times and the possibility of variation in one direction compnsating tor
hers in a different direction is greater. If at one time we get continuously 5 heads it is likely thai/
other time we may get continuously 5 tails, and so on, and for the experiment as a whole, the
umber of heads and tails may be more or less equal. Similarly, if it is intended ta stuy the
ariation in the production of rice over a number of years and data are collected from one or two
to the favourable or
tates only, the result would reflect large variations in production due collected for all the
production
nfavourable factors in operation. If on the other hand, figurestheof aggregate. are
we find little variation in This does not mean that
tates in India, it is quite likely that the changes in the
ne production would remain constant for all the years. It only implies thatsmaller variations i
counterbalanced so as to reflect
roduction of the individual States will be
oroduction for the country as a whole.
METHODS OF SAMPLING
method
selected from a population, itis necessary to decide whichenquiry.
be purpose of
When a sample is required to would depend upon the nature of data and the
should be applied The choice
various methods available for sampling are
The
I. Judgment Sampling.
II. Random Sampling.
III. Stratified Sampling
IV. Systematic Sampling
V. Multi-stage Sampling, and (teomm kAouey
VI. Quota Sampling desivm
the Yu
exclusively on the discretion of
. Judgment Sampling sample items depends and includesthose
choice of exercises hisjudgment in the choice
the investigatorr
samplingwords,
judgment the
In In other sampling' or purposive
sampling.
Investigator. 'deliberate
known as
method is also
*The
 BS-1-38 Business Statisics
ypical of the universe
items in the Sample
characteristic_ which he thiks
under investigatuon. For example, if a sample of ten students is towith
are most
regard tofromthea
be selected
class of SIxty for analysing the spending habits of students, the investigator would select 10
who, in his opinion, are representative of the class.
there is a big, possibility of
This method, though simple, is not scicntific because investigatór. the
students,
being affected by the personal prejudice or bias of thc conclusions Thus
involves the risk that the investigator may cstablish foregone judgnentthosesamplesult,
by including 1ty
item,
In the Sample which conform to his pre conceived notiOn.
method is quite often sed.
However, because of smpicity and easy adaptability thisif applied
businessmen in the solution ol eyeryday problems. Indeed, with skill and care "
judgment method can be of great help.
II. Random Sampling*
As distinguished from judgment sampling, random sampling refers, to, the sampling technique ic
an equal chance of being incduded in t
Whith each and every item of the population is given
. sample. The sclction is thus free from ofpersonal bias because the investigator does not exercise hus
items Since selection of items in the sample depend
discretion or preference in the choice
entirely on chance, this method is also known as the method of chance selection Some peon
believe that randomness -of selection can be achieved by unsystématic and haphazard procedutes
But this is quite wrong. However, the point to be emphasised is that unless precaution is taken to
"avoid bias and a conscious effort is made to ensure the operation of chance fators, the resulting
sample shall not be a random sample.
Random samplung is sometimes referred to as(´representative sampling) If the sample is cho[en
at random and if the size of the sample is sufficiently large, it will represent groups in the universe.
Arandom sample is also known as probability sample because every item of the universe has an
equal opportuniy of being selected in the sample.
Random sampling is not always used as a primary sampling procedure. However, it is necessary
to introduce an elerment of randomness in this final selection of items. For example, within each
group the choice of cases to constitute the sample should be based on chance selection. If the
element of randomness is not introduced, bËas is likely to' enter and make the sample
unrepresentative.

Methods of Obtaining a Random Sample

To ensure randonness one may adopt any of the following methods :
1. Lottery Method This is a very popular method of taking a random sample. Under this
method, all items of the universe are numbered on separate slips of paper of identical size and
shape. These slips are then folded and mixed up in a container or drum. Ablindfold selection is
then made of the number of slips required to constitute the desired sample size. The selection of
items thus depends entirely on chance. This' method would be guite clear with the help of an
example. If we want to take asample of 10persons out of a population of 100, the procedure is to)t
write the name of all the 100 persons on separate slips of paper, fold these slips, mix them
thoroughly and then make ablindfold selection of 10 slips.
The above method is very popular in lottery draws where adecision about prizes is to bearemadeof
 2. Table of
Random
the size of Numbers. Tlhe lottery
population
the
table of rarklom
numbers. increases.such An altemetrnathiodve dimetscussed BS-1-39
numbers, (ii) Fisher
and Three above
Yate's numbers, andtables(in) are availableh,od randombecomes
of quites
umbers are most
(ours tog1ve 1400
popular. They consist Kendall and nanely (i) sclccti
Tippett'os cunber
ntablethat of suSing,
ome
neral afPpearance. four-figure numbers. of41, 600 Aigits taken from Babington reportsnumbers Tirandom of
We give here the first censusSmith ppett's
2952 6641 forty sets as an and conbined by
4167 9524 3992
1545 9792
7969
llustration of ther
370 7483 1396 5911 3170
0560 5246
3408
2762 T203 5366 S624
2754
1|12
6l07
3563 1089
6913
9143 008 7691
1405 8126
9025 4233
One may question, and "7002 61||
8776
av be pointed out quite ightly, as to R8I6
the digits in the table how it was ensured that these dig1ts are
6446

their randomness liesthat were chosen randorn It

and used in many
in practical tests.
Tippett' s numbers haphazardly,
have
but the real guarantee
been subjected to numerous testsof
investigations
purposes. example to illustrate how
An and their randomness has been well established for all
below. Suppose we have to select
Tippett' s table of random nunbers
20 items out of 6,000, The may be used practical
is giver a
items from l to 6.000. A page from procedure is to number all the 609
Tippett's table may then be consulted and the first twenty
riumbers up to 6,000 noted down. Items bearing those numbers will be included in the sarnple
Making use of the portion of table given above, the required numbers are
2932 3992 5911 3170 5624 4167
1545 1396 5366 1300 2693 2370
3408 2762 5363 1089 0560 5246
1112 4233
The items which bear the above numbers constitute the sample.
Universe Size less than 1,000. If the size of universe is less than 1,000, the procedure will be
iifferent, as Tippett's numbers are available only in four figures. Thus, for example, it is desired to
ake a sample of 10 items out of 400, total of items 1to 400 should be numbered as 0001 to 0400.
Ve may now _elect 10 numbers from the table which are up to 0400.
Uninerse Size less than 100. If the size of universe is less than 100, the table is used as follows.
anywhere in the table and write
uppose ten numbers from out of 0 to 80 are required. We start
Dwn the number in pairs. The table can be read horizontally, (please vertically, diagonally or in any
horizontally see the part of the table
ethodical way. Starting with the first and reading 79, 69, 59, 11, 31, 70, 56, 24, 41, 67, and so on.
en above), we obtain 29, 52, 66, 41, 39, 92, 97, 92, our purpose ten random numbers, namely 29,
for
2oring the numbers greater than 80, we obtain
and 31.
66, 41, 39, 79, 69, 59, 11 numbers. These have been arranged in two digits in
Fisher and Yate's tables consist of. 15,000 also constructed
consisting of 5 rows, and 5 columns. Kendall and Smith
blocks, each block
by using a randomising machine. However, this method of random
Hom numbers (10,000 in all)
followed in case of articles like ghee, oil, petrol, wheat, etc.
ction cannot be
Sampling
its of Random depends entirely on chance, there is no pssibility af
in the sample
noe the selection of items
results.
the universe in a better
onalbias affecting judgment sampling, a random sample represents the the population.
vared to representative of
LAs it becomes increasingly
As t
of thesample increases,
 BS-1 -40

J. The analyst can casly assess the accurary of his cslmale becausC Sampling .
BusinesSs Stalists
Principles of chance. Jhe theorv of random sampling is developed much more
of sampling and provide the most reliable informnation at the least cost. thanCrrOrS
any iollox y
other
Limitations of Random Sampling
1. The use of necessitates a completely catalogued universe
the Sample. Butrandom samplng
it is often difficult tor the investigator to have uptodate lists of all frorm thhewhich to dra
POpulation to be sampled. This restricis the use of random sampling method.
2. The task of preparing sips s time consuming and expensive However, this:
iterns of the
times be overcome by following regular interval sanpling, method which enables a
to be drawn withoutpreparing sipS.
dirandom
f iculty sarnplcar e
a

3. The size of the sample required to cnsure statistical reliability is usually large
sampling than in stratified sampling. under
4. From the point of view of field survey it has been claimed that cases randors
sampling lend to. be too
data become too large. widely dispersed geographically annd
selected random
that the tirne and cost ofby
5. Random sampling may produce the most non-random looking restults.
For
collecting
cards from a well-shuffled example, of thus
pack
type of inidence is very small:
of playing cards may consist of one suit. But the
probability,thirteer
IlI. Stratified Sampling.
When this method of sampling is adopted, the
and asample is drawn from each stratunm population is divided into
at random. For example, if we arevarious stratas or parts
the consumption pattern of the people of Delhi, the
city of Delhi
interested in studving
(such zones or wards) and from_each part a
as may be divided into various Dars
selection of cases from each stratum must be done sample may be taken at random. However, the
carefully designed plan as otherwise with great care and in
accordance with a
accomplished. random.selection from the various strata may not be
Stratified sampling
cases are drawn from may
be either
each stratum proportionalor disproportional.
in the same proportion In proportional sampling the
exámple, if w divide the city of Delhi into as they occur
four zones A, B, Cand D with in the universe. For
of the total popultion 40%,30%, 20% and 10%
300, 200 and 100 cases respectively and if the sample size is one thousand then
in the universe. respectively from zones A, B, Cand D, i.e., sample is we should draw 400,
In proportional to the size
disproportional
regardless of how the stratumstratified sampling an equal number of cases is
number of items from each zoneis represented in the universe. Thus, in taken from each stratum
the proportional stratified may be drawn, that is 250. the above example, an equal
This approach is obviously inferior t
Merits of Stratified sampling. 1.
various strata and then Sampling.
a sample is More Representative. Since the population is first divided into
essential group of the population beingdrawn from each stratum there is little
secured. Stratified sampling is completely excluded. A more possibil1ty o thus
2. Greater
Accuracy. Generally regarded as the most representative sample is
ach stratum Ls so
formed
Stratified sampl1ng ensures efficient system of samnpl1ng
3. that it consists of greater accuracy. The is maximum it
)e moreGreater Geographical Concentration. As uniform or homogeneous items.accuracy
onsiderablyconcentrated
reduced. geographically. Thuscompared with
the time andrandom sample, stratified samples Can

expense. of interviewing
 oroductiont o

tics tons. 1. Dmost care BS-1-41

stratum must must be
Finch
reliable.
However,contairn, as far as exercised in dividig the
possible,
ve
2. in items rom cach
The
this is a very difficult taskhomogeneous item, a,population into ariotss
the absence of skilled stratum should
and may
involve otherwine thhe resl ny,trtts
hieve
be ensured.
be
sampling supervisors selcctcd a random.
at considerable trne *nd eperr
and random But ths may he diffrult
V. Systematic Sampling seletior withsr earh tratrr
This method is
sample is to be popularly used in
refers to the drawn is available.those cases where a
example, if asampling interval.
complete list of The
T1he method
first item is tO select completeevery
Ist of the
populate frotn nhct
sample of 200 this J,000 between the first kth* tlemfrom
five shall be means we must students of a and the kth iS electedthe Jist where
nd selécted at
random. take every çollege is
avalatbie at
and if we wartrarom, f
ihird obtain
fifth item
numbers of
13th student; the he desired Suppose
sample.
it
(Le.,(5)The
cones out to be thrge. first iten to ira
Systematic samplingfourth 18th student, and Thus, the Now we shall zobetween oe an
random is, so on. second iten would be on
add1ng
requirement sampling provided relatively
the a
simple fiv
the 8th
student, the
The nearest arrangedtechnique
lists
is
as. are
found fulilled.
in
are
wholly and may be
at more
characteristics. telephone ditectory;approach to
randomness is prov However,effichent
randon. it is thar ssnpie
Merits of the
sampling or the Method. The
althoügh cven ided by
these inay have alphabetical istS rarely that th
such
method are relatively stratified
provided care is takensmaller. samplingSystematic sampling is more
method. The time and convenient to adopt certain
interval. to see The results
that there areobtained are also work involved in than the
the Limitation. The main no
periodic found to sanmping random
population
interested
or at least thenordered
is difficulty is features bagenerally by the
in,
more
may be such that certain of
it is
every
in a
possible
types
systematic
that only
than
that
waysystematic
with
certain samples
respect
types to the are assOci
not a
always
t e d_wi th thesatisiactory
sarnpiig
tenth
V. Multi-stage Sampling worker onothers. the listForgets
of
instance, items charact
will be
eris tic random
s, the sampies. lt
As the
name wages
in a
above study of inciuded
wages
in
investigator
the S
is madeThe impliesis this
stages. of amaterial method
regarded refers to
Rs. 6,000 per workersof
month. population,
the list
Suitableof the
each method, number of
as such second stage
as a
made up of sampling
ofprocedure
a
different fromselethe randomunitssampling; thern,Atnumber
cted first stage units, etc. first, first stagewhich is
carried
required.
sta Suppose,
The method
itprocedure may empl
again
be oyed for the Some
by a
sample
the first
of stage sampling
units are units, out in
each of several
the State is
the second maydecibeded takeillustrated to as first suitable
stage second
method stage units sampled by which
vieachl agesof themaystage, eachatdivided
a
into asample ot(5,000 follows : nits. which
Further
is
may be heselected some
be taken district number stages same fromor
Smaller and smnaller. vil ages selecterandom. may
d at the Atsecond
be of
Sub-divstage,
he thurd ided househol
districts
into anda das few from the State of may be
added
as,
as
of districts
stage. ln thSa numbernumber U.P. At the
Sampling interval or k Size of the Way,
of selected
villages at first
Size of the universe
sample households
at
each stage the may be random. Atof
and a
sample
 BS-1-42
Merits of the Method. Mult stage sanpl1ng, introchuced leziblity the ADplnZ inethyt
cxisting, divsions and sub diSIOLS SL e
towhiçh is, lack1ngunnts at
be uscd.as Inethod,
otbevarious I enables
stags, Md pemits pupulaon
the ficld woLk wbL COnceatrated and yet larg
sond
nethod is that sub-division into
of theeed
theECa construction
to be covered, Anothe
of the 4Ond vantage
stage frame) be carricd out for only those first stay unsts whr
Darticularly valuable n surveys of underieveloped
are included n the sample It therefore, acCurate for sub division of the tnaterial
Where nO frame Is genally sufcently detailed and
reasonable small sampling
Limitations Howeve, units
a multi stage sample is n general less dCurate than a sanple Ontanng
thesame number of tmal slae units whih haycbecn selected by some suitable single stag
Process.

VI.(Quota Sampling
quota sarnple, quotas are set up according tr
uota sa mpling is a type of judgmecnt sampling. In a sample
gven criteria but, within the quotas, the sçlcctior of items depends on perSOnal judginert
For exarmple, in a tadio listening survey, the interviewersmay be told to interview 50 people livino
are to be housewives, 25 farrner
in acertain area and that out of every 100 persons interviewed 60
and 15 children under the age of 15.Within these quotas the interviewer is free to select the people
to be interviewed. The cost per person interviewed may be relatively small for a quota sarnpie but
results. For example
there are numerous. opportunities for bias whích m£y invalidate the housewives who are at
Interviewers may miss far1ners working in the fields or talk with those
hone. If a person refuses to respond, the interviewer simply selects someone else. Because of the
risk of personal prejudice and bias entering the process of selection, the quota sarnpling is rarely
used in practical work.
On a review of the pros and cons of the various methods of sampling it is clear that stratified
sampling and systematic sampling methods based on random principle are more reliable, and hence
these methods are more widely used than others.
Size of Sampling. An important decision that has to. be taken while adopting a sampling
technique is about the size of the sample. Different opinions have been expressed by experts on this
point. For example, some have suggested that the sample size should be 5% of the size of
population while others are of the opinion that sample size should be at least, 1,000. However, these
views are of litle use, as in practice appropriate sample size depends on various factors relating to
the subject under investigation like the time aspect, the cost aspect, the degree of accuracy desired,
etc. Sampling theory is of little help in arriving at a good estimate of the sample size in any
particular situation. However, the following two considerations mäy be kept in mind in determining
the appropriate size of the sample :
1. The size of the sample should increase as the variation in the
individual items increases.
2. The greater the degree of accuracy desired, the larger should be the
Merits of Sampling. The sampling technique has the following merits sample size.
enumeration survey : over the comnplete
1. Less Tine Consuming. Since the sample is a
tirne and labour are saved when a sample survey is study of a part of the population considerable
data but also in procesSing it. For carried out. Time is saved not only in collecting
practice than a census. these reasons a sample often provides more timely data in
2. Less Costly. Although the
amount of effort and expense involved in
always greater per unit of the sample collecting
survey is generally less than that of a than a complete census, the total financial burdeninformation
we study only a part of the complete census. This is because of the fact that inof a sample
equired when the census nethod population and the total expense of collecting data is less sampl1ng
is adopted. This is a than that
great advantage
particularly in at
 JatröductionIo Statistics

nderdeveloped 95143
tistics method due to
econony where much
lack of of the
(hor: adequate resourc informator woul he diffrut to olher t th
hod Reliable
smpling errors, the Results. Although sampling
ion result obtained is
There are several reasons generally technqte
morc involves cet rirare
If is always reltable thn thafi5ained fron
Ount.
errors. Secondly, other
for it. izst,
ch incompleteness of types of errors to whicha
returns,
porstble to
a survey a Subect. deternne the tent sf atripisiz
anente
survey. This is because more
etc., are Iikely to be more sha pascurc uf inforrreatrm
as
cfective seriouS n a completr censu
tharn ir
o
the information is
accurate and complete. precautions
Moreover,
can he taken n a sample srvey ariple
t ensire that
and to
impart thorough training to the
possibility of errors.
it Is possitble to
avad of thee ervices t pes
method. Indeed,
even
Follow-up
a
investigators
work can also be in a
undertaken sampte
nuch
sturvey whch fhurther rudue, the
check. complte census can only be tested for more -ffec thvely in the sarrpiz
4. More Detailed accury by one typ of sanipting
to collect more detailed lnfornation. Since the samplng technique sves thrne
1,000 persons in a surveyinfomation
of the
in a sample survey For
exanple,
And money, it p a
if the populatn
available are as follows: consumption pattern of the people, the two aiternative conssts o
(a) We may collect the techmgee
necessary data from
containing, say, 10 questions (census method); orcach one of the 1,000 people through a questeriaire
(b) We máy take a' 'sarinple of
00 persons (i.e., J0% of
containing as many as 100 questions. The
expenses involvedpopulation) and
same as in the former but it will enable nine in the latter prepare a questioinasre
case would alrmost be the
5. Sampling method is the only method thattimes more information to be
can be used in certain cases. obtaned
which the census method is and the only practicable means is There are some cases n
method. For example, if one inapplicable
a factory, under the census is interested in testing the breaking strength of provided
by the sanpie
chalks
process ofmanufactured
census method is impracticable method all the chalks would be broken in the in
and resort must be had to the testing Hence,
sampling method.
from Limitations
of Sampling. Despite the
various
limitations. Some of the difficulties, involved inadvantages of sampling, it is not altogether iree
1. A sample survey must be sampling are stated below
b¹ inacCurate and carefully planned and executed otherwise the results obtained may
errors may arise inmisleading.. Of course, even for a
complete count
sampling, if the sampling procedure is not perfect. care must be taken but serIOus
2. Sampling generally
the survey. In the absencerequires the services of experts for the
of qualified and proper planning and execution ot
sample surveys cannot be relied upon. In India,experienced persons, the information obtained from
hurdle in the way of rellable
statisics. shortage of experts in the sampling field is a serious
3. At times the sampling
money than a complete count. plan may be so
This is so if thecomplicated that it may
population and complicated procedures of allotting size of the sample is arequire more timne,
large proportion labour and
of the totai
complication in the
in turn, means time survey, the chances of errors weights are used. With each
and labour. multiply and greater care has to be taken additional
4. If the information is which,
cannot be adopted. required for each and every unit in the domain of
study, sample method
 BS-1-44 Business Statistics
Ciearly the sampline pror in this sense is non-cx istent in a coInplete
since the whole Population is surveyed. However, the errors nainly arising enumeration sirs.
at the
ascertainment and processing of data which are terned non-samiplg errOs are COnmOnstages
bot of
pete enumeratiorn and sannple
Soethig ot or survey
I. Sampling Errors
Even if utmost care has
not be becn taken in selecting asample, the results derived from the
representative of the population frÍm which it is drawn, because samples are seldom,
perfect miniatures of the sanpleif may.
due to the fact that poplaion Thus gives rise to sanpliny crrorS_ Sampling errors are ever,
the population. Samples are used and to the particular method used in selecting the items thus
from
Sampling errors are of two types-biased and unbiased.
(1) (Biased
Place of sinpleErrorsThese errors arisc fromany bias in sclection, estimation, ct. For exarnple, if in
randomn sampling, deliberate sampling has been used in a particular case
Sinttoduced in the result and bence.such errors are some bias
called biased sampling errOrS.
(2) Unbiased Erro These errors arise due tÍ chance
population included in the sample and those not included. differerces between the members of
lhus the total
error. The essence sampling error is made up of error due to bias, if any, and the random sampling
of bias is, that it forms a constänt
large population as the number in the sample component of érror that does not decrease in a
increases.
Culativc or 101-compeinsating error. The random sampling error, Such error is, therefore, also known as
average as the size of the sample increases. Such error is, on the other hand, decreases on an
or compensating error. therefore, also knoWn as non-cumulative
Causes of Bias
Bias may arise due to:
() Faulty process of
(ii) Faulty work duringselection;
the collection of information; and
(ii) Faulty methods of analysis.
(1) Bias due to Faulty
number of ways, such as: Selection., Faulty selection of the sample may give rise to bias in a
(a) Deliberate. selection of a
(b) Conscious or 'reprsentative'
unconscious bias in the
sample.
selection may not
he allows his desirereally exist, even though the selection of a randon1' sample. The randomness of
(c)
to obtain acertain
result to investigator
influence
claims that he has a random sample if
his selection.
Substitution._Substitution
leads to bias. Thus, if it were of an item in place of one chosen in a
to interview thedecided to interview every 50th random sample sometimes
inappropriate
by them may differ from 51st or any other number in his householder in the street, it would be
those who were place as the
(d)
Non-response.
2ven though
If all the items to be originally to be included characteristics possessed
in the sample.
no substitution has
been
included in the sample are not
questionnaires, which may be attempted. The fault covered, there will be bias
nformants may also be biased. incompletely returned.
(e) An appeal to the Moreover, theparticularly occurs in mailea
information supplied by the
"xample, the vanity of the person
o questionYes'.
vanity and answer "Are you a good questioned
student?
may give rise to yet
(ii) Bias due to
is such that most of the arnother
students
kind of bias. For
ias whether the Faulty Collection of Data. Any would succumb
measurementsare carried out on theconsistent error
measurement
sample or on all the units of will give nse tO
the
population.