‭Wed Sept 27th‬

‭CHAPTER 3: BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY‬

‭Human Development‬
-‭ ‬ W ‭ e have‬‭chromosomes‬‭inside each cell's nucleus that‬‭carry genes‬
‭-‬ ‭Every cell in humans has 46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent (except sex‬
‭cells)‬
‭-‬ ‭Our‬‭genotype‬‭is the set of genes we have, while our‬‭phenotype‬‭is our‬
‭observable traits‬
‭-‬ ‭Genes con be dominant or recessive‬

‭Behavioral Genetic Designs‬

‭-‬ ‭Scientists use three types of designs to estimate the heritability of traits‬
‭-‬ ‭Family studies‬
‭-‬ ‭Researchers examine the extent to which a trait runs in families.‬
‭(children‬‭raised‬‭in the same home)‬
‭-‬ ‭Twin studies‬
‭-‬ ‭Studies that compare identical twins (monozygotic) who share‬
‭100% of their genes and fraternal twins who only share 50% of‬
‭their genes‬
‭-‬ ‭Adoption studies‬
‭-‬ ‭Analyzes the extent to which adopted children resemble their‬
‭adoptive families as opposed to their biological families.‬
‭-‬ ‭Determine how much both genes and environment contribute to a‬
‭particular trait‬

‭Nerve Cells and Communication in the Brain‬

‭-‬ ‭Neurons‬‭: the brains communicators‬
‭-‬ ‭Nerve cells specialized in communication with each other‬
‭-‬ ‭Approximately 100 billion neurons, with 160 billion connections‬
‭between them‬
‭-‬ ‭Unique shape compared to other cells‬

‭-‬ ‭Neural Components‬

‭-‬ ‭Cell body (soma)‬
‭-‬ ‭Contain the nucleus which is involved with protein manufacture‬
‭neurons‬
 ‭-‬ D ‭ amage to this part of the neuron could be deadly to the entire‬
‭cell‬
‭-‬ ‭Provides continual renewal of cell components‬
‭-‬ ‭Center of the neuron‬
‭-‬ ‭Axon terminal‬
‭-‬ ‭Knob at the end of the axon containing synaptic vesicles filled‬
‭with neurotransmitters‬
‭-‬ ‭Neurotransmitters (NTs)‬
‭-‬ ‭Chemical messengers that allow neuron to neuron‬
‭communication‬
‭-‬ ‭Synapse‬
‭-‬ ‭Space between neurons through which NTs travel‬
‭-‬ ‭Dendrites‬
‭-‬ ‭Branchlike extension of a neuron that‬
‭receives information from other neurons‬
‭-‬ ‭Spread out and "listen in" on‬
‭conversations from neighboring‬
‭neurons and pass them on the‬
‭cell body‬
‭-‬ ‭Axons‬
‭-‬ ‭Tail like extension of the neurons that‬
‭spread out from the cell body‬
‭-‬ ‭Transit information to and from other‬
‭neurons.‬
‭-‬ ‭Myelin Sheath‬
‭-‬ ‭A fatty coat around some axons of‬
‭neurons that allow information to be‬
‭spread faster. speeds up transmission of impulses‬
‭-‬ ‭Synaptic vesicles‬
‭-‬ ‭Travel the length of the axon called the axon terminal‬
‭-‬ ‭Reaches the end of the axon terminal and bursts releasing‬
‭neurotransmitters‬
‭-‬ ‭Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that neurons use to‬
‭communicate with each other‬
‭-‬ ‭Synapses‬
‭-‬ ‭Once released from the synaptic vesicle, neurotransmitters‬
‭enter the synapses‬
‭-‬ ‭Synapse:‬‭tiny fluid filled space between neurons through‬
‭which neurotransmitters travel‬
‭-‬ ‭Consists of a‬‭synaptic cleft-‬‭a gap into which neurotransmitters‬
‭are released from the axon terminal‬
‭-‬ ‭Surrounded by small patches of membranes on each‬
‭side, one on the sending axon of the first neuron, and one‬
‭on the receiving dendrite of the second neuron‬
 ‭-‬ A ‭ s neurotransmitters are released into the synapse they are‬
‭quickly picked up by dendrites of nearby neurons‬
‭-‬ ‭Glial cells‬
‭-‬ ‭Perform a variety of functions‬
‭-‬ ‭Clear away debris (brains garbage disposal)‬
‭-‬ ‭Treatments in the future targeting glial cells may assist in‬
‭schizophrenia, depression, inflammation, alzheimer's disease, chronic‬
‭pain‬
‭-‬ ‭Astrocytes (most abundant)‬
‭-‬ ‭Found abundantly in in the blood-brain barrier- a protective‬
‭shield that insulates the brain from infection by bacteria and‬
‭other intruders (wrapped with a fatty coating blocking large‬
‭molecules, highly charged molecules, and molecules that‬
‭dissolve in water but not fat from entering the brian)‬
‭-‬ ‭Communicate closely with neurons‬
‭-‬ ‭Control blood flow in the brain‬
‭-‬ ‭Play a vital role in the development of the embryo‬
‭-‬ ‭In concert with other glial cells, are intimately involved in‬
‭thought, memory, and the immune system‬
‭-‬ ‭Oligodendrocyte‬
‭-‬ ‭Promotes new connections among nerve cells‬
‭-‬ ‭Releases chemicals to aid in healing‬
‭-‬ ‭Produces an insulating wrapper around axons called myelin‬
‭sheath‬
‭-‬ ‭Contains gaps called nodes, which help the neuron‬
‭conduct electricity more efficiently‬
‭-‬ ‭Signal jumps from node to node, speeding its‬
‭transmission‬
‭-‬ ‭Multiple sclerosis- an autoimmune disease where the‬
‭myelin is "eaten away" causing a loss of insulation of‬
‭neural messages resulting in physical and emotional‬
‭symptoms‬
-‭ ‬ ‭Electrifying thought‬
‭-‬ ‭Neurons respond to neurotransmitters by generating electrical activity‬
‭-‬ ‭Electrodes allow researchers to measure the potential difference in‬
‭electrical charge between inside and outside the neuron‬
‭-‬ ‭The basis of electrical responses in neurons depends on uneven‬
‭distribution of charged particles across the membrane surrounding the‬
‭neuron‬
‭-‬ ‭Resting potential: when there's no neurotransmitters acting on the‬
‭neuron the membrane is at resting potential‬
‭-‬ ‭More negative particles inside than outside the neuron‬
‭-‬ ‭At rest particles of both types are flowing in and out of the membrane‬
 ‭-‬ T ‭ he electrical charge inside the neuron reaches a high enough level‬
‭relative to the outside called threshold- an action potential is then‬
‭triggered‬
‭-‬ ‭Action potential‬
‭-‬ ‭Language of neurons‬
‭-‬ ‭Ways of electrical discharge triggered by a change in the charge inside‬
‭the cell, when this occurs we describe the neuron as "firing"‬
‭-‬ ‭"All or none response"‬‭- either fire or don't‬
‭-‬ ‭Positive charged particles flow into the axon and then flow out, followed‬
‭by the inside charge ending up at a slightly more negative level then its‬
‭original resting value‬
‭-‬ ‭Sudden shifts in charge produce a release of energy‬
‭-‬ ‭Absolute refractory period‬
‭-‬ ‭A brief interval during which another action potential cannot fire‬
‭-‬ ‭This limits the the maximal firing rate, the fastest rate at which a neuron‬
‭can fire, much as it takes us a while to reload some guns after firing‬
‭them‬
‭-‬ ‭Becomes an issue in very long axons such as the sciatic nerve‬
‭-‬ ‭Graded potentials‬
‭-‬ ‭Are postsynaptic potentials that can be excitatory or inhibitory‬
‭depending on whether positively or negatively charged particles flow‬
‭across the neuronal membrane and in which direction they flow‬
‭-‬ ‭Excitatory postsynaptic potential:‬‭if positive ions‬‭are allowed in‬
‭-‬ ‭Depolarizes the neuron‬
‭-‬ ‭Inhibitory postsynaptic potential:‬‭if negatively charged‬‭ions are‬
‭allowed in‬
‭-‬ ‭Hyperpolarizes the neuron‬
‭-‬ ‭Same type add together, different types cancel out‬
‭-‬ ‭Can increase or decrease the likelihood of an action potential to occur‬
‭-‬ ‭An action potential itself is an all or none response‬
‭-‬ ‭Long-term potentiation- occurs when graded potential becomes larger‬
‭then it was prior to stimulation‬
‭-‬ ‭Increases the ability of a neuron to communicate and fire action‬
‭potentials and is the basis of all of our memories‬
‭-‬ ‭Chemical communication: neurotransmission‬
‭-‬ ‭Electrical events transmit information within neurons‬
‭-‬ ‭Chemical events initiated by neurotransmitters orchestrate‬
‭communication among neurons‬
‭-‬ ‭Neurotransmision can be stopped by reuptake of the neurotransmitter‬
‭into the axon terminal, a process by which the synaptic vesicle‬
‭reabsorbs the neurotransmitter‬
‭-‬ ‭Reuptake is one of nature's recycling mechanisms‬
‭-‬ ‭Neurotransmitters‬
‭-‬ ‭Some excite the nervous system, increasing its activity‬
 -‭ ‬ S ‭ ome inhibit the nervous system decreasing its activity‬
‭-‬ ‭Play many roles such as;‬
‭-‬ ‭In movement‬
‭-‬ ‭In pain perception‬
‭-‬ ‭In thinking and emotion‬
‭-‬ ‭Glutamate and Gaba‬
‭-‬ ‭Most common neurotransmitters in the Central nervous system (brain‬
‭and spinal cord)‬
‭-‬ ‭Use these wo chemical messages to communicate with each other‬
‭-‬ ‭Glutamate‬
‭-‬ ‭Excites neurons‬‭(increasing the likelihood that they'll‬‭communicate‬
‭with each other)‬
‭-‬ ‭Associated with enhanced learning and memory‬
‭-‬ ‭In high doses can be toxic, damaging neural receptors by‬
‭overstimulating them‬
‭-‬ ‭Schizophrenia‬
‭-‬ ‭GABA‬
‭-‬ ‭Inhibits neurons (dampening neural activity)‬
‭-‬ ‭Anti- anxiety drugs activate GABA receptors; tend to suppress‬
‭overactive brain areas linked to worry‬
‭-‬ ‭Plays critical roles in learning, memory and sleep‬
‭-‬ ‭May be used one day to treat a variety of conditions‬
‭-‬ ‭Insomnia‬
‭-‬ ‭Anxiety disorders‬
‭-‬ ‭Depression‬
‭-‬ ‭Epilepsy‬
‭-‬ ‭Acetylcholine‬
‭-‬ ‭Plays a role in arousal, selective attention, sleep and memory‬
‭-‬ ‭Neurons that connect directly to muscle cells also release acetylcholine‬
‭allowing them to trigger movement‬
‭-‬ ‭In alzheimer's disease neurons containing acetylcholine are destroyed‬
‭leading to severe memory loss‬
‭-‬ ‭Monoamines‬
‭-‬ ‭Norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin (called monoamines because‬
‭contain only one amino acid)‬
‭-‬ ‭Dopamine plays a critical role in rewarding experiences that occur‬
‭when we seek out or anticipate goals‬
‭-‬ ‭Sex‬
‭-‬ ‭A fine meal‬
‭-‬ ‭Gambling jackpot‬
‭-‬ ‭Dopamine also plays a role in decisions making and behavioral‬
‭flexibility‬
‭-‬ ‭Norepinephrine and serotonin activate or deactivate parts of the brain‬
‭influencing arousal and our readiness to respond to stimuli‬
‭-‬ ‭Anandamide‬
‭-‬ ‭Active ingredient tetrahydrocannabinol‬‭(THC)‬‭- Marijuana‬
‭-‬ ‭Cells in our bodies, like neurons make anandamide which binds to‬
‭same receptors as THC‬
‭-‬ ‭Plays a role in eating, motivation, memory and sleep‬
‭-‬ ‭Neuropeptides‬
‭-‬ ‭Short strings of amino acids‬
‭-‬ ‭More targeted at their jobs‬
‭-‬ ‭Some regulate hunger and satiety‬
‭-‬ ‭Neuropeptide Y alter learning and memory‬
‭-‬ ‭Endorphins type of neuropeptide thats plays a specialized role in pain‬
‭reduction‬
‭-‬ ‭Our brain contain their very own receptors for naturally occurring‬
‭opioids- endorphins‬
‭-‬ ‭Neurotransmitter and psychotic drugs‬
‭-‬ ‭Drugs that interact with neurotransmitter are called psychoactive they‬
‭affect:‬
‭-‬ ‭Mood‬
‭-‬ ‭Arousal‬
‭-‬ ‭Behaviour‬
‭-‬ ‭Opiates, such as codeine and morphine function as agonists‬
‭-‬ ‭Increase receptor site activity‬
‭-‬ ‭Reduce emotional response to painful stimuli by binding with‬
‭opioid receptors‬
‭-‬ ‭Tranquilizers like xanax diminish anxiety by stimulating GABA receptor‬
‭sites, driving down neural activity‬
‭-‬ ‭Antidepressants like prozac and paxil inhibit reuptake of certain‬
‭neurotransmitters, especially serotonin‬
‭-‬ ‭Allowing these neurotransmitters to remain in the synapse‬
‭longer, thus enhancing these neurotransmitters effects of the‬
‭receptor sites‬
‭-‬ ‭Some drugs work the opposite way functioning as antagonists -‬
‭decrease receptor site activity‬
‭-‬ ‭Used to treat schizophrenia‬
‭-‬ ‭Neural plasticity: How and when brain changes‬
‭-‬ ‭Nature‬‭-genetic makeup‬
‭-‬ ‭Influences what kind of changes are possible and when they'll‬
‭occur‬
‭-‬ ‭Nurture‬‭consists of‬
‭-‬ ‭Learning‬
‭-‬ ‭Life events‬
‭-‬ ‭Injuries‬
‭-‬ ‭Illnesses‬
‭-‬ ‭Plasticity‬‭- nervous systems ability to change‬
 -‭ ‬ F ‭ ew human behaviors are "hardly wired"‬
‭-‬ ‭Nervous system is continually changing‬
‭-‬ ‭Often can change enough to compensate for injury or stroke‬
‭leading to paralysis or disability‬
‭-‬ ‭Neural plasticity over development‬
‭-‬ ‭Our brain is most capable of change during early development‬
‭-‬ ‭Growth of dendrites and axons‬
‭-‬ ‭Synaptogenesis, the formation of new synapses‬
‭-‬ ‭Pruning, consisting of the death of certain neurons and the‬
‭retractions of axons to remove connections that aren't useful‬
‭-‬ ‭Pruning our brain can often process our information more‬
‭efficiently with fewer neurons (70% of neurons die off)‬
‭-‬ ‭Streamlines neural organization‬
‭-‬ ‭Enhancing communication among brain structures‬
‭-‬ ‭Myelination, the insulation of axons with a myelin sheath‬
‭-‬ ‭Neural plasticity and learning‬
‭-‬ ‭Brains change as we learn result from‬
‭-‬ ‭Formation of new synapses‬
‭-‬ ‭Generating increased connections‬
‭-‬ ‭Communication among neurons‬
‭-‬ ‭Result from strengthening of existing synaptic connections (nt‬
‭released into synapses produce a stronger and more prolonged‬
‭response from neighboring neurons)‬
‭-‬ ‭Call this potentiation or when its enduring long-term‬
‭potentiation‬
‭-‬ ‭Structural plasticity- change in the shape of neurons also critical for‬
‭learning‬
‭-‬ ‭Neural plasticity following degeneration and injury‬
‭-‬ ‭Human brain and spinal cord display only limited regeneration following‬
‭injury and or serious illness‬
‭-‬ ‭Scientists are trying to find ways to enhance the brain and spinal cord's‬
‭abilities to repair themselves‬
‭-‬ ‭Adult neurogenesis‬
‭-‬ ‭Neurogenesis is the creation of new neurons in the adult brain‬
‭-‬ ‭Plays a useful role in learning‬
‭-‬ ‭Scientists may one day be able to induce the adult nervous system to‬
‭heal itself by triggering neurogenesis‬
‭-‬ ‭Stem cells‬
‭-‬ ‭Haven’t yet committed themselves to a specific function, so they have‬
‭the potential to become a wide variety of specialized cells‬
‭-‬ ‭Once they begin to specialize though the cell type becomes more‬
‭permanently cast‬
‭-‬ ‭Stem cells offer ways to treating diseases marked by neural‬
‭degeneration‬
 ‭-‬ R ‭ esearchers can genetically engineer stem cells to provide gene‬
‭therapy- provide the patient with replacement genes‬
‭-‬ ‭Stem cell research is controversial for ethical reasons‬
‭-‬ ‭The brain-behavior and network‬
‭-‬ ‭Central nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord‬
‭-‬ ‭Peripheral nervous system composed of the nerves that extend outside‬
‭of the CNS‬

‭-‬ ‭PNS:‬
‭-‬ S ‭ omatic nervous system‬
‭-‬ ‭Voluntary behavior‬
‭-‬ ‭Autonomic nervous system‬
‭-‬ ‭Involuntary behavior‬
‭-‬ ‭CNS:‬
‭-‬ ‭Protected by layers of meninges (3 thin layers of membranes)‬
‭-‬ ‭Further protected by‬‭cerebral ventricles‬‭(fluid filled‬‭pockets extending‬
‭throughout the brain and spinal cord)‬
‭-‬ ‭Cerebrospinal fluid(CFS)‬
‭-‬ ‭Clear liquid runs through these ventricles‬
‭-‬ ‭bathes our CNS and provides nutrients and cushioning against‬
‭injury‬
‭-‬ ‭Shock absorber allowing us to move our heads without‬
‭sustaining any damage‬
‭-‬ ‭Cerebral cortex:‬
‭-‬ ‭Analyzes sensory‬
‭information, helping us‬
‭perform complex brain‬
‭functions, including‬
‭reasoning and language‬
‭-‬ ‭Largest component of the‬
‭cerebrum or forebrain (most‬
‭highly developed area of the‬
‭human brain)‬
‭-‬ ‭Gives us our‬
‭advanced intellectual‬
‭abilities‬
‭-‬ ‭Consists of two cerebral‬
‭hemispheres‬
‭-‬ ‭Connecting the‬
‭cerebral hemispheres is the‬‭corpus callosum‬‭(large band of‬
‭fibers)‬
‭-‬ ‭The cortex is the outermost part of the cerebrum, which contains four‬
‭regions called lobes‬
‭-‬ ‭Frontal lobe‬
‭-‬ ‭Motor planning, language and behavior‬
‭-‬ ‭Lies in the forward part of the cerebral cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭Executive functioning‬‭- organize most other functions‬
‭-‬ ‭Central sulcus‬‭- separates the frontal lobe from the‬‭rest of the cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭Motor cortex‬‭- lies next to the central sulcus‬
‭-‬ ‭Each part of the motor cortex controls a specific part of our body‬
‭-‬ ‭Prefrontal cortex‬‭-‬
‭-‬ ‭In front of the motor cortex lies a vast expanse of the frontal lobe‬
‭responsible for‬
‭-‬ ‭Thinking‬
‭-‬ ‭Planning‬
‭-‬ ‭Language‬
‭-‬ ‭Broca's area‬‭- plays a key role in language production‬
‭-‬ ‭Also contributes to‬
‭-‬ ‭Mood‬
‭-‬ ‭Personality‬
‭-‬ ‭Self awareness‬

‭-‬ ‭Parietal lobe‬

‭-‬ ‭Processes touch information, integrates vision and touch‬
‭-‬ ‭Middle part of the cerebral cortex behind the frontal lobe‬
‭-‬ ‭Primary sensory cortex just behind the motor cortex is sensitive to‬
‭-‬ ‭Touch‬
‭-‬ ‭Including pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭Pain‬
‭-‬ ‭Temperature‬
‭-‬ ‭Helps to track objects‬
‭-‬ ‭Location‬
 -‭ ‬ ‭Shapes‬
‭-‬ ‭Orientation‬
‭-‬ ‭Process others actions and represent numbers‬
‭-‬ ‭Relays visual information to the motor cortex everytime we‬
‭-‬ ‭Reach‬
‭-‬ ‭Grasp‬
‭-‬ ‭Move our eyes‬
‭-‬ ‭Parietal lobe damage is a neglect of the opposite side of the body from‬
‭where the damage happened‬
‭-‬ ‭Temporal lobe‬
‭-‬ ‭Auditory information, language and autobiographical memory‬
‭-‬ ‭Separate from the rest of the cortex by a horizontal groove called the‬
‭lateral fissure‬
‭-‬ ‭The top‬‭contains the auditory cortex‬‭devoted to hearing‬
‭-‬ ‭The language area is called Wernicke's area (also includes the lower‬
‭parietal lobe)‬
‭-‬ ‭Damage can cause difficulties with understanding speech‬
‭-‬ ‭Lower part is critical to storing memories of autobiographical events‬
-‭ ‬ ‭Occipital lobe‬
‭-‬ ‭Visual information‬
‭-‬ ‭Very back of the brain contains the visual cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭Cortical hierarchies‬
‭-‬ ‭Processing becomes extremely "hierarchical" because‬
‭processing becomes increasingly as information is passed up‬
‭the network‬
‭-‬ ‭Primary sensory cortex‬‭- information from the outside‬‭is transmitted‬
‭by a specific sense (sight, hearing or touch)‬
‭-‬ ‭Passed onto another area for that sense called the association‬
‭cortex-spread throughout all four of the brains lobes‬
‭-‬ ‭Association cortex‬‭-synthesizes information to perform‬‭more complex‬
‭functions such as; (to identify an object)‬
‭-‬ ‭Size‬
‭-‬ ‭Shape‬
‭-‬ ‭Color‬
‭-‬ ‭Location information‬
‭-‬ ‭Prosopagnosia- difficulty recognizing previously familiar faces or‬
‭answering questions about people just by looking at their face‬
‭-‬ ‭Basal Ganglia‬
‭-‬ ‭Control movement and motor planning‬
‭-‬ ‭Deep inside the cerebral cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭*Damage to this area results in the Parkinson's disease*‬
‭-‬ ‭Lack of control over movement and uncontrollable tremors‬
‭-‬ ‭Tourette's diseases abnormalities in the basal ganglia‬
‭-‬ ‭Characterized by vocal and motor tics‬
 ‭-‬ A ‭ fter sensory information reaches primary and association areas, its‬
‭transmitted to the basal ganglia which calculates the course of action‬
‭and and transmit it to the motor cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭Allows us to perform movements to obtain rewards‬
‭-‬ ‭When we anticipate pleasurable outcomes (ex. eating a tasty‬
‭sandwich)‬
‭-‬ ‭Limbic system‬
‭-‬ ‭Diverse part of the brain dedicated to‬‭emotion‬
‭-‬ ‭In the forebrain‬
‭-‬ ‭A set of highly interconnected brain regions‬
‭-‬ ‭Process information about our internal states such as‬
‭-‬ ‭Blood pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭Heart rate‬
‭-‬ ‭Respiration‬
‭-‬ ‭Perspiration‬
‭-‬ ‭Emotions‬
‭-‬ ‭Brain's emotional center also plays roles in (contributes to and shape‬
‭our emotions)‬
‭-‬ ‭Smell‬
‭-‬ ‭Motivation‬
‭-‬ ‭Memory‬
‭-‬ ‭Four areas in the limbic system‬
‭-‬ ‭Thalamus‬
‭-‬ ‭Conveys sensory information to cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭Majority of sensory information first passes through its doors,‬
‭undergoing some initial processing before travelling to the cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭Hypothalamus‬
‭-‬ ‭Oversees endocrine and autonomic nervous system‬
‭-‬ ‭Regulates internal bodily states‬
‭-‬ ‭Plays various roles in emotion and motivation‬
‭-‬ ‭Hunger‬
‭-‬ ‭Thirst‬
‭-‬ ‭Sexual motivation (etc)‬
‭-‬ ‭Controls our body's temperature‬
‭-‬ ‭Amygdala‬
‭-‬ ‭Regulates arousal and especially fear‬
‭-‬ ‭When playing violent video games‬
‭-‬ ‭When we view fearful faces‬
‭-‬ ‭Hippocampus‬
‭-‬ ‭Processes memory for spatial locations‬
‭-‬ ‭Memory of the physical layout of things in our environment‬
‭-‬ ‭Can change in size following learning‬
‭-‬ ‭Damage causes problems with forming new memories but leaves old‬
‭memories intact‬
 ‭-‬ (‭ rival hypothesis)‬‭Multiple trace theory‬‭- memories are initially‬
‭stored at multiple sites. that memories are not transferred from‬
‭the hippocampus to the cortex, they are already stored in the‬
‭cortex and strengthen over time‬
‭-‬ ‭Cerebellum‬
‭-‬ ‭Controls balance and coordinated movement‬
‭-‬ ‭Part of the hindbrain‬
‭-‬ ‭Learn motor skills‬
‭-‬ ‭Prevents us from falling down‬
‭-‬ ‭Also contributes to‬
‭-‬ ‭Memory‬
‭-‬ ‭Spatial‬
‭-‬ ‭Linguistic abilities‬
‭-‬ ‭Damage to the cerebellum causes balancing problems‬
‭-‬ ‭Brain stem‬
‭-‬ ‭Inside the cortex, at the very back of the brain‬
‭-‬ ‭Performs basic bodily functions that keep us alive‬
‭-‬ ‭Serves as a relay station between the cortex and the rest of the‬
‭nervous system‬
‭-‬ ‭Midbrain‬
‭-‬ ‭Plays an important role in movement‬
‭-‬ ‭Controls the tracking of visual stimuli and reflexes triggered by sound‬
‭-‬ ‭Reticular activating system‬
‭-‬ ‭Connects to the forebrain and cerebral cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭Plays a key role in arousal‬
‭-‬ ‭Damage to RAS can result in a coma‬
‭-‬ ‭Activate the cortex by increasing the signal to-noise ratio among‬
‭neurons in the brain‬
‭-‬ ‭ADHD‬‭- inattention, overactivity and impulsivity‬
‭-‬ ‭Drugs such as methylphenidate (boosts levels of‬
‭dopamine and decreases levels of impulsivity) to treat‬
‭ADHD increases the signal to-noise ratio in the prefrontal‬
‭cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭Pons and medulla‬
‭-‬ ‭Pons‬
‭-‬ ‭Conveys information between the cortex and the cerebellum‬
‭-‬ ‭Triggers dreams‬
‭-‬ ‭Medulla‬
‭-‬ ‭Regulates breathing and heartbeat‬
‭-‬ ‭Controls nausea and vomiting‬
‭-‬ ‭Damage to the medulla can cause‬‭brain death‬‭(irreversible‬
‭coma)‬
 ‭-‬ P ‭ ersistent vegetative state‬‭(is not brain death)- higher cerebral‬
‭structures necessary for awareness and environment are‬
‭damaged‬
‭-‬ ‭Spinal cord‬
‭-‬ ‭Conveys informations between the brain and the rest of the body‬
‭-‬ ‭Nerves extend from neurons to the body travelling in two directions‬
‭-‬ ‭Sensory information‬‭- carried from the body to the‬‭brain by way of‬
‭sensory nerves‬
‭-‬ ‭Motor commands‬‭- carried from the brain to the body‬‭by way of motor‬
‭nerves‬
‭-‬ ‭Contains sensory neurons that contact interneurons- send messages‬
‭to other neurons nearby‬
‭-‬ ‭Connect sensory nerves with motor nerves within the spinal cord‬
‭-‬ ‭Reflexes‬‭- automatic motor responses to sensory stimuli‬‭(ex.‬
‭Carrying a textbook)‬
‭-‬ ‭Peripheral nervous system‬
‭-‬ ‭Consisting of nerves that extend outside the CNS‬
‭-‬ ‭Somatic nervous system‬
‭-‬ ‭Carries messages from the CNS to muscles throughout the body,‬
‭controlling movement‬
‭-‬ ‭Regulate posture and bodily movement‬
‭-‬ ‭Autonomic nervous system‬
‭-‬ ‭The limbic system interacts with ANS to control emotion and internal‬
‭physical states‬
‭-‬ ‭Controls involuntary actions of our glands and organs‬
-‭ ‬ ‭Consists of two divisions‬
‭-‬ ‭Sympathetic‬
‭-‬ ‭Active during emotional arousal‬
‭-‬ ‭Active especially during crises‬
‭-‬ ‭Mobilizes the fight-or-flight response‬
‭-‬ ‭Triggers a variety of physical responses‬
‭-‬ ‭Heat rate‬
‭-‬ ‭Respiration‬
‭-‬ ‭Perspiration‬
‭-‬ ‭Autonomic nerves that reach the heart, diaphragm and sweat glands‬
‭control these reactions‬
‭-‬ ‭Parasympathetic‬
‭-‬ ‭Active during rest and digestion‬
‭-‬ ‭Kicks in when there's no threat on our mental radar screens‬
‭-‬ ‭The endocrine system‬
‭-‬ ‭Network of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream‬
‭-‬ ‭Hormones are carried through our blood vessels rather than our‬
‭nerves (much slower in action)‬
‭-‬ ‭Impact is a lot more enduring than neurotransmitters‬
‭-‬ ‭Pituitary gland‬
‭-‬ ‭Controls other glands in the body‬
‭-‬ ‭Under the control of the hypothalamus‬
‭-‬ ‭Releases a variety of hormones‬
‭-‬ ‭Regulating physical growth‬
‭-‬ ‭Controlling blood pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭How much water we retain in our kidneys‬
‭-‬ ‭Oxytocin‬‭-stretching the cervix and vagina during birth‬‭and adds milk‬
‭flow in nursing mothers‬
‭-‬ ‭Plays role in maternal and romantic love‬
‭-‬ ‭Influence how much we trust people‬
‭-‬ ‭Makes us treat people within our favoured groups better,‬
‭it makes us treat outsiders worse‬
‭-‬ ‭Adrenal glands and adrenaline‬
‭-‬ ‭Emergency centres of the body‬
‭-‬ ‭Manufacture hormones adrenaline and cortisol‬
‭-‬ ‭Adrenaline‬‭-boosts energy production in muscle cells‬‭thrusting‬
‭them into action, while conserving as much energy as possible‬
‭-‬ ‭Sympathetic nervous system signals the adrenal gland to‬
‭release adrenaline‬
‭-‬ ‭Contraction of heart muscle, constriction of blood‬
‭vessels (to provide more blood to the body)‬
‭-‬ ‭Opening the bronchioles (tiny airways allowing‬
‭inhalation of more air)‬
‭-‬ ‭Break down of fats into fatty acids (more fuel)‬
‭-‬ ‭Breakdown of glycogen (energize our muscles)‬
‭-‬ ‭Opening pupils of our eyes‬
‭-‬ ‭Also inhibits gastrointestinal secretions‬
‭-‬ ‭Allows people to perform amazing feats‬
‭-‬ ‭Pleasurable and exciting activities also produce‬
‭adrenaline‬
‭-‬ ‭Cortisol‬‭increases in response to physical and psychological‬
‭stressors (ex. Anxiety disorder)‬
‭-‬ ‭Regulates blood pressure and cardiovascular function‬
‭-‬ ‭Body's use of proteins carbohydrates and fats‬
‭-‬ ‭Elevated cortisol produced by stress may contribute to‬
‭weight gain‬
‭-‬ ‭Sexual reproductive glands and sex hormones‬
‭-‬ ‭Testes in males and ovaries in females‬
‭-‬ ‭Testes make the sex hormone testosterone‬
‭-‬ ‭Ovaries make the sex hormone estrogen‬
‭-‬ ‭What side of our brain do we use the most?‬
‭-‬ ‭Many capacities rely on one cerebral hemisphere more than the other‬
‭this is called lateralization‬
 ‭-‬ M ‭ ost visual information ends from either the left or right end up‬
‭on the opposite side of the visual cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭Split brain surgery‬‭-severing corpus callosum to reduce‬‭spread of‬
‭epileptic seizures‬
‭-‬ ‭Nature and nurture‬
‭-‬ ‭Nervous system is shaped by our genes(nature) and‬
‭environment(nurture)‬
‭-‬ ‭Biological material of heredity‬
‭-‬ ‭Plants and animals have‬‭chromosomes‬‭- slender threads‬‭inside a‬
‭cell's nucleus that carries genes‬
‭-‬ ‭Genes‬‭- genetic material composed of DNA‬
‭-‬ ‭Genome‬‭- consists of a full set of chromosomes and‬‭the heritable‬
‭states associated with them‬
‭-‬ ‭Genotype vs phenotype‬
‭-‬ ‭Genotype‬‭- transmitted from our parents to us‬
‭-‬ ‭Phenotype‬‭- observable traits shaped by environmental‬‭influences‬
‭-‬ ‭They differ as some are dominant and some are recessive‬
‭-‬ ‭Behavioral adaptation‬
‭-‬ ‭Organism possess adaptation that make them better suited for their‬
‭environment‬
‭-‬ ‭Survive and reproduce at higher rates‬
‭-‬ ‭Many adaptations are physical changes that enables organisms to‬
‭better adjust or manipulate their environment‬
‭-‬ ‭Those with successful adaptations have heightened levels of fitness‬
‭-‬ ‭Other adaptations are behavioral‬
‭-‬ ‭Examines potential adaptive functions of psychological traits‬
‭-‬ ‭Behavioral genetics‬
‭-‬ ‭Examine the influence of nature and nurture on psychological traits‬
‭such as intelligence‬
‭-‬ ‭Permit us to look at the roles of both genes and environment in‬
‭behavior‬
‭-‬ ‭Allow us to estimate heritability of traits and diseases‬
‭-‬ ‭The extent to which genes contribute to differences in a trait‬
‭among individuals (Ex. speaking french will a low heritability)‬
‭-‬ ‭Glutamate and GABA‬
‭-‬ ‭most common neurotransmitters nts in the central nervous system‬
‭-‬ ‭both are associated with learning and emory‬
‭-‬ ‭glutamate excites neural activity(or chances of communication‬
‭between neurons‬
‭-‬ ‭GABA inhibits neural activity‬

‭-‬ ‭Acetylcholine‬
‭-‬ ‭Acetylcholine influences arousal, selective attention sleep and memory‬
 ‭-‬ N
‭ eurons that connect to muscles release acetylcholine to trigger‬
‭movement‬

‭-‬ ‭Monoamines‬
‭-‬ ‭amino acids are the base structures of proteins mono thingy is the‬
‭singular version of amino acids‬
‭Norepinephrine‬ t‭ogether with serotonin,‬ ‭ mphetamine and‬
A
‭brain arousal, mood,‬ ‭methamphetamine‬
‭sleep, hunger‬

‭Dopamine‬ ‭motor function and reward‬ p

‭ arkinson's disease and‬
‭schizophrenia‬

‭Serotonin‬ ‭ ood, temperature,‬

m ‭treatment for depression‬
‭regulation, aggression,‬
‭and sleep cycles‬

‭-‬ ‭Neuropeptides‬
‭-‬ ‭short strings of amino acids‬
‭-‬ ‭endorphins are a type of neuropeptide, affecting pain reduction‬
‭-‬ ‭Other types of neuropeptides regulate hunger and satiety or‬
‭alter learning and memory respectively.‬

-‭ ‬ A‭ nandamida‬
‭-‬ ‭They influence eating sleeping and memory check with book‬

‭-‬ ‭Psychoactive Drugs‬

‭-‬ ‭target the production or inhibition of certain neurotransmitters and‬
‭when they alter our mental state and behavior we call them‬
‭psychoactive drugs.‬
‭-‬ ‭Agonists enhance receptor site activity‬
‭-‬ ‭Antagonists decrease receptor site activity‬

‭-‬‭Neural plasticity‬
‭-‬ ‭describes the nervous systems ability to change‬
‭-‬ ‭Neurons change fourways during development‬
‭-‬ ‭Growth of dendrites and axons‬
‭-‬ ‭synaptogenesis(formation of new synapses‬
‭-‬ ‭Pruning → removes connection which are not useful, 70% of‬
‭neurons die‬
‭-‬ ‭Myelination‬
‭Central and peripheral nervous systems‬
‭-‬ ‭Central Nervous system‬
-‭ ‬ ‭ rain‬
B
‭-‬ ‭Spinal cord‬
‭-‬ ‭Peripheral Nervous system‬
-‭ ‬ ‭ omatic‬
S
‭-‬ ‭Automic‬
‭-‬ ‭Sympathetic‬
‭-‬ ‭Parasympathetic‬

‭-‬ ‭Central nervous system (CNS) protection‬

-‭ ‬ I‭t is the command center of our‬
‭-‬ ‭CNS is protected by three layers of meninges‬
‭-‬ ‭The cerebral ventricles fluid filled pockets also serve to protect the cns‬
‭-‬ ‭Ventricles are filled with cerebrospinal fluid‬

‭-‬ ‭the Central Nervous System‬

‭-‬ T
‭ he cns, particularly the brain is divided into systems based on location‬
‭and function‬
‭-‬ ‭the cerebral cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭called the forebrain or cerebrum it is the most developed‬
‭area of the human brain. giving us our advanced‬
‭intellectual abilities‬
‭-‬ ‭consists of two cerebral hemispheres, each of which‬
‭serve distinct yet highly integrated funct=ions, connected‬
‭by the corpus callosum which allows communication‬
‭between them‬
‭-‬ ‭corpus, large bundle of fibers allowing communication‬
‭- Can be divided into four lobes each associated with‬
‭different functions‬
‭Each hemisphere has the same 4 lobes.‬
‭-‬ ‭Frontal Lobes‬
‭-‬ ‭Assists in motor function, language, memory‬
‭-‬ ‭Oversee and organize most other brain‬
‭functions(executive functioning)‬
‭-‬ ‭Broca’s area → language production and allows us‬
‭to know when music notes are off key‬

‭Oct 11th wednesday‬

‭-‬ ‭Parietal Lobe‬
‭-‬ ‭specialized for touch and perception‬
‭-‬ ‭contains the somatosensory cortex‬
‭-‬ ‭sensitive to pressure pain and temperature‬
 ‭-‬ C ‭ ommunicates information to the motor cortex‬
‭every time we want to reach, grasp or move our‬
‭eyes‬
‭-‬ ‭Temporal Lobe‬
‭-‬ ‭Lower part of the cerebral cortex, plays a role in‬
‭hearing, understanding language, and‬
‭autobiographical memories‬
‭-‬ ‭Contains the‬‭auditory cortex‬‭and‬‭Wernicke's‬
‭area‬
‭→ responsible for speech comprehension‬
‭-‬ ‭Occipital Lobe‬
‭-‬ ‭Specialized for vision‬
‭-‬ ‭located at the back of the brain‬
‭-‬ ‭Basal Ganglia‬
‭-‬ ‭two sets of structures buried inside the cortex that‬
‭helps control movement‬
‭-‬ ‭damage can contribute to parkinson's disease‬
‭-‬ ‭Limbic System‬
‭-‬ ‭The emotional center of the brain,‬
‭-‬ ‭has a role in smell, motivation and memory.‬
‭-‬ ‭Hypothalamus‬
‭-‬ ‭regulates and maintains constant‬
‭internal bodily states‬
‭-‬ ‭Thalamos‬
‭-‬ ‭relays information from the sen‬
‭-‬ ‭Amígdala‬
‭-‬ ‭plays key role in fear, excitement and‬
‭arousal‬
‭-‬ ‭Hippocampus‬
‭-‬ ‭plays a role in spatial memory‬
‭-‬ ‭damage causes inability to form new‬
‭memories‬

‭-‬ ‭Brain Stem‬

‭-‬ ‭Located at the back of the brain‬
‭-‬ ‭connects the cerebral cortex and spinal cord‬
‭-‬ ‭performs some basic functions‬
‭-‬ ‭serves as a‬‭relay station‬‭between the cortex and the rest of the‬
‭nervous system‬
‭-‬ ‭consists of:‬
‭-‬ ‭the reticular activating system‬
‭-‬ ‭plays a key role in arousal‬
‭-‬ ‭plays a role in ADHD‬
‭-‬ ‭Damage can cause coma‬
 ‭-‬ ‭midbrain‬
‭-‬ ‭movement, tracking of visual stimuli and reflexes‬
‭triggered by sound‬

‭-‬ ‭Hindbrain‬
‭-‬ ‭Oldest most basic brain structure‬
‭-‬ ‭Consists of:‬
‭-‬ ‭Cerebellum‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭“little brain” plays a prominent role in our sense of‬
‭balance‬
‭-‬ ‭coordinate movement, learn motor skills‬
‭-‬ ‭Pons‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭Connects cortex to Cerebellum and triggers dreams‬
‭-‬ ‭Medulla‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭regulates breathing heartbeat and other vital functions‬
‭-‬ ‭damage can cause brain Death‬

‭-‬ ‭Spinal Cord‬

‭-‬ ‭Thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain and‬
‭body‬
‭-‬ ‭nerves extend from neurons to the body in two directions with sensory‬
‭nerves carrying information from the body to the brain, and motor‬
‭nerves carry info from the brain to the body‬
‭-‬ ‭contains interneurons, connects sensory nerves with motor nerves,‬
‭allow reflexes too happen‬

‭Peripheral nervous system:‬

‭-‬ ‭somatic nervous system: conveys information from the CNS to the muscles in‬
‭the body controlling and coordinating voluntary movement‬
‭-‬ ‭Autonomic Nervous system:‬
‭-‬ ‭controls involuntary actions of internal organs or glands‬
‭-‬ ‭Sympathetic:‬
‭-‬ ‭Engaged during a crisis or after actions requiring‬
‭fight or flight‬
‭-‬ ‭Parasympathetic:‬
‭-‬ ‭controls rest and digestion‬

‭Hormones and Endocrine System‬

‭-‬ ‭Endocrine System‬
‭-‬ s‭ ystem of glands that release hormones molecules) into the‬
‭bloodstream‬
‭-‬ ‭hormones are chemical messengers that travel in the bloodstream to‬
‭influence particular organs‬
 ‭-‬ ‭also helps regulate emotions‬

‭-‬ ‭Pituitary Gland‬

‭-‬ ‭controls other glands in the body‬
‭-‬ ‭controlled by the hypothalamus‬
‭-‬ ‭releases hormones that influence growth, blood pressure and‬
‭other functions‬
‭-‬ ‭includes oxytocin‬
‭-‬ ‭responsible for a number of reproductive functions and‬
‭plays a role in maternal love, interpersonal trust and‬
‭romantic love‬
‭-‬ ‭Adrenal gland‬
‭-‬ ‭located on top of kidneys‬
‭-‬ ‭emergency center, releases adrenaline and cortisol during‬
‭states of emotional arousal‬
‭-‬ ‭Adrenaline‬
‭-‬ ‭boosts energy production in muscle cells and‬
‭restricts in others‬
‭-‬ ‭Cortisol‬
‭-‬ ‭Regulates blood pressure and cardiovascular‬
‭function as well as the usage of proteins fats and‬
‭carbohydrates‬
‭-‬ ‭Sexual reproductive Gland:‬
‭-‬ ‭testes in males and ovaries in females‬
‭-‬ ‭both sexes manufacture estrogen and testosterone‬

‭Brain Mapping Methods‬

‭-‬ ‭Electroencephalography (EEG)‬
‭-‬ ‭measures electrical activity via electrodes placed on skull‬
‭-‬ ‭can tell which regions of the brain are active during specific tasks‬
‭-‬ ‭Neuroimaging techniques allow us to see brain structure, function or‬
‭both‬
‭-‬ ‭Computed Tomography (CT)‬
‭-‬ ‭uses multiple x-rays to construct three dimensional images‬
‭-‬ ‭Magnetic resonance imaging:‬
‭-‬ ‭measure the release of energy from hydrogen atoms‬
‭-‬ ‭uses magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain imaging‬
‭-‬ ‭superior to Ct for soft structures‬
‭-‬ ‭Positron Emission Tomography (PET)‬
‭-‬ ‭measures consumption of glucose like molecules to give a‬
‭picture of neural activity‬
‭-‬ ‭FMRI‬