Environmental Geochemistry and Health (2006) 28:409–420
Springer 2006

DOI 10.1007/s10653-005-9039-4

Arsenic contamination in the Kanker district of central-east India: geology

and health effects

P.K. Pandey1,3, R. Sharma1, M. Roy1, S. Roy2 & M. Pandey1

1
Department of Engineering Chemistry, Centre for Environmental Science and Engineering, Bhilai Institute of
Technology, Durg, India
2
Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary College, Anjora, Durg, India
3
Author for correspondence (tel.: +91-94252-45309; +91-788-2334424; fax: +91-788-2210163; e-mail:
drpiyush_pandey@yahoo.com)

Received 28 June 2005; Accepted 6 December 2005

Key words: arsenic, arsenopyrite and manganese, arsenical diarrhoea, bio-indicator, ground and surface
water contamination

Abstract
This paper identifies newer areas of arsenic contamination in the District Kanker, which adjoins the District
Rajnandgaon where high contamination has been reported earlier. A correlation with the mobile phase
episodes of arsenic contamination has been identified, which further hinges on the complex geology of the
area. Arsenic concentrations in both surface and groundwater, aquatic organisms (snail and water weeds)
soil and vegetation of Kanker district and its adjoining area have been reported here. The region has been
found to contain an elevated level of arsenic. All segments of the ecoysystem are contaminated with arsenic
at varying degrees. The levels of arsenic vary constantly depending on the season and location. An analysis
of groundwater from 89 locations in the Kanker district has shown high values of arsenic, iron and
manganese (mean: 144, 914 and 371 lg L)1, respectively). The surface water of the region shows elevated
levels of arsenic, which is influenced by the geological mineralised zonation. The most prevalent species in
the groundwater is As(III), whereas the surface water of the rivers shows a significant contamination with
the As(V) species. The analysis shows a bio-concentration of the toxic metals arsenic, nickel, copper and
chromium. Higher arsenic concentrations (groundwater concentrations greater than 50 lg L)1) are asso-
ciated with sedimentary deposits derived from volcanic rocks, hence mineral leaching appears to be the
source of arsenic contamination. Higher levels of arsenic and manganese in the Kanker district have been
found to cause impacts on the flora and fauna. A case study of episodic arsenical diarrhoea is presented.

Introduction and the International Association for Research on

All drinking water contains some inorganic con-
taminants, but the presence of inorganic arsenic
and fluoride in the drinking water is now recog-
nized in many parts of the world as having the
potential to be a very serious environmental haz-
ard and to cause significant health problems.
Arsenic has been classified as a Group A and
Category 1 human carcinogen by the U.S. Envi-
ronmental and Protection Agency (USEPA 1997)
Cancer (IARC 1987), respectively. In 1997, the
World Health Organization (WHO) acknowledged
that arsenic in drinking water is a ‘‘Major Public
Health Issue’’ which should be dealt with on an
‘‘Emergency Basis’’ as it has become an interna-
tional problem. The world’s most affected region is
the Bengal Delta Plain (BDP) comprising
Bangladesh and West Bengal (WHO 1999). Pan-
dey et al. (1999, 2000, 2001) first reported arsenic
contamination in the ground and drinking water
410 p.k. pandey et al.
and human afflictions arising from the arsenic
contamination at places located a long distance
from the BDP – in erstwhile Madhya Pradesh
state. These authors also showed that the arsenic
contamination of the ground water in the village
Kourikasa of the District Rajnandgaon, now in
newly formed state of Chhattisgarh, was spreading
and that many new arsenic contaminated hot-
spots had been identified (Pandey et al. 2002).
That the area between Dongargaon to Mohla
(about 500 km2) is affected by the presence of ar-
senic at varying concentrations has also been re-
ported. These levels of arsenic were highly
fluctuating, thereby indicating the involvement of
a complex geo-chemical system in its genesis.
This paper reports recently identified areas of
arsenic contamination in the District Kanker,
which adjoins the District Rajnandgaon, and it
reveals a clear correlation with the mobile phase
episodes of arsenic contamination, which further
hinges on the complex geology of the area. We
report here on arsenic concentrations in surface
and ground water, aquatic organisms (snail and
water weeds), soil and vegetation of Kanker dis-
trict and its adjoining areas. All segments of the
environment in the studied region are contami-
nated – at varying degrees – with arsenic. The
levels of arsenic change depending on the season
and location. The genesis of arsenic is geological,
and the involvement of a complex geochemistry is
envisaged for high fluctuations.
Material and methods
Geography of the study area
District Kanker is an important district of Bastar
Commissionaire in the state of Chatisgarh. The
Kanker District is situated in the southern region
of the state, within the longitudes 20.6–20.24 and
latitudes 80.48–81.48. The total area of the district
is 5285.01 km2. The district is monsoon-fed, and
the average rainfall is 1492 mm, mainly during the
months of June to October.
Geographically the district is divided in five
groups, namely the Vindhyan hill group, Archean
hill group, Dharwar hill group, Mahanadi plains
and Kotri plains. The Vindhyan hill group is sit-
uated in the south-eastern part of the district;
quartzite sand is its main feature. The Archean hill
group covers 95% of the area in the district;
granite and gneiss rocks are its major components
and these are spread over almost the entire district.
The Dharwar hill group comprises weathered hills
in the Sambalpur and Bhanupratappur blocks of
the district.
The area under study is a part of the central
Indian region which lies between 17 and 24N,
78 and 88E. A simplified geology map (GSI
2000; Sarkar 2001) of this area with the main
tectonic elements is shown in Figure 1. Tectoni-
cally the Bastar craton (BB) is separated from the
Dharwar (DB) and Singhbhum cratons (SB) by
the Godavari (GG) and Mahanadi (MG)
Gondwana grabens, respectively, with the Eastern
Ghat Mobile belts (EGMB) lying to the southeast.
Detailed geological, petrological and structural
studies have identified the Central Indian shear
(Yedekar et al. 1990), which separates the Bastar
block from the northern (Bundelkhand) block.
The western side of this shear is buried under
alluvium and traps, while to the east it forks into
two parts with the northern part coming close to
the Tan shear.
Sampling
Sampling of the contaminated area was carried out
in 2003 during the pre-monsoon (February–May),
monsoon (June–September) and post-monsoon
(October–January) periods. The sampling bottles
were cleaned with detergent, chromic acid, tap
water and finally with double-distilled water.
Duplicate samples were collected from each sam-
pling site. Arsenic preservation was done with
EDTA (Pandey et al. 2004) and HNO3 (up to
pH 2.0). The aim of using two preservatives was to
further ascertain the efficacy of preservation. Soil,
rocks, and the vegetation samples were kept in
clean, uncontaminated polythene bags. Water
samples were refrigerated at 4 C immediately
after collection and kept at this temperature until
analysis.
Analytical procedure
All moist solid samples were dried at 40 C in
uncontaminated petri dishes until dry. Snails were
washed first with copious amounts of tap water
and then with doubled-distilled water, dried at
40 C in a hot air oven and left overnight. All solid
 arsenic contamination in kanker district 411

Fig. 1. Simplified regional geology and tectonic map of the region redrawn from Sarkar (2001) and GSI (2000). DB Dharwar block,
BB Bastar block, SB Singhbhum block, CITZ Central Indian Tectonic Zone, EGMB Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt, GG Godavari
Graben, MG Mahanadi Graben, I Indravati Basin, C Chhattisgarh Basin, 1 Tapti Fault, 2 Gavilgarh Fault, 3 Tan Shear, 4 Cen-
tral Indian Shear, 5 Bamni-Chilpa Fault, 6 Tatapani Fault, 7 Barabhum Shear, 8 Singhbhum Shear, 9 Sukinda Thrust, 10 Sileru
Shear, 11 North Narmada Fault, 12 South Narmada Fault, Hy Hyderabad, Bn Bhubhaneswar, Dn Dhanbad, Jb Jabalpur, Np
Nagpur, Rp Raipur.

samples were finally crushed and weighed accu-
rately using a digital balance (Denver, Colo.).
Samples of the appropriate weight (0.5–1 g) were
taken for digestion in clean uncontaminated Tef-
lon beakers with few glass beads. Digestion was by
a standard procedure (APHA 1992). In brief, the
tertiary acid mixes HNO3–HClO4–HF and
HNO3–H2SO4–HClO4 were used for the digestion
of soil or similiar matrices and vegetation,
respectively. Standard analytical methods were
used for all types of sample analysis: pH and Eh
were measured using a single electrode pH and mV
meter, respectively (Orion, USA); conductivity
using a conductivity meter; chloride by the silver
nitrate method; sulphate with a turbidity meter;
iron, magnesium, manganese, zinc, nickel, copper,
cadmium and chromium using an atomic absorp-
tion spectrophotometer. Arsenic was most com-
monly analysed using an atomic absorption
spectrophotometer with hydride generation and a
background correction facility (Chemito 201), and
occasionally by the SDDC method (APHA 1992;
NEERI 1977). The samples generally did not
require any preconcentration due to presence of a
measurable concentration of arsenic.
Results and discussion
Ground water and surface water contamination
Analyses of groundwater sources from 89 loca-
tions in the Kanker district revealed high values of
arsenic, iron and manganese (mean: 144, 914 and
371 lg L)1, respectively; Table 1). Sample vari-
ance and standard deviations are high, possibly
due to wide variations in the levels of contamina-
tions in groundwater and the complex geo-chem-
ical involvements in the process. The tests run on
the other water quality parameters of the samples
revealed that the water is hard with a consistent
presence of sulphate and chloride at moderate to
low values and that the alkalinity of the water is
mostly bicarbonate and carbonate in nature.
Most of the contaminated sites are located in the
Kotri plains. Water samples from ten identified
412 p.k. pandey et al.

Table 1. Status of groundwater parameters in the sampled area of District Kanker in 2003 (Concentrations in ppm, unless shown
otherwise).

pH Conductivity (mS) Total hardness Ca Mg SO4 F Cl Alkalinity Fe (lg L–1) Mn (lg L–1) As (lg L–1)

Mean 6.7 0.6 203.3 48.9 18.1 10.0 0.6 51.2 106.4 914.3 371.1 143.8
Standard error 0.1 0.2 28.4 7.2 2.9 1.0 0.0 7.8 10.6 174.8 93.9 27.0
Median 6.9 0.3 170.0 40.0 14.0 7.5 0.6 35.0 102.0 500.0 300.0 100.0
Standard deviation 0.5 0.9 120.3 30.8 12.2 6.0 0.2 37.6 46.1 1034.1 409.4 176.9
Kurtosis 4.8 13.7 2.1 2.7 0.4 1.3 )0.6 0.6 0.9 3.3 3.2 8.8
Skewness )1.8 3.7 1.6 1.7 1.0 1.2 0.4 1.1 1.1 1.8 1.8 2.6
Range 2.2 3.8 420.0 112.0 43.2 25.0 0.7 130.1 170.0 4500.0 1500.0 900.0
Minimum 5.1 0.1 80.0 16.0 4.8 2.0 0.3 12.9 51.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Maximum 7.3 3.9 500.0 128.0 48.0 27.0 1.0 143.0 221.0 4500.0 1500.0 900.0

locations situated in the Durgukondal block were
sampled throughout one hydrological year to ob-
tain data on the variability of arsenic, iron and
manganese in the groundwater. The results of this
sampling (Figure 2) show the levels of the three
contaminants in three different seasons. A com-
prehensive picture of the contamination in the
Durgukondal block is presented in Figure 3. The
contaminants are probably of geologic origin.
They are present at high levels in the post mon-
soon and summer season and at low levels during
the monsoon season, indicating the probability of
dilution effects during the monsoon season in view
of heavy rainfall (approx. 100 cm in 4 months of
monsoon) and the probable dissolution and
mobilisation effects corroborated by high post-
monsoon periods (particularly in the month of
February-March). Some of the bore wells go dry in
the summer month, which indicates that they may
not really be tapping any deep aquifer, hence there
exists a probability of local mobilisation.
Correlation analysis provides useful information
with respect to the genesis of any contaminant.
This analysis was carried out on the drinking water
of the area, and the result showed a negative cor-
Fig. 2. Seasonal variation in the levels of selected elements in
groundwater of the Durgukondal block of Kanker district.
relation of arsenic with pH, hardness and chloride
(Table 2). It is worth noting that arsenic has a
positive correlation – but at a lower degree of
significance – with iron and manganese. Based on
the results it appears that arsenic mobility is
closely related to the pH and the hardness of
water: i.e. the calcium and magnesium ions act as a
check on arsenic concentration. Similarly, the iron
and manganese levels appear to be co-generated
with arsenic; however, as their dissolved concen-
tration is affected by pH, a lower mathematical
value is obtained in correlation analysis.
In view of the elevated concentrations in the
groundwater we also analysed the river water. The
surface water of the region (sampled during pre-
monsoon) shows elevated levels of arsenic, which
is influenced by the geological mineralised zona-
tion. Accordingly, the surface water of the
mineralised zone comprising the area of Amba-
garh-Chowki shows a higher degree of contami-
nation, which is a result of the rivers draining the
Kotri plains. As(III) is the most prevalent species
in the groundwater, whereas the surface water of
the rivers shows a significant contamination of the
As(V) species. The mean level of dissolved arsenic
in the surface water of the Kotri plains was 74.4 lg
L)1, with maxima of 200 lg L)1 (Table 3); the
correlation study revealed that it has a positive
correlation (0.7) with manganese. This is again
indicative of geological genesis of the contami-
nants (Table 4).
We further sampled a large number of river
snails in the rivers of the region. The predominant
species noted was Pluroceraidae. The analysis
shows a bio-concentration of the common toxic
metals – arsenic, nickel, copper and chromium
(Table 5). The manganese and iron concentration
 arsenic contamination in kanker district 413

Fig. 3. Levels of arsenic in the Durgukundal block of Kanker district that was maximally affected by arsenic.

Table 2. Correlation analysis of groundwater.

pH Conductivity Total hardness Ca Mg SO4 F Cl Alkalinity Fe Mn As

pH 1.00
Cond )0.20 1.00
Hard )0.10 0.74 1.00
Ca )0.04 0.70 0.94 1.00
Mg )0.19 0.70 0.67 0.41 1.00
SO4 0.29 )0.29 )0.06 0.08 )0.50 1.00
F )0.39 0.31 0.16 0.11 0.24 0.06 1.00
Cl 0.17 0.64 0.71 0.73 0.31 0.29 )0.27 1.00
Alkaline )0.07 0.40 0.39 0.21 0.75 )0.36 0.27 0.04 1.00
Fe )0.57 )0.10 )0.16 )0.12 )0.18 0.08 0.12 )0.09 0.00 1.00
Mn )0.03 0.13 0.28 0.12 0.66 )0.40 0.17 0.02 0.72 )0.20 1.00
As )0.14 )0.28 )0.22 )0.17 )0.32 0.00 )0.14 )0.09 )0.26 0.04 0.24 1.00
414 p.k. pandey et al.

Table 3. Statistical analysis of the surface water of the Kanker district (concentrations in ppm, unless shown otherwise).

pH Conductivity Total hardness Ca Mg SO4 F Cl Alkalinity Fe (lg L)1) Mn (lg L)1) As (lg L)1)

Mean 6.9 0.3 157.5 42.0 13.8 9.1 0.2 30.5 77.0 294.4 89.3 74.4
Standard error 0.1 0.0 24.8 6.9 3.1 1.4 0.1 8.8 7.1 30.6 54.5 21.2
Median 7.0 0.3 140.0 38.0 10.8 9.0 0.3 20.0 77.5 300.0 0.0 80.0
Standard deviation 0.3 0.1 70.1 19.6 8.8 4.0 0.2 24.8 20.1 91.9 144.2 63.7
Kurtosis )1.3 )0.1 )0.8 1.3 )0.5 )1.5 )2.0 )0.2 )1.3 1.0 )0.9 0.6
Skewness )0.5 0.2 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.1 )0.4 1.3 )0.1 )0.8 1.2 0.7
Minimum 6.5 0.1 80.0 16.0 4.8 4.0 0.0 13.0 51.0 110.0 0.0 0.0
Maximum 7.3 0.4 270.0 80.0 28.8 15.0 0.4 70.0 102.0 410.0 300.0 200.0

are not very high. Snails sampled from this
area were found to have a mean arsenic value of
11 mg kg)1, which is higher than the value
of arsenic found in naturally occurring snails,
0.8–2.8 mg kg)1 (Francesconi & Edmonds 1997).
The bio-concentration factors of the snail
(Huernia campanulata) exposed to As(III) (at
1000 lg L)1) and As(V) (at 100 lg L)1) were 83
and 99, respectively. The snail (Stagnicola ema-
rginata) accumulated similar arsenic residues when
exposed to high concentrations of As(III), As(V)
and disodium methanoarsonate (DSMA), result-
ing in bio-concentration factors ranging from 16 to
17 (Irwin 1997). Residue concentrations were
significantly less in animals exposed to DSMA.
Residue accumulation was also the highest in
S. emarginata exposed to the low concentration of
As(III), resulting in a bio-concentration factor of
92 (Irwin 1997). Compared to these values
reported previously, the bio-concentration factor
obtained in this investigation is approximately156.
The high bio-concentration factor thus points to
the episodes of high arsenic concentration in the
aquatic environment. It is also possible that the
arsenic level may be highly episodic and, conse-
quently, the intermittent sampling protocol is not
able to cover all such events. The arsenic found in
the snail body does not correlate well with other
elements (Table 6), and it shows a negative
(though not high) correlation with iron and nickel.
Thus, it can be inferred that the uptake of these
elements follows a distinct pattern. Further, there
exists a very low aquatic biodiversity in the Kotri
River, which is indicative of chronic to acute
episodes of metal contamination of the overlaying
water column. A sediment analysis was also
carried out, but it did not provide much informa-
tion as the sandy sediments, which predominated
the studied area, do not provide a good record.
Soil contamination by arsenic
The soil analysis of the area presented another
remarkable picture. Soil arsenic levels are high,
and there is a sizable presence of nickel, chro-
mium, manganese and iron in the soil. In a few
samples cadmium was detected at sizable concen-
trations. This soil analysis revealed a situation of

Table 4. Correlation analysis of surface water .

pH Conductivity (mS) Total hardness Ca Mg SO4 F Cl Alkalinity Fe Mn As

pH 1.0
Cond 0.2 1.0
Hard )0.3 0.2 1.0
Ca )0.3 0.3 0.9 1.0
Mg 0.1 0.0 0.7 0.4 1.0
SO4 0.0 0.2 )0.7 )0.7 )0.6 1.0
F )0.5 )0.2 )0.4 )0.2 )0.6 0.2 1.0
Cl )0.4 0.3 0.1 0.4 )0.4 0.1 )0.1 1.0
Alk 0.3 0.5 )0.4 )0.4 )0.2 0.4 0.1 0.0 1.0
Fe 0.4 0.1 )0.2 )0.4 0.1 0.6 )0.5 )0.2 0.0 1.0
Mn 0.4 0.7 )0.3 )0.2 )0.3 0.3 0.2 )0.3 0.5 0.3 1.0
As )0.2 0.6 0.1 0.1 )0.1 0.5 )0.2 0.3 )0.1 0.4 0.7 1.0
 arsenic contamination in kanker district 415

Table 5. Statistical analysis of various metals in snails of Kanker district depicting bio-accumulation (concentrations in ppm).

As Ni Cu Cr Zn Fe (%)

Mean 11.6 14.4 12.2 17.8 11.4 0.6

Standard error 1.1 0.7 1.0 1.3 0.8 0.1
Median 11.5 14.4 11.5 17.0 11.0 0.6
Standard deviation 3.0 1.9 2.8 3.6 2.3 0.2
Sample variance 8.8 3.7 7.8 13.1 5.4 0.0
Kurtosis )1.2 1.2 )1.2 1.3 )0.7 )1.5
Skewness 0.2 0.6 0.0 1.2 0.3 0.1
Range 8.0 6.0 8.0 11.0 7.0 0.5
Minimum 8.0 12.0 8.0 14.0 8.0 0.4
Maximum 16.0 18.0 16.0 25.0 15.0 0.8

Table 6. Correlation matrix of levels of trace elements in the snail.

As Ni Cu Cr Zn Fe

As 1.00
Ni )0.35 1.00
Cu 0.12 )0.41 1.00
Cr 0.30 0.30 )0.57 1.00
Zn 0.25 0.33 0.12 )0.43 1.00
Fe )0.14 0.13 )0.24 )0.15 0.04 1.00

metal enrichment in the soil with a mean arsenic
concentration of 34±13 ppm arsenic, 30±20 ppm
nickel and 7.1 ppm cadmium (Table 7). The cor-
relation analysis in the soil shows a significant
positive correlation of arsenic with all of the other
major elements (Table 8). This correlation is
chemically plausible and points to genetic simi-
larities between the groups of metals.
In view of the soil enrichment by arsenic, the
various vegetation forms commonly found in the
area were analysed to determine their arsenic lev-
els. Results of 40 samples analysed (Table 9)
showed a mean level of arsenic of 32.41 ppm and a
maximum value of 125 ppm in one particular
species (Hydrocotyle verticilliata). This species is
currently being investigated for its hyper-accu-
mulator status. Similarly, the river weeds in the
Kotri river showed the presence of arsenic at a
concentration of 50±10 ppm. This value attests to
a consistent presence of arsenic in the river water
and its possible bio-accumulation. There are very
few reports of the wildlife poisoning by arsenic.
The arsenic concentration in the water was as high
as 2500 mg L)1, and Eisler (1988) reported that
catfish in the water of the reservoir contained 5
and 12 mg As kg)1 in skeletal muscle after 5-h and
7-week exposures, respectively (weight basis not
specified).

Table 7. Soil statistical analysis [concentrations in lg/g, except for Fe (%)].

As Ni Cu Cr Zn Cd Mn Mg Fe

Mean 34.1 30.2 15.5 25.8 34.2 1.3 394.3 1161.3 1.3
Standard error 5.6 12.1 4.9 9.1 7.8 1.3 90.9 45.2 0.3
Median 37.0 20.0 14.9 30.0 32.5 0.0 403.0 1181.5 1.2
Standard deviation 13.7 20.6 12.1 22.2 19.1 3.1 222.6 110.8 0.9
Sample variance 186.6 876.2 145.8 494.2 364.2 9.4 49568.7 12284.7 0.7
Kurtosis 3.1 5.6 0.4 )1.5 )1.5 6.0 )1.3 0.6 3.8
Skewness )1.5 2.3 0.5 )0.2 0.2 2.4 0.1 )0.7 1.8
Minimum 8.8 10.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 120.0 980.0 0.5
Maximum 49.0 90.0 34.8 55.0 60.0 7.5 700.0 1300.0 2.9
Confidence level 14.3 31.1 12.7 23.3 20.0 3.2 233.6 116.3 0.9
416 p.k. pandey et al.

Table 8. Soil correlation matrix.

As Ni Cu Cr Zn Mn Mg Fe

As 1.00
Ni 0.88 1.00
Cu 0.80 0.48 1.00
Cd 0.52 0.48 0.67 1.00
Zn 0.71 0.65 0.60 0.28 1.00
Mn 0.70 0.63 0.73 0.62 0.91 1.00
Mg 0.87 0.90 0.45 0.13 0.74 0.56 1.00
Fe 0.52 0.32 0.30 -0.35 0.21 -0.07 0.62 1.00

Arsenic is also relatively persistent in the aquatic
environment. Tanner and Clayton (1990) reported
elevated concentrations of arsenic in macrophytes
[193–1200 mg kg)1 dry weight (DW)] and surficial
sediments (540–780 mg kg)1 DW) in Lake Roto-
roa, New Zealand, 24 years after an application of
sodium arsenite herbicide; arsenic levels in a
nearby reference lake (Lake Rotokauri) were
<20 mg/kg DW in macrophytes and 16.5–
40 mg kg)1 DW in sediments. In a tropical climate
the slow-moving river water normally supports a
rich aquatic flora and fauna, but the same has not
been observed in the Kotri River. Instead, we have
noted a marked lack of aquatic biodiversity in the
Kotri River, and whatever species are available
appear to be tolerant to the arsenic and other trace
elements. A greatly reduced taxon diversity and
abundance of aquatic plants was noted. Both land-
based and aquatic plants were analysed and found
to contain arsenic, with hyper-accumulation in
Table 9. Arsenic statistical analysis of the vegetationa.
Parameter
Mean
Standard error
Median
Mode
Standard deviation
Sample variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Sample counts
a
Vegetation studied: B. monospermum, J. curcas, F. religiousa,
S. sphaerandra, A. indika, P. marsupium, D. melanoxylon,
S. cumini, T. bispinosa, H. verticilliata, I. Aquatica
certain species. The vegetation studied in detail for
arsenic levels were B. monospermum (Palash),
J. curcas (Ratanjot), F. religiousa (Pipal), S. sph-
aerandra (Teek), A. indika (Neem), P. marsupium
(Bija), D. melanoxylon (Tendu), S. cumini (Jamun),
and the aquatic plants were T. bispinosa (Singh-
ada), H. verticilliata (Hydrilla), I. Aquatica
(Amaari) and a number of others.
Geology of the studied area and its relationship with
arsenic contamination
After we had established that there was indeed
arsenic contamination, it was important to estab-
lish the reasons for its appearance in the ground-
water. Geologically the area is a part of the highly
heterogeneous central Indian shield, which com-
prises three Archean cratons, two Gondwana
basins, Proterozoic mobile belts and basins inter-
spersed with Phanerozoic cover. The development
of the regional geology is given in Table 10.
The study area is a part of the central Indian
shield, which lies between 17 and 24N, and 78
Values
to 88E; see Figure 1 for a simplified geology map
of this region (GSI 2000; Sarkar 2001). Based on
34.46 detailed geological, petrological and structural
8.23 studies the Central Indian Shear (Yedekar et al.
36.00
38.00
1990) has been identified, which separates the
30.78 Bastar block from the northern (Bundelkhand)
947.33 block. The western side of this shear is buried
5.72 under alluvium and traps, while to the east it forks
1.99 into two parts with the northern part coming close
122.50
2.50
to the Tan shear. The orogenic events which took
125.00 place in the region are mainly responsible for the
482.50 formation of mineralised zones in the area.
40.00 The rocks of the Bailadila group consist of
feldspathic quartzite, phyllitic shales and iron ore
(Crookshank 1963), whereas the Kotri Group
comprises volcanics of different compositions. In

Table 10. Regional geological set-up of the studied region.
Chhattisgarh supergroup
Intrusive
Khairagarh organic phase (0.00 Ma)
Khairagarh group
Unconformity
Chilphi group
Unconformity
Dongargarh granite
Nandgaon group
Unconformity
Amgaon orogeny, metamorphism and
granatization (2500 la)
Aamgaon group (Aamgaon
granitic complex)
fact the rocks of the Kotri Group converge
northward into the Dongargarh supergroup of
rocks and are considered to have been formed in
one tectonic regime (Bandyopadhyay et al. 1995).
The earliest orogenic activity is described as
Amgaon Orogeny, and it is characterised by a
NNE-SSW to NNW-SSE trend. The subsequent
Orogenic cycles corresponding with younger
groups – namely the Nandgaon cycle and the
Khairagarh cycle – almost follow the same trend
and have caused low metamorphism of associated
rocks. (Sarkar et al. 1981; Sarkar 1957, 1958, 1994)
The Kotri volcanic belt or Kotri lineament is
identified as the southern extension of Dongargarh
Supergroup. The N–S trending Kotri linear belt is
250 km long and 50 km wide and comprises the
acid and basic volcanics along with conglomerate
and arkose, intruded by granite.
We have identified a distinct presence of arse-
nopyrite in the surface outcrops of rhyolite and in
deep borehole logs dug by a government agency in
the Guruwandih area. The level of arsenic in cer-
tain borehole chips has been found to be as high as
15,000 ppm. Abundant arsenic was contained in
the conglomerate layer, andesitic and dacitic tuff
layer, and altered basalt & rhyolite and appears to
concentrate on layer boundaries. These layer
boundaries are the area where the aquifers exist.
Most of the abundant arsenic was contained in
altered basalt layer. Certain samples of the area
arsenic contamination in kanker district 417
Raipur limestone; Chandarpur sandstone
Quartz veins
Diorite, Gabbros, Pyroxenes
Mangikhuta formation (basic volcanics)
Karutola formation (coarse clastics)
Sitagota formation (basic volcanics and intra-trappeans)
Bortalao formation (coarse elastics)
Chattuala formation (Shale/interbeded/sandstone)
Jharia formation (conglomerates and coarse elastics)
2270±90 to 2465±22 Ma)
Pitepani formation (basic volcanics)
Bijli formation (rhyolite/tuff) (2180–2500 la)
Augen gneiss, banded and streaky gneisses
and megmatites with amphibolites and other super crustal rocks
were found to contain considerable amounts of
pyrite, leading to the suggestion that pyrite is in-
volved in the accumulation of high amounts of
arsenic in this area.
In the location under study the volcanic rocks
have not shown very high levels of arsenic
(Table 11), yet the sedimentary deposits (though
very small in geographical distribution) have
shown enrichment in arsenic levels. In their eval-
uation of the regional distribution of arsenic in
groundwater in the western United States, Welch
et al. (1988) evaluated the association between
aquifer geology and arsenic concentrations in the
groundwater and found that higher arsenic con-
centrations (groundwater concentrations greater
than 50 lg L)1) were associated with sedimentary
deposits derived from volcanic rocks. Similar rea-
sonings could be made to explain the arsenic in
Kanker district: the arsenic in the groundwater
appears to be caused by mineral leaching.
Weathering of the volcanic rocks may result in the
concentration of arsenic leching onto ferric oxy-
hydroxide and being deposited with the sediments.
Models do exist that explain and predict con-
ditions controlling the uptake or release of dis-
solved arsenic in ground waters, however they
remain incomplete partly due to a lack of knowl-
edge on arsenic speciation in subsurface sediments.
In the shallow subsurface under changing redox
conditions, the ratio of reactive iron to sulphur in
418 p.k. pandey et al.
Table 11. Comparison of arsenic measured values of contaminated area in rock sample.
Rocks Arsenic
concentration
(mg/kg) range
usually reported
(NAS, 1977)
Ultrabasic 0.3–16
Gabbros 0.06–113
Andesites 0.5–5.8
Granites 0.2–13.8
Silicic volcanic 0.2–12.2
Shales and clays 0.3–490
Altered or rhyolite (deep) – –
Conglomerate (deep) – –
Iron ores (sedimentary) 1–2900
Manganese ores (sedimentary) (Up to 1.5%)
the system controls the distribution of solid phases
capable of removing arsenic from solution when
conditions change from the oxidised to the
reduced state, the rate of which is influenced by
microbial processes. Because of the difference in
the solubility of iron versus arsenic sulphides,
precipitation of iron sulphide may remove sul-
phide from solution but not arsenic if precipitation
rates are fast. The lack of the incorporation of
arsenic into iron sulphides may result in the
accumulation of dissolved As(III) if adsorption is
weak or inhibited. Aquifers particularly at risk for
such geochemical conditions are those in which
oxidised and reduced waters mix and where the
amount of sulphate available for microbial
reduction is limited (O’Day et al. 2004). The
location of Kanker district that we have studied
here has been found to have changing redox con-
ditions. The pH-Eh study of the aquifers of the
region has shown that there are instances of
changing redox conditions, thereby providing the
reasons why soluble As(III) and the iron and
manganese in variable oxidation states coexist in
this region and why the amount of sulphate
available in the system is low.
A case study on the adverse health effects of arsenic
exposure in the location under study
The leaching and mineral dissolution process tak-
ing place in the region appears to be sporadic and
that some kind of intermittent injection process is
going on. We have collected evidence of this when
Average Values of arsenic
measured in the
area studied
3.0 2.0
2.0 2.5
2.0 3.8
1.5 2.9
3.0 8.2
14.5 12
15,000
10,000
400 100
– 150
an episode of mass diarrhoea occurred at a village
named Jatadah in the Durg District, which adjoins
the Kanker district. In September–October 2003
mass diarrhoea was reported, and a large number
of people had to be admitted to the hospital. The
whole village was dependent on boreholes. In the
beginning it was presumed that the cause of the
outbreak was a bacterial infection spread by con-
taminated food or water.
We carried out an epidemiological investigation
in which any case of gastroenteritis was defined as
diarrhoea characterised by three or more loose
stools in a 24-h period or vomiting. A standardised
questionnaire was filled in collecting the details of
the foods the villagers ate before the onset of the
epidemic. The questionnaire was also used to
characterise the demographics, timing of illness,
attack rates, symptomatology and risk factors for
illness. Twenty-five patients were studied in detail,
and the manifestations included abdominal
cramps [25 (100%)], diarrhoea [20 (80%)], bloody
stools [6 (24%)] and vomiting [10 (40%)]. The
median age was 28 years (range: 5–54 years), and
15 (60%) patients were female. The signs and
symptoms of the patients included the following:
• gastrointestinal: abdominal pain, nausea and
vomiting, and rice-water diarrhoea;
• haematological: anaemia, leucopoenia, throm-
bocytopoenia, and disseminated intravascular
coagulation (studied after 15 days of the diar-
rhoeal epidemic);
• other: difficulty in swallowing, abdominal
pain.
 arsenic contamination in kanker district 419

Stool cultures were prepared for Salmonella,

Shigella, Campylobacter and Escherichia coli and
none of the samples were positive. We then anal-
ysed the drinking water and urine samples for the
presence of arsenic. Both the drinking water and
the urine samples collected about 4 days following
the outbreak showed the presence of arsenic. The
mean arsenic level in the groundwater was 112 lg
L)1 with a standard deviation of 83.9 and a max-
imum level of 330 lg L)1 compared to the
National Drinking Standard of 50 lg L)1 of
Fig. 4. Changes in the water quality parameters in the
arsenic. To confirm the diagnosis, urinary arsenic
groundwater of the village affected by a diarrhoeal epidemic.
levels were measured, and the analysis of 14
patients showed a mean arsenic level of 177.9 lg
L)1, a standard deviation of 101.4 and a maximum 14 days after the initial outbreak the arsenic was
of 390 lg L)1. These results confirm the diagnosis totally absent from the drinking water. None of
as sub-acute arsenic poisoning. The Agency for the samples of water tested during this same period
Toxic Substance and Disease Registry (ASTDR showed any indication of microbial contamination
2003) proclaims that in sub-acute poisoning the as characterised by maximum probable number
onset of milder gastrointestinal symptoms may be (MPN) tests.
so insidious that the possibility of arsenic intoxi- Similarly the laboratory tests to obtain the
cation is overlooked. As a result of inorganic baseline urinary values showed a negligible con-
arsenic’s direct toxicity to the epithelial cells of the centration of arsenic. This follows the fact that the
gastrointestinal tract and its systemic enzyme urinary levels of arsenic drop rapidly in the first
inhibition, profound gastroenteritis, sometimes 24–48 h after acute exposure.
with haemorrhage, can occur within minutes to Hence it is clear that a regional arsenic con-
hours after acute ingestion. Symptoms may last for tamination is taking place in the central-eastern
several days. Difficulty in swallowing, abdominal part of India. The arsenic is geological in origin
pain, vomiting, diarrhoea and dehydration may and is related to the volcanic orogeny that took
result. The clinical diagnosis of arsenic intoxica- place during the Middle Proterozoic age. The
tion is often difficult because both acute and presence of arsenopyrite in certain geological for-
chronic poisoning present a wide spectrum of signs mations has also been noted. This has also caused
and symptoms, which are largely dependent upon an elevated soil arsenic level. Yet these levels are
the route of exposure, chemical form, dose and not as high as had been noted in some of the
time elapsed since exposure. In many cases, the adjoining blocks of Rajnandgaon district.
patient or person providing the history might not Arsenopyrite-oxidation could to be a cause of
have all of the information, or the source of arsenic mobilisation in the Kanker district of
exposure might not be apparent. By integrating Chhattisgarh state. Arsenic levels are high and
laboratory results with history and clinical find-
ings, it is often possible to confirm a diagnosis.
It is further interesting to note that there was a
continuous decrease in the major water quality
parameters (Figures 4 and 5). The quality analysis
of the water of the affected village collected about
4 days following the onset of the epidemic showed
elevated levels of arsenic, iron and manganese
(188, 456, 556 lg L)1). During the following week
the levels of dissolved constituents showed a
marked decrease (147.4, 394, 504 lg L)1 of Fig. 5. Changes in the water quality parameters in the surface
arsenic, iron and manganese, respectively), and by water of the village affected by a diarrhoeal epidemic.
420 p.k. pandey et al.
show a seasonal variation, which indicates the
involvement of the leaching/mineral dissolution
process. Higher levels of arsenic and manganese in
the Kanker district have been found to have
impacts on the flora and fauna. Surface water
contamination is causing the loss of aquatic spe-
cies – both plants and animals. Our analysis of
freshwater snails also provides proof of arsenic
contamination of the water. Arsenic accumulation
has also been witnessed in the surface plants, and
some of the plants attest to the hyper-accumula-
tion capacity for which further work in envisaged.
The presence of arsenic appears to be controlled
by some complex geochemical phenomena, and
there are instances of sudden release of arsenic.
The results of our study of a diarrhoeal epidemic
prove that such a release could be a major health
hazard and that the cause might be wrongly
attributed to microbial contamination.
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