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Job 13-J3 Weaved Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Job 13-J4 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Job 13-J5 Weaved Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Job 13-J6 Welding an Edge Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Job 13-J7 Welding an Edge Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Job 13-J8 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Job 13-J9 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Job 13-J10 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Job 13-J11 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Job 13-J12 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Job 13-J13 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Job 13-J14 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Job 13-J15 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Job 13-J16 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Job 13-J17 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Job 13-J18 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Job 13-J19 Weaved Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Job 13-J20 Weaved Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Job 13-J21 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Job 13-J22 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Job 13-J23 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Job 13-J24 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Job 13-J25 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Chapter 14  hielded Metal Arc Welding
S
Practice: Jobs 14-J26–J42
(Plate) 388
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Job 14-J26 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Job 14-J27 Weave Beads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Job 14-J28 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint
(Backing Bar Construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Job 14-J29 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Job 14-J30 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint
(Backing Bar Construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Job 14-J31 Welding a Square Butt Joint . . . . . . . . . . 399
Job 14-J32 Welding an Outside
Corner Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Job 14-J33 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint . . . . . . . . 403
Job 14-J34 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Job 14-J35 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Job 14-J36 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Job 14-J37 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Job 14-J38 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint
(Backing Bar Construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Job 14-J39 Welding a Square Butt Joint . . . . . . . . . . 416
Job 14-J40 Welding an Outside Corner Joint . . . . . . 418
Job 14-J41 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Job 14-J42 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint
(Backing Bar Construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Chapter 15  hielded Metal Arc
S
Welding Practice:
Jobs 15-J43–J55 (Plate) 428
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Job 15-J43 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint . . . . . . . . 429
Job 15-J44 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Job 15-J45 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Job 15-J46 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Job 15-J47 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Job 15-J48 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint . . . . . . . . 439
Job 15-J49 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Job 15-J50 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Job 15-J51 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint . . . . . . . . 444
Job 15-J52 Welding a Coupling to a
Flat Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Job 15-J53 Welding a Coupling to a Flat Plate . . . . . 449
Job 15-J54 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint
(Backing Bar Construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Job 15-J55 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint . . . . . . . . 452
Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Chapter 16 Pipe Welding and Shielded
Metal Arc Welding Practice:
Jobs 16-J1–J17 (Pipe) 469
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Joint Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Tools for Pipe Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Contents  vii
U N IT 3

Arc Cutting and Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 521

Chapter 17  rc Cutting Principles and Arc
A Chapter 19 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Cutting Practice: Jobs 17-J1–J7 522 Practice: Jobs 19-J1–J19
(Plate) 593
Arc Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Learning Arc Cutting Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Various Metals . . . . . . 593
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Joint Design and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Job 17-J1 Square Cutting with PAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 Setting Up the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Job 17-J2 Bevel Cutting with PAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 Safe Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Job 17-J3 Gouging with PAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 Arc Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Job 17-J4 Hole Piercing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Welding Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Job 17-J5 Shape Cutting with PAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Job 17-J6 Gouging with CAC-A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Job 17-J7 Weld Removal with CAC-A . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 Chapter 20 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Practice: Jobs 20-J1–J17
Chapter 18 Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma (Pipe) 630
Arc Welding Principles 549
Joint Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
Gas Shielded Arc Welding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 Porosity in Gas Tungsten Arc Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
TIG Hot Wire Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

U N IT 4

Gas Metal Arc, Flux Cored Arc, and Submerged

Arc Welding 655
Chapter 21  as Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc
G Care and Use of Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
Welding Principles 656 Welding Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 Process and Equipment Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
GMAW/FCAW Welding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 Gas Metal Arc Welding of Other Metals . . . . . . . . . . 745
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749

Chapter 23 Flux Cored Arc Welding Practice

Chapter 22  as Metal Arc Welding Practice
G (Plate), Submerged Arc Welding, and
with Solid and Metal Core Wire: Related Processes: FCAW-G Jobs
Jobs 22-J1–J23 (Plate) 708 23-J1–J11, FCAW-S Jobs
23-J1–J12; SAW Job 23-J1 751
Operating Variables That
Affect Weld Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708 Flux Cored Wire Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
Weld Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 Flux Cored Arc Welding—Gas Shielded
Safe Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763

viii  Contents
Flux Cored Arc Welding—Self-Shielded . . . . . . . . . . 768 Chapter 24  as Metal Arc Welding
G
Flux Cored Arc Welding—Self-Shielded Practice: Jobs 24-J1–J15
(Pipe) 790
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
Automatic or Mechanized Industrial Applications of GMAW
Welding Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 Pipe Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
Submerged Arc Welding Semiautomatic Use of Equipment and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
Practice Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 Welding Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
Choice of Welding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811

U N IT 5

High Energy Beams, Automation, Robotics,

and Weld Shop Management 815
Chapter 25  igh Energy Beams and
H Training, Qualification, and Certification . . . . . . . . . 887
Related Welding and Cutting Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
Process Principles 816
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
High Energy Beam Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817 Chapter 28 J oint Design, Testing,
and Inspection 891
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 Joint Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Code Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
Chapter 26  eneral Equipment for
G
Nondestructive Testing (NDT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
Welding Shops 832
Destructive Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
Screens and Booths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832 Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
Work-Holding Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
Preheating and Annealing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
Sandblasting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
Spot Welder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846 Chapter 29 Reading Shop Drawings 949
Hydraulic Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
Power Squaring Shears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
Standard Drawing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
Small Hand Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
Types of Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
Portable Power Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
Machine Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
Chapter 30 Welding Symbols 978
Chapter 27  utomatic and Robotic
A Fillet Welds and Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
Arc Welding Equipment 870
Weld-All-Around Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Arc Control Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872 Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Arc Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 Edge Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Controller Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881 Combination Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Robotic Arc Welding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882 Contour Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Robot Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885 Applications of Welding Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
Robot Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988

Contents  ix
Chapter 31 Welding and Bonding of Plastics 994
Know Your Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
Characteristics of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
Welding as a Method of Joining
Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
Inspection and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
Tack Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Chapter 32 Safety 1026
Safety Practices: Electric Welding Processes . . . . . . 1027
Safety Practices: Oxyacetylene Welding
and Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
x  Contents
Appendixes
A: Conversion Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
B: Illustrated Guide to Welding Terminology . . . . . 1071
C: Welding Abbreviation List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
D: Major Agencies Issuing Codes,
Specifications, and Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
E: Sources of Welding Information . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
F: Metric Conversion Information
for the Welding Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109
 Preface
Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, is both a revision
and an expansion of the Theory and Practice of Arc Weld-
ing, which was first published in 1943. The previous edi-
tions have enjoyed success during the years as a major
text used in the training of welders by industry and the
schools.
This book is designed to be used as the principal text
for welding training in career schools, community techni-
cal college systems, technical junior colleges, engineering
schools, and secondary technical schools. It is also suit-
able for on-the-job training and apprenticeship programs.
It can serve as a supplementary text for classes in build-
ing construction, metalworking, and industrial technology
programs.
Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, provides a
course of instruction in welding, other joining processes,
and cutting that will enable students to begin with the
most elementary work and progressively study and prac-
tice each process until they are skilled. Both principles
and practice are presented so that the student can combine
the “why” and the “how” for complete understanding.
The chapters have been arranged into sections to fa-
cilitate training programs with reduced contact time seg-
ments. Each section maintains the twofold approach of
Welding Principles, in which students are introduced to
fundamentals that will enable them to understand what is
taking place in the application of the various processes,
and Welding Practices, where they learn the necessary
hands-on skills.
Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, presents the fun-
damental theory of the practice in gas, arc, gas-shielded
and self shielded processes, welding, brazing, soldering,
and plastic welding processes. The various applications
of these processes are covered such as manual, semiau-
tomatic, mechanized, automatic, and robotic methods.
Current industrial practices are cited with use of various
national welding codes and standards. The content is based
on the SENSE program of the American Welding Society
along with other leading welding authorities.
Welding is an art, technology, and engineering sci-
ence. It requires the skillful manipulation of the weld
pool, a thorough knowledge of welding processes, and
the characteristics of the type of material being used.
Students can be assured of success if they are willing
to spend the time required in actual practice work and
the study of the principles presented in this text until
they thoroughly understand their significance. Faithful
adherence to this course of study will enable them to
master the current industrial material joining and cutting
processes thoroughly.
The Fifth Edition of Welding: Principles
and Practices includes:
Photos and Diagrams
An exhaustive photo and art research program was
launched to ensure that the latest edition of W­ elding:
Principles and Practices, 5e, showcases the latest
advances in technology, techniques, and equipment.
­
As a result of this research, Welding: Principles and
Practices, 5e, contains hundreds of colorful new photos
and diagrams that accurately illustrate modern welding
practices. In addition to the new images, many classic
images—photos and diagrams that have been featured
throughout several editions—have been updated to ap-
pear in four-color.
Videos
To complement the visual updates to the main textbook
and to provide even more learning opportunities for
students, brief video clips have been added to the On-
line Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/­welding. The
videos cover a variety of topics including gas metal arc
welding, shielded metal arc welding, and orbital weld-
ing. An icon appears in the textbook whenever video
on a particular topic is available. The videos are em-
bedded within the updated PowerPoint slides on the
xi
Instructor’s Side of the Online Learning Center, and
students can watch them by accessing the Student’s
Side of the Center.
Updated Content
Every chapter complies with current AWS SENSE
Welding Process Certification and with the most
xii  Preface
current AWS Standards. The terminology is current so
students know the most recent terms to use when they
begin to practice. Additional information on many dif-
ferent topics including, safety, lead welding, arc wan-
dering, gas metal arc braze welding, and more are also
included in the text.
 Acknowledgments

Throughout the two-and-a-half-year process of revising Technical Editors

Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, many individuals
Richard Bremen Troy Miller
and organizations contributed their thoughts, counsel, and
Barstow Community Central Community
expertise to the project.
College College
I would also like to express thanks to the instructors
who reviewed this textbook, thereby ensuring that it is
clear, focused, accurate, and up-to-date. Finally, I would like to thank all of the individuals and
corporations that aided in the extensive photo research
program necessary for this edition. Because of your help,
Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, contains hundreds
Reviewers of new and updated color photos and art pieces.
Brian Bennett Owen Owens
Hill College Everett Community • ACF Industries
College • Agfa Corporation
Jeffrey Carney • Allegheny Ludlum Corporation
Ferris State University David Parker • American Welding Society
Renton Technical • Ansul/Tyco Fire Protection Products
John Christman
College • Arch Machines
Ivy Tech Community
College Dean Rindels • Arcos Corporation
Western Nebraska • Atlas Welding Accessories
William Galvery Community College • Baldor Electric Company
Orange Coast • BHP Billiton
College Gary Senff • Binzel-Abicor
Central Community • Black & Decker, Inc.
Larry Gross College–Columbus
Milwaukee Area • Bluco Corporation
Campus • Boeing
Technical College
Rodney Steele • BUG-O
Paul Housholder Northwest Community • Bunting Magnetic Company
West Kentucky College • Caterpillar, Inc.
Community and • Circlesafe Aerosol/Circle Systems, Inc.
Technical College Pete Stracener
• Clausing Industrial, Inc.
South Plains College
Roger Johnson • CM Industires, Inc.
Scott Community Robert Williams • Combustion Engineering Company
College Owens State Community • Computer Weld Tech., Inc.
College • Contour Sales Corporation
James Mosman • Crane Company
Odessa College • CRC-Evans Pipeline International, Inc.
• D. L. Ricci Corp
• Dakota Creek Industries

xiii
• De-Sta Company
• DoAll Company
• Donaldson Company
• Drader Manufacturing
• Dreis and Krump Manufacturing Company
• Dukane
• E.H. Wachs Company
• Editorial Image, LLC
• Elderfield and Hall, Inc.
• Electro-Technic Products, Inc.
• Empire Abrasive Equipment Company
• Enerpac, Inc.
• Enrique Vega
• ESAB Welding and Cutting Products
• Fibre-Metal Products Company
• Foerster Instruments
• Fox Valley Technical College
• Fronius International GmbH
• G.A.L. Gage Company
• Gasflux Company
• General Electric Company
• General Welding & Equipment Company
• Gentec
• Gullco
• Haney Technical Center
• Heritage Building Systems
• Hobart Brothers Company
• Hornell, Inc. Speedglas
• Hossfeld Manufacturing Company
• Howden Buffalo, Inc.
• Hypertherm, Inc.
• IMPACT Engineering
• Industrial Plastics Fabrication
• Interlaken Technology Corp
• ITW Jetline—Cyclomatic
• Jackson Products Company
• Jackson Safety, Inc.
• John E. White III
• Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corporation
• Kamweld Products Company
• Kromer Cap Company, Inc.
• Laramy Products Company, Inc.
• Lenco dba NLC, Inc.
• Lincoln Electric Company
• Lockheed Martin Aeronautics
• MAG IAS, LLC
• Magna Flux Corp
• Magnatech Limited Partnership
• Malcom
• Manitowoc Company, Inc.
• Manufactured Housing Institute
xiv  Acknowledgments
• Mathey Dearman
• McGraw-Edison
• Metal Fabricating Institute
• Micro Photonics, Inc.
• Miller Electric Mfg. Company
• Milwaukee Electric Tool Corporation
• Mine Safety Appliances Co.
• Mitutoyo
• Modern Engineering Company
• Motoman, Inc.
• NASA
• National Welding Equipment Company
• Navy Joining Center
• NES Rentals
• Newage Testing Instruments, Inc.
• Nooter Corporation
• North American Manufacturing Company
• Northeast Wisconsin Technical College
• NovaTech
• Pandjiris
• Phoenix International
• Pipefitters Union, St. Louis, MO
• Piping Systems, Inc.
• Plumbers and Pipefitters Union, Alton, IL
• Praxair, Inc.
• Prior Scientific
• Rexarc
• Robvon Backing Ring Company
• Rogers Manufacturing Inc.
• Schuler AG
• Seelye, Inc.
• Sellstrom
• Servo-Robot Corporation
• Shaw Pipeline Services
• Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’
National Association
• Smith Equipment
• South Bend Lathe Co
• St. Louis Car. Company
• Stanley G. Flagg & Company
• Sypris Technologies, Inc.—Tube Turns
Division
• Team Industries, Inc.
• TEC Torch Company
• The Welding Encyclopedia
• Thermacote Welco
• Thermadyne Industries, Inc.
• Tim Anderson
• Tony DeMarco
• Torit Donaldson Company
• TransCanada Pipelines Ltd.
• UA Local 400
• United Association
• United States Steel Corporation
• Uvex Safety
• Wegener
• Welding Engineering Company, Inc.
• Wells Manufacturing Company
• Widder Corporation
• Wilson Industries, Inc.
• Wilson Products
• Wisconsin Wire Works
• Woodard/CC Industries
• Wyatt Industries
• Zephyr Manufacturing Company
About the Author
Edward R. Bohnart (AWS-SCWI, and former CWE,
CWS, CWSR, CRAW-T, and AWS Certified Welder)
is the principal of Welding Education and Consulting
located in Wisconsin. He launched his consulting business
after a successful career with Miller Electric Manufac-
turing C
­ ompany, where he directed training operations.
He is a graduate of the Nebraska Vocational Technical
College in welding and metallurgy and has studied at both
the University of Nebraska at Omaha and the University
of Omaha.
Bohnart was selected in the 2011 Class of Counselors of
the American Welding Society, and he is also an AWS Dis-
tinguished Member and national past President. He remains
active with the SkillsUSA organization and is past chair of
the AWS Skills Competition Committee, which conducted
the USOpen Weld Trials to select the TeamUSA welder for
the WorldSkills Competition. He was the United States of
America’s Welding Technical Expert for the WorldSkills
Competition from 1989 to 2009. Bohnart chaired the AWS
C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Cutting Processes and
remains on the committee as an advisor.
Union Recognition
Recognition is due the United Association of Plumb-
ers and Pipe Fitters National as well as the locals in
Kaukauna, Wisconsin, St. Louis, Missouri, and Alton,
Illinois; the International Association of Bridge,
Structural, Ornamental, and Reinforcing Iron Workers;
and the Sheet Metal Workers International Association.
Their focus on skill training for the workforce in qual-
ity, productivity, and safety ensures that the practices
presented in the text are current.
The American Welding Society has recognized Ed
Bohnart with the National Meritorious Award, George
E. Willis Award, and Plummer Memorial Educational
Lecture Award. The Wisconsin State Superintendents
Technology Education Advisory Committee has acknowl-
edged him with the Technology Literacy Award. The state
of Nebraska Community College System has appointed
him Alumnus of the Year, and the Youth Development
Foundation of SkillsUSA has honored Bohnart with the
SkillsUSA Torch Carrier Award.
Ed has been active on the Edison Welding Institute
Board of Trustees and on the American Institute of Steel
Constructions Industry Round Table. He has served on the
industrial advisory boards for Arizona State University,
The University of Wisconsin–Stout, Fox Valley Techni-
cal Colleges, and the Haney Technical Center industrial
advisory boards.
He has lectured at a number of major institutions, such
as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Colorado
School of Mines, Texas A&M, Arizona State University,
and the Paton Institute of Welding, Kiev, Ukraine.
Acknowledgments  xv
Walkthrough
Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, is a classic textbook that introduces students to the fundamentals of welding
theory and practice. This comprehensive book covers several welding processes—shielded metal arc welding, arc
cutting, and robotic welding, for example—and it also provides practice jobs for students, further enabling them to
develop a strong technical understanding of welding. This edition features a new, colorful design with modern photos
and engaging illustrations throughout!

Chapter Objectives provide students and

1
instructors with an outline of the new material
History of Welding
that will be presented in the chapter.
Welding is usually the best method to use when fasten-
ing metal. If you want to build something made of metal,
you can fasten the parts by using screws or rivets, bending
the parts, or even gluing the parts. However, a quality,
long-lasting, attractive, safe product is best fabricated
by using one of the many types of prevailing welding
processes.

The History of Metalworking

Overview
You are about to begin the learning process of preparing
yourself for a position in one of the fastest growing indus-
tries in the world of work—the welding industry.
Welding is the joining together of two pieces of
metal by heating to a temperature high enough to cause
softening or melting, with or without the application
of pressure, and with or without the use of filler metal.
Any filler metal used has either a melting point approxi-
mately the same as the metals being joined or a melting
point that is below these metals but above 800 degrees
Fahrenheit (°F).
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
1-1 Explain the history of metalworking and welding.
1-2 Explain the development of modern welding.
1-3 Give details of the mission of welding in the industrial
process.
1-4 Describe the diverse welding processes.
1-5 List the various welding occupations.
Photos and Diagrams
1-6
1-7
Define welder qualifications and characteristics.
Express the duties and responsibilities of a welder.
1-8 Recognize welder safety and working conditions.
Metalworking began when primitive people found that
they could shape rocks by chipping them with other
rocks. The first metal to be worked was probably pure
copper because it is a soft, ductile metal that was widely
available. Ductile means easily hammered, bent, or
drawn into a new shape or form. Excavations in Egypt
and in what is now the United States indicate the use
of copper as early as 4000 b.c. and before 2000 b.c.,
respectively. More than 4,000 years ago copper mines
on the peninsula of Sinai and the island of Cyprus were
worked. Welding began more than 3,000 years ago when
hot or cold metals were hammered to obtain a forge weld.
Forged metals, bronze and iron, are mentioned in the Old
For the first time, Testament.
Archaeologists have determined that bronze was
developed sometime between 3000 and 2000 b.c. Iron

color photos have been

New methods, new applications, and new systems have became known to Europe about 1000 b.c., several thou-
1-9 Identify trade associations and what responsibility sand years after the use of copper. About 1300 b.c. the
continued to develop over the last few decades. Continu-
they have in the welding industry.
ing research makes welding a dynamic leader in industrial Philistines had four iron furnaces and a factory for pro-
1-10 Establish goals to keep you up to date in the field. ducing swords, chisels, daggers, and spearheads. The
high degreeThe
processes. industry has made tremendous
by theirprogress in

added to every chapter

of craftsmanship developed workers. proved more successful. Repair welding was the pri-
a short
By periodcentury
the eighth of time.theFurthermore, it has madesteel
Japanese manufactured a major
by mary goal of the inventors. Egyptians began to make iron tools and weapons during
contribution
repeated toward
welding andraising
forgingtheandstandard
controlledof living of the
the amount Bare metal electrode welding was introduced in 1888 the period of 900 to 850 b.c. After 800 b.c. iron replaced
ofAmerican
carbon inpeople.
steel byBythesimplifying andThey
use of fluxes. speeding up indus-
produced the by N. G. Slavianoff, a Russian. His discovery was first bronze as the metal used in the manufacture of utensils,
trial processes
famous Samuraiand
ronmentally
and
hybrid power
making
sword with ait blade
possible to develop
of excellent
sound industries like wind and solar power,
superior workmanship.
vehicles, plants to produce organic
envi-
quality
fuels,
recognized in Western Europe in 1892. C. L. Coffin was
one of the pioneers of the welding industry in the United of Welding: Principles armor, and other practical applications. A welded iron
headrest for Tutankhamen (King Tut) was crafted around
1350 b.c.
The blast furnace was developed for melting iron about States. In 1889 he received a patent on the equipment and

and Practices.
andyears
the continued development in nuclear, fossil fuels along
a.d. 1000 to 1200. One such furnace was in the process for flash-butt welding. In 1890 he received addi- The famous Damascus swords and daggers were made
with continued
Province space exploration
of Catalonia and utilization,
in Spain. The fourteenth itand hasfif-
in- tional patents for spot-welding equipment. In 1892, work- in Syria about 1300 b.c. These were sought after because
creased
teenth the world’s
centuries sawsupply of goods, Fig. in
great improvements 1.1.the design of ing without knowledge of Slavianoff’s work, he received of their strength and toughness. Their keen edge was
blast furnaces. The first cast iron cannon was produced in a patent for the bare metal electrode arc welding process. likely capable of severing heavy iron spears or cutting the
the early 1600s. By the turn of the century welding was a common method most delicate fabric floating in the air. The swords were
About the middle of the eighteenth century, a series of repair. At this time welding was given added impetus made by forge-welding iron bars of different degrees of
Fig. 1-1 Use of natural energy sources (green energy) such
of2 inventions in England revolutionized the methods of by the development of the first commercial oxyacetylene as solar, wind turbines, and bio-fuels like ethanol are get- hardness, drawing them down, and repeating the process
industry and brought on what later came to be known welding torch by two Frenchmen, Foresche and Picard. ting a tremendous amount of interest in the way of research, many times.
as the Industrial Revolution. Our present factory sys- Bare electrode welding became the prevailing elec- development, and real applications. As they continue to de- The working of metals—copper, bronze, silver, gold,
tem of mass production was introduced. An American, tric arc welding method used in the United States until
velop, other issues will need to be dealt with, such as ROI. and iron—followed one another in the great ancient civi-
Welding plays a very important role in the manufacture of lizations. By the time of the Roman Empire, the use of
Eli Whitney, developed the idea of interchanging parts about 1920. these green energy sources. (top) © Fotosearch/PhotoLibrary;
in the manufacture of arms. By the beginning of the Bare metal electrode welding was handicapped because iron was common in Europe, the Near East, and the Far
(middle) © Mark Dierker/Bear Dancer Studios; (bottom) © McGraw-Hill
nineteenth century, the working of iron with the use the welds produced by these electrodes were not as strong Education/Mark A. Dierker, photographer East. The Chinese developed the ability to make steel
of dies and molds became commonplace. Early in the as the metal being welded and the welding arc was very from wrought iron in a.d. 589. The Belgians were respon-
twentieth century, Henry Ford was involved in devel- unstable. In 1907 Kjellberg, a Swedish engineer, received sible for most of the progress made in Europe, due to the
oping the assembly line method for manufacturing a patent covering the electrode-coating process. The coat-
automobiles. ing was thin and acted only as a stabilizer of the arc rather
than as a purifier of the weld metal. It produced welds that
Early Developments in Welding were little better than those made with bare electrodes. In

About Welding boxes delve into the history of welding

History of Welding Chapter 1 3
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Edmund 1912 Kjellberg received another patent for an electrode
Davy discovered acetylene, a gas that was later used in with a heavier coating made of asbestos with a binder of
oxyacetylene welding, heating, and cutting. The electric sodium silicate. See Fig. 1-2. Benardos patented a process

to offer students a greater understanding of the field.

arc was first discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1801 in 1908 that has come into popular use in the past few
while he was conducting experiments in electricity. He decades. This is the electroslag process of welding thick
was concerned primarily with the possibilities of the plates in one pass.

These boxes also contain interesting facts about welding

use of the arc for illumination. By 1809 he had demon-
strated that it was possible to maintain a high voltage
arc for varying periods of time. By the middle of the
nineteenth century, workable electrical-generating de-
vices were invented and developed on a practical basis.
These inventions were the forerunner of the present arc
welding process.
The first documented instance of fusion welding was
done by Auguste de Meritens in 1881. He welded lead
battery plates together with a carbon electrode. Two of
his pupils, N. Benardos and S. Olszewski, saw the pos-
sibilities of this discovery and experimented with the arc
powered by batteries that were charged from high volt-
age dynamos. After four years of work, they were issued
a British patent for a welding process using carbon elec-
Welding technology and its industrial application
progressed rather slowly until World War I. Prior to
that time it was used chiefly as a means of mainte-
nance and repair. The demands of the war for an in-
creased flow of goods called for improved methods of
fabrication.
A BO U T WELD IN G
Shipbuilding
Through 1945, some 5,171 vessels of
processes and machinery.
Fig. 1-9 Workers using a crane to lift a cask filled with highly
radioactive fuel bundles at a Hanford, Washington, nuclear facility.
Fig. 1-10 A large amount of art metalwork is done with welding
processes. © Leon Werdinger/Alamy Stock Photo
The construction of this type of vessel relies heavily upon welding.
© U.S. Department of Energy/AP Images
The welder must perform certain basic tasks and pos-
SHOP TALK
sess certain technical information in order to perform the
welding operation. In making a gas weld, the welder at- Medical Alert
taches the proper tip to the torch and adjusts the weld-
The technology of medical heart pacemak-
ing regulators for the proper volume and pressure of the ers continues to change. Some pacemakers are less likely

Shop Talk boxes are

all types were constructed to American Bureau of gases. The welder must also regulate the flame according to be prone to interference by electromagnetic fields.
trodes and an electric power source. Applications of the Shipping standards during the Maritime Commission to the needs of the job. People who weld and have pacemakers are safer if there
process included the fusion welding of metals, the cut- wartime shipbuilding program. At this time in shipbuild- For electric arc welding, the welder must be able to reg- are other people nearby to help if they have problems.
ting of metals, and the punching of holes in metal. Al- ing history, welding was replacing riveting as the main ulate the welding machine for the proper welding current Waiting 10 seconds between each weld may be a good

filled with tips on how

though they experimented with solid and hollow carbon
rods filled with powdered metals, the solid electrodes
method of assembly. strategy for those with pacemakers.
and select the proper electrode size and type, as well as
the right shielding gas.
Welding requires a steady hand. The welder must hold
pressure vessels requiring 4-inch plate to the delicate

to weld safely and

the torch or electrode at the proper angle, a uniform dis-
tance from the work, and move it along the line of weld at
4 Chapter 1 History of Welding
a uniform speed.
During the welding process, the welder should use vi-
welding of silver and gold, the welds are of the highest
quality and can be depended upon to meet the require-
ments of the job.

effectively.
sualization skills to form a mental picture of how the weld The following welding occupations require a high
will be created. Although much of the work is single pass, school education:
welds made on heavy material often require a number of • Welding operator
passes side by side and in layers according to the specified • Welder fitter
weld procedure. • Combination welder
Welders must also be able to cut metals with the • Master welder
oxyacetylene cutting torch and with the various cut- • Welding supervisor
ting procedures involving the plasma arc cutting ma- • Welding analyst
chine. Flame cutting is often the only practical method • Inspector
for cutting parts or repairing steel plate and pipe. • Welding foreman
Plasma arc cutting is used to cut all types of metals. • Welding superintendent
Proper use of an electric or pneumatic grinder will save • Equipment sales
many hours in the welding process. • Sales demonstrator
The master welder is a master craftsperson, Fig. 1-10. • Sales troubleshooter
Such a person is able to weld all the steels and their al- • Welding instructor
loys, as well as nickel, aluminum, tantalum, titanium, • Robotics welder operator
zirconium, and their alloys and claddings. From heavy • Job or fabrication shop owner

xvi History of Welding Chapter 1 9

example, the ability to join metals with nonmetallic ma-
terials is the subject of much effort. As industry expands
and improves its technology, new welding processes will
play an indispensable part in progress.
Currently, five welding associations provide guidance
and standards related to the welding industry.
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• American Petroleum Institute (API)
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• American Welding Society (AWS)
• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)

Welding as an Occupation
A student needs to learn all phases of the trade. Welding,
reading drawings, math, and computer knowledge will se-
cure a successful career. Many qualified welders are cer-
tified by the AWS, ASME, and API. The tests are difficult
Job Tip boxes present students with useful career
advice, helping them see beyond the world of school and
and require many hours of practice.
Because welders hold key positions in the major indus-
tries, they are important to the economic welfare of our Fig. 1-5 Welding is generally considered a nontraditional
country. Without welding, the metal industry would be occupation for women. However, it can be a very lucrative and
seriously restricted; many of the scientific feats of the past
and the future would be impossible. As long as there are
in-demand skill for those women choosing this career path. A proce-
dure is being used setting up a plasma arc gouging operation.
© Andersen Ross/Iconica/Getty Images
getting them to think about their future as professional
metal products, welders will be needed to fabricate and
repair them.

Keep in mind that the field of welding can offer you

J O B TIP
Job Hunting
Looking for a job is a job! When you begin,
make a list of what you plan to do in the next week. As-
sess what kind of job you want. As you complete items on
your list, you not only will be closer to your goal, but you
also will be in control of the job-hunting process and will
be less stressed.
welders.
prestige and security. It can offer you a future of continu-
ous employment with steady advancement at wages that
are equal to other skilled trades and are better than aver-
age. It can offer you employment in practically any indus-
try you choose and travel to all parts of the world. It is
an expanding industry, and your chances for advancement
are excellent. Welders have the opportunity to participate
in many phases of industrial processes, thus giving them
the broad knowledge of the field necessary for advance-
ment to supervisory or technical positions.

Welding is gender friendly, Fig. 1-5. Thousands of

Industrial Welding Applications
women are employed throughout the industry. Many women Welding is not a simple operation. The more than 90 dif-
find the work highly satisfying and are paid well at a rate ferent welding processes are divided into three major
equivalent to that of men. types: arc, gas, and resistance welding. A number of other
Welding is done in every civilized country in the world. types such as induction, forge, thermit, flow welding, and
You may wish to work in the oil fields of the Near East or brazing are used to a somewhat lesser extent.
in our own country. You may wish to work in some jungle Resistance welding includes spot welding, seam weld-
area of South America or Africa, constructing buildings, ing, flash welding, projection welding, and other similar
power plants, pipelines, or bridges. Our many military processes that are performed on machines. These welding c. Stainless steel 21. Which of the following is not a trade association re-
installations throughout the world offer jobs for civilian areas are not the subject of this text. Because of the special- d. All of these lated to the welding industry? (Obj. 1-9)
workers. Employment opportunities for welders are plen- ized nature of the machines, operators are usually taught 16. Which of the following lists classifications of weld- a. AWS
tiful in all parts of the United States. on the job. They are semiskilled workers who do not need ing occupations? (Obj. 1-5) b. ASME
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
a. Combination welder, welder fitter, welding in- c. AUPS
spector, welding instructor, welding engineer d. API
History of Welding Chapter 1 7 b. Choice
Multiple Junk yard welder, wanna-be welder, art welder, 22.1890–1900
b. Establishing goals such as ______ will help secure
Choose thestick welder
letter of the correct answer. c. 1930–1942
your achievement as a skilled welder. (Obj. 1-10)
c. Inside welder, outside welder, underwater d. 1950–1965
a. Join a professional organization
1. When did humans learn the art of welding?
9. Usingb.American
(Obj.welder,
1-1) upside-down welder NonstopWelding
classroom workStandards,
Society
namec.four popularequipment
welding processes in use
a.d.Early
Flat1990s
welder, vertical welder, horizontal welder, Friendly
overhead welder today.d.(Obj. 1-2)vocation
Trade
b. Around the birth of Christ
17.c.Which of the following is not a welding occupation? a. SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, ESW
Between 3000 and 2000 b.c.
b. MCAW,
Review CAW, EBW, OHW, LBW, ARTW
Questions
d.(Obj. 1-5)started between World Wars I and II
Welding
c. SSW, ROW, FLB, AAW
a. Certified
2. Name welding
four metals inspector
that were used by early metal- Write the answers in your own words.
d. GLUEW, STKW, GASW, MIGW
b. Pilot(Obj.
workers. technician
1-1) 23. Is welding a recent industrial process? Explain.
10. When was a patent issued for the GTAW process?
a.c.Copper,
Instructor
bronze, silver, gold (Obj. 1-1)
(Obj. 1-2)

Chapter Review sections, located at the end

b.d.Zinc, pewter,editor
Technical aluminum, lead
a.24.1936
Name four metals that were used by early metal-
18.c.Welders
Silver, mercury, vanadium,
are required to passgold
periodic qualification b. 1942workers. Which metal was the first to be worked?
d.tests
Castestablished
iron, steel, by
brass, tin ______. (Obj. 1-6)
various c. 1948(Obj. 1-1)
3. Which
a. Codemetal was probably the first to be worked by
authorities

of every chapter, feature multiple-choice and

d.25.1965
When did the manufacture of steel begin? (Obj. 1-1)
early metalworkers?
b. Training (Obj. 1-1)
agencies 11. When
26. Inwas whata patent issued
country wasfor
thethe GMAW
patent for process?
electric arc weld-
a.c.Pewter
Insurance companies (Obj. ing
1-2)first issued? (Obj. 1-2)
b. Gold
d. Both a and c a. 1936

short-answer review questions. Each review also

c. Copper 27. What invention gave electric arc welding its greatest
19.d.IfTin
you are a competent welder, you need to know b. 1942
c. 1948
boost? (Obj. 1-2)
______
4. When wasskills.
fusion(Obj. 1-7)as we know it, first
welding, 28.1965
d. Name four important welding processes. (Obj. 1-4)
a. Drawing
developed? (Obj. 1-1)

includes an Internet Activities section, in which

12. 29. Isis itwelding?
What true that(Obj.
industry
1-3) uses MIG/MAG welding only
a.b.InMath
1888 by a Russian
for specialtwo
a. Hammering applications because
pieces of metal of itsuntil
together instability?
b.c.InLayout
1892 byskills
C. L. Coffin
Explain.
they become(Obj.
one 1-4)
c.d.InAll
1881of by
these
Auguste de Meritens
b.
30.Using rivets or screws to attach metal

students are asked to perform Internet research on

20.d.Job
In 1930
hazardsby Hobart
can be & Devers or eliminated by the
minimized Name 10 occupational classifications in the welding
c. Bending
industry.and(Obj.
shaping
1-5)metal
use of arc
5. Electric ______.
welding(Obj. 1-8)
using an electrode was devel- d. Joining together two pieces of metal by heating
a. Protective
oped around what clothing
period? (Obj. 1-1) 31. Name three welding occupations that require a col-
to a temperature high enough to cause soften-
a.b.1880–1900 lege degree. (Obj. 1-5)

a variety of welding-related topics.

Face shields ing or melting, with or without the applica-
b.c.1930–1942
Adequate ventilation 32.tion
Which welding
of pressure andprocess
with or contributed most
without the use ofto alumi-
c.d.1750–1765
All of these num
filler welding? (Obj. 1-10)
metal
d. 1950–1965
13. Welding is ______ and there are many jobs avail-
6. In what country was a patent first issued for electric able for both men and women. (Obj. 1-3)
arc welding? (Obj. 1-1) a. Gender friendly
a. France b. Nonskilled
INTERNET
b. China
ACTIVITIES
c. Easy learning
c. Russia d. Filler type
d. United
Internet StatesA
Activity 14. In electric arc welding, which of the following does
7. Whatoninvention
Search the Webgave the electric
for books aboutarc weldingatpro-
welding England’s Cambridge
the welder International
not have to regulate? (Obj. 1-4)
cess its
Science greatest boost?
Publishing. Make(Obj.
a list1-1)
of books that sounds interesting to you.control
a. Cruise
a. Covered electrodes b. Welding current
Cementation Process
One of three
b. Oxyacetylene
Internet Activity Bgas mixture c. Electrode
Skip Car One Cementation is the oldest method of steel- c. Workable electric generating devices
or four stoves
for heating air. making. It consists of heating wrought iron Using the Internet, search for safety and health guidelines for
d. welding
Shieldingand gaswrite
d. Both
a report on ayour
and cfindings. You may want to try the American Welding Society’s
Hot Gas to
with carbon in a vacuum. This increases 15. Even with the proper equipment, which of the fol-
Scrubbers 8. Oxyacetylene
Web welding was developed around what
site: www.aws.org. lowing would be very difficult to weld? (Obj. 1-4)
the carbon content of surfaces and edges
Coke period? (Obj. 1-1) a. Aluminum
Brick which can then be hardened by heating and
Checker Ore a. 1720–1740 b. Magnesium
Work Limestone quenching. The metal is not molten during
Air is H Refractory steelmaking. Hence impurities are not re-
heated o Skip Incline
as it t
Brick Lining moved from the iron, and only the surface of
rises B
l the metal is affected. It is probable that most 12 Chapter 1 History of Welding History of Welding Chapter 1 11
through
hot a
s of the steel of ancient times was produced in
brick
work.
t Molten Slag
this way.
Molten
Air Iron Tuyere
Coke
Bins
Ore and
Limestone A later improvement of this process was
Hot Blast
the stacking of alternate layers of soft, carbon-
Bins
from
Turbo
Blower free iron with iron containing carbon. The lay-
ers were then heated so that the pieces could
Hot Iron Slag Car
Skip be worked. The layers of soft and hard metal
Car
Car Two strengthened the internal structure of the steel.
Much of this steelmaking was centered in Syria

Fig. 3-10 Schematic diagram of a blast furnace, hot blast stove, and
skiploader. Ore, limestone, and coke are fed in at the top of the furnace.
Preheated air, delivered at the bottom, burns the coke and generates
gases and heat required to separate iron from the ore. Source: American
Iron & Steel Inst.
production. The number of furnaces probably will con-
tinue to decrease as the production rate for leading fur-
naces exceeds 3,000 net tons per day.
Steelmaking Processes
You have read that steel was used in a primitive form
for several thousand years. However, this early steel was
not strong nor did it have the variety of properties neces-
during the Middle Ages, and the steels became
known as the famous Damascus steels, used
widely for swords and spears of the highest
Video Link Icons, new to this edition and interspersed throughout the
textbook, direct students to the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe
quality.
The steel made by this process was further
improved by the crucible process that came into
use in the eighteenth century.
Crucible Process
The crucible process was revived in England during the
.com/welding. There, they can watch videos of the welding processes
being discussed in the chapter.
early 1740s. Steel produced by the cementation process
was melted in a clay crucible to remove the impurities.
While fluid, the slag was skimmed off the top. Then the
metal was poured into a mold where it solidified into a
mass that could be worked into the desired shape. In the

The Online Learning Center contains updated versions of the

sary for extensive use. It was produced by the cemen- United States graphite crucibles, with a capacity of about
tation and the crucible processes. In recent times two 100 pounds of metal, were used in a gas-fired furnace.
major developments have made it possible to produce This process produced a steel of uniform quality that was
large quantities of steel with a variety of properties at a

Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank questions available in EZ Test and for

free of slag and dust.
competitive cost.
The first of these developments was the Bessemer Electric Furnace Processes
furnace invented in 1856 in both Europe and the United
Electric furnaces are of two types: (1) the electric arc

use with ExamView, and the PowerPoint slides—now with videos of

States. The second was the open hearth furnace which was
type and (2) the induction furnace. The first electric
invented 12 years later in the United States. Figure 3-11,
arc furnace had a capacity of 4 tons. It was put into
pages 50–51 shows the modern steelmaking process from
operation in France by the French metallurgist Paul
raw materials to finished product.

welding processes and scenarios. Visit the center at

Heroult in 1899 and introduced into the United States
in 1904. The modern furnace, Fig. 3-12, page 52, has a
charge of 80 to 100 tons. A few furnaces hold a charge
of 200 tons and produce more than 800 tons of steel in

www.mhhe.com/welding.
For video on steelmaking operations, please visit
www.mhhe.com/welding. 24 hours. These large furnaces are made possible by
the increase of electric power capacity, the production

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 49

xvii
This page intentionally left blank
 U N I T
1

Introduction to Welding
and Oxyfuel

Chapter 1
History of Welding
Chapter 2
Industrial Welding
Chapter 3
Steel and Other Metals
Chapter 4
Basic Joints and Welds
Chapter 5
Gas Welding
Chapter 6
Flame Cutting Principles
Chapter 7
Flame Cutting Practice: Jobs 7-J1–J3
Chapter 8
Gas Welding Practice: Jobs 8-J1–J38
Chapter 9
Braze Welding and Advanced Gas Welding Practice:
Jobs 9-J39–J49
Chapter 10
Soldering and Brazing Principles and Practice:
Jobs 10-J50–J51 1
 1
History of Welding

Overview Chapter Objectives

You are about to begin the learning process of preparing After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
yourself for a position in one of the fastest growing indus-
1-1 Explain the history of metalworking and welding.
tries in the world of work—the welding industry.
1-2 Explain the development of modern welding.
Welding is the joining together of two pieces of
metal by heating to a temperature high enough to cause 1-3 Give details of the mission of welding in the industrial
softening or melting, with or without the application process.
of pressure, and with or without the use of filler metal. 1-4 Describe the diverse welding processes.
Any filler metal used has either a melting point approxi- 1-5 List the various welding occupations.
mately the same as the metals being joined or a melting 1-6 Define welder qualifications and characteristics.
point that is below these metals but above 800 degrees 1-7 Express the duties and responsibilities of a welder.
Fahrenheit (°F).
1-8 Recognize welder safety and working conditions.
New methods, new applications, and new systems have
1-9 Identify trade associations and what responsibility
continued to develop over the last few decades. Continu-
they have in the welding industry.
ing research makes welding a dynamic leader in industrial
processes. The industry has made tremendous progress in 1-10 Establish goals to keep you up to date in the field.
a short period of time. Furthermore, it has made a major
contribution toward raising the standard of living of the
American people. By simplifying and speeding up indus-
trial processes and making it possible to develop envi-
ronmentally sound industries like wind and solar power,
hybrid power vehicles, plants to produce organic fuels,
and continued development in nuclear, fossil fuels along
with continued space exploration and utilization, it has in-
creased the world’s supply of goods, Fig. 1.1.

2

Fig. 1-1 Use of natural energy sources (green energy) such
as solar, wind turbines, and bio-fuels like ethanol are get-
ting a tremendous amount of interest in the way of research,
development, and real applications. As they continue to de-
velop, other issues will need to be dealt with, such as ROI.
Welding plays a very important role in the manufacture of
these green energy sources. (top) © Fotosearch/PhotoLibrary;
(middle) © Mark Dierker/Bear Dancer Studios; (bottom) © McGraw-Hill
Education/Mark A. Dierker, photographer
Welding is usually the best method to use when fasten-
ing metal. If you want to build something made of metal,
you can fasten the parts by using screws or rivets, bending
the parts, or even gluing the parts. However, a quality,
long-lasting, attractive, safe product is best fabricated
by using one of the many types of prevailing welding
processes.
The History of Metalworking
Metalworking began when primitive people found that
they could shape rocks by chipping them with other
rocks. The first metal to be worked was probably pure
copper because it is a soft, ductile metal that was widely
available. Ductile means easily hammered, bent, or
drawn into a new shape or form. Excavations in Egypt
and in what is now the United States indicate the use
of copper as early as 4000 b.c. and before 2000 b.c.,
respectively. More than 4,000 years ago copper mines
on the peninsula of Sinai and the island of Cyprus were
worked. Welding began more than 3,000 years ago when
hot or cold metals were hammered to obtain a forge weld.
Forged metals, bronze and iron, are mentioned in the Old
Testament.
Archaeologists have determined that bronze was
developed sometime between 3000 and 2000 b.c. Iron
became known to Europe about 1000 b.c., several thou-
sand years after the use of copper. About 1300 b.c. the
Philistines had four iron furnaces and a factory for pro-
ducing swords, chisels, daggers, and spearheads. The
Egyptians began to make iron tools and weapons during
the period of 900 to 850 b.c. After 800 b.c. iron replaced
bronze as the metal used in the manufacture of utensils,
armor, and other practical applications. A welded iron
headrest for ­Tutankhamen (King Tut) was crafted around
1350 b.c.
The famous Damascus swords and daggers were made
in Syria about 1300 b.c. These were sought after because
of their strength and toughness. Their keen edge was
likely capable of severing heavy iron spears or cutting the
most delicate fabric floating in the air. The swords were
made by forge-welding iron bars of different degrees of
hardness, drawing them down, and repeating the process
many times.
The working of metals—copper, bronze, silver, gold,
and iron—followed one another in the great ancient civi-
lizations. By the time of the Roman Empire, the use of
iron was common in Europe, the Near East, and the Far
East. The Chinese developed the ability to make steel
from wrought iron in a.d. 589. The Belgians were respon-
sible for most of the progress made in Europe, due to the
History of Welding Chapter 1    3
high degree of craftsmanship developed by their workers.
By the eighth century the Japanese manufactured steel by
repeated welding and forging and controlled the amount
of carbon in steel by the use of fluxes. They produced the
famous Samurai sword with a blade of excellent quality
and superior workmanship.
The blast furnace was developed for melting iron about
the years a.d. 1000 to 1200. One such furnace was in the
Province of Catalonia in Spain. The fourteenth and fif-
teenth centuries saw great improvements in the design of
blast furnaces. The first cast iron cannon was produced in
the early 1600s.
About the middle of the eighteenth century, a series
of inventions in England revolutionized the methods of
industry and brought on what later came to be known
as the Industrial Revolution. Our present factory sys-
tem of mass production was introduced. An American,
Eli Whitney, developed the idea of interchanging parts
in the manufacture of arms. By the beginning of the
nineteenth century, the working of iron with the use
of dies and molds became commonplace. Early in the
twentieth century, Henry Ford was involved in devel-
oping the assembly line method for manufacturing
automobiles.
Early Developments in Welding
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Edmund
Davy discovered acetylene, a gas that was later used in
oxyacetylene welding, heating, and cutting. The electric
arc was first discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1801
while he was conducting experiments in electricity. He
was concerned primarily with the possibilities of the
use of the arc for illumination. By 1809 he had demon-
strated that it was possible to maintain a high voltage
arc for varying periods of time. By the middle of the
nineteenth century, workable electrical-generating de-
vices were invented and developed on a practical basis.
These inventions were the forerunner of the present arc
welding process.
The first documented instance of fusion welding was
done by Auguste de Meritens in 1881. He welded lead
battery plates together with a carbon electrode. Two of
his pupils, N. Benardos and S. Olszewski, saw the pos-
sibilities of this discovery and experimented with the arc
powered by batteries that were charged from high volt-
age dynamos. After four years of work, they were issued
a British patent for a welding process using carbon elec-
trodes and an electric power source. Applications of the
process included the fusion welding of metals, the cut-
ting of metals, and the punching of holes in metal. Al-
though they experimented with solid and hollow carbon
rods filled with powdered metals, the solid electrodes
4   Chapter 1 History of Welding
proved more successful. Repair welding was the pri-
mary goal of the inventors.
Bare metal electrode welding was introduced in 1888
by N. G. Slavianoff, a Russian. His discovery was first
recognized in Western Europe in 1892. C. L. Coffin was
one of the pioneers of the welding industry in the United
States. In 1889 he received a patent on the equipment and
process for flash-butt welding. In 1890 he received addi-
tional patents for spot-welding equipment. In 1892, work-
ing without knowledge of Slavianoff’s work, he received
a patent for the bare metal electrode arc welding process.
By the turn of the century welding was a common method
of repair. At this time welding was given added impetus
by the development of the first commercial oxyacetylene
welding torch by two Frenchmen, Foresche and Picard.
Bare electrode welding became the prevailing elec-
tric arc welding method used in the United States until
about 1920.
Bare metal electrode welding was handicapped because
the welds produced by these electrodes were not as strong
as the metal being welded and the welding arc was very
unstable. In 1907 Kjellberg, a Swedish engineer, received
a patent covering the electrode-coating process. The coat-
ing was thin and acted only as a stabilizer of the arc rather
than as a purifier of the weld metal. It produced welds that
were little better than those made with bare electrodes. In
1912 K­ jellberg received another patent for an electrode
with a heavier coating made of asbestos with a binder of
sodium silicate. See Fig. 1-2. Benardos patented a process
in 1908 that has come into popular use in the past few
decades. This is the electroslag process of welding thick
plates in one pass.
Welding technology and its industrial application
progressed rather slowly until World War I. Prior to
that time it was used chiefly as a means of mainte-
nance and repair. The demands of the war for an in-
creased flow of goods called for improved methods of
fabrication.
A B OU T WEL DIN G
Shipbuilding
Through 1945, some 5,171 vessels of
all types were constructed to American Bureau of
Shipping standards during the Maritime Commission
wartime shipbuilding program. At this time in shipbuild-
ing history, welding was replacing riveting as the main
method of assembly.
 increased through the early 1930s. One of the first high
frequency, stabilized a.c. industrial welding machines was
introduced in 1936 by the Miller Electric Manufacturing
Company. The a.c. welding machines have since become
popular because of the high rate of metal deposition and
the absence of arc blow.
World War II spurred the development of inert gas
welding, thus making it possible to produce welds of high
purity and critical application. A patent was issued in
1930 to Hobart and Devers for the use of the electric arc
within an inert gas atmosphere. The process was not well
received by industry because of the high cost of argon and
helium and the lack of suitable torch equipment.

SH OP TA L K

Beams
Beams used in bridges must be
welded on both sides. In automated systems, a
second station can handle the reverse side, or a
turnover station is used to get the beam back to be
sent through a second time.

Russell Merideth, an engineer for the Northrop Air-

craft Company, was faced with the task of finding
an improved means of welding aluminum and mag-
Fig. 1-2 The ability to make multipass welds such as this one, on nesium in the inert atmosphere. Because of a high
plate and pipe, led to the growth of the industry. Welds are sound burnoff rate, the magnesium procedure was replaced
and have uniform appearance.
by a tungsten electrode, and a patent was issued in
1942. Later in 1942 the Linde Company obtained a
license to develop the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
At the end of World War I, welding was widely ac-
[or tungsten inert gas (TIG)] process, also known as
cepted. Research on coated electrodes through the 1920s
HELIARC, used today, Fig. 1-3. The company perfected a
resulted in electrode coatings and improved core wire.
water-cooled torch capable of high amperage.
This significant development was the main reason for the
rapid advancement of the stick welding process. This term
has now been superseded by the term shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW). The development of X-raying goods
made it possible to examine the internal soundness of
welded joints which indicated a need for improved meth-
ods of fabrication.

The Development of Modern Welding

During the postwar period the design of welding machines
changed very little. Since welding was first done with di-
rect current (d.c.) from battery banks, it was only natu-
ral that as welding machines were developed, they would
be d.c. machines. In the late 1920s and during the 1930s, Fig. 1-3 An aluminum weld made using the TIG process. The
considerable research was carried on with alternating cur- welding of aluminum is no longer a problem and can be done with
rent (a.c.) for welding. The use of a.c. welding machines the same ease as that of steel.

History of Welding Chapter 1    5

 GTAW welding was first done with rotating d.c. weld-
ing machines. Later, a.c. units with built-in high fre-
quency were developed. In about 1950, selenium rectifier
type d.c. welding machines came into use, and a.c.-d.c.
rectifier welding machines with built-in frequency for
GTAW welding became available in the 1950s. Since that
time the Miller Electric Manufacturing Company has de-
veloped the Miller controlled-wave a.c. welder for critical
welds on aircraft and missiles. Now many manufacturers
of welding machines produce square-wave a.c. machines.
The use of aluminum and magnesium increased at a
rapid rate as a result of (1) the development of GTAW
welding, and (2) the desirable characteristics of reduced
weight and resistance to corrosion. As the size of weld-
ments increased, thicker materials were employed in
their construction. It was found that for aluminum thick-
nesses above 1/4 inch, GTAW welding required preheat- Fig. 1-4 Two different sized production fillet welds on steel
ing. Since this was costly and highly impractical for large made with the flux cored arc welding process. © Edward R. Bohnart
weldments, a number of welding equipment manufactur-
ers engaged in the search for another welding process.
In 1948 the U.S. patent office issued a patent for the gas and are used to fill a particular need. Other methods are
metal arc welding (GMAW) process. The GMAW term evolving that may significantly change the way welds will
superseded the earlier terms of metal inert gas (MIG) and be made in the future.
metal active gas (MAG). The following processes involve the use of the
The GMAW process concentrates high heat at a focal ­electric arc:
point, producing deep penetration, a narrow bead width, a
•• Arc spot welding
small heat-affected zone, and faster welding speeds result-
•• Atomic-hydrogen welding
ing in less warpage and distortion of the welded joint and
•• Electrogas
minimum postweld cleaning. The use of GMAW has in-
•• Plasma arc welding
creased very rapidly; it is now used in virtually all indus-
•• Stud welding
tries. A GMAW or similar process is responsible for over
•• Submerged arc welding
70 percent of welds being performed today. In the early
•• Underwater arc welding
1950s the gas shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
process was developed, Fig. 1-4. It was referred to as Other specialized processes include:
“dual shield” as it had a flux but also required external
•• Cold welding
gas shielding. Late in the 1950s self-shielded flux cored
•• Electron beam welding
wires were introduced. And in the early 1970s all posi-
•• Explosive welding
tion flux cored wires became available. Metal cored wires
•• Forge welding
came along shortly after this. The solid wire, metal cored
•• Friction welding
wire, and flux cored wire use nearly the same equipment;
•• Friction stir welding
however, since flux cored wires produce a slag that covers
•• Laser welding
the entire weld, it is considered a separate process.
•• Oxyhydrogen welding
During the 1980s and continuing today, rapid changes
•• Thermit welding
are evolving in the welding industry as engineers devise
•• Ultrasonic welding
more advanced filler metal formulas to improve arc per-
•• Welding of plastics
formance and weld quality on even the most exotic of ma-
terials. Even though our history is vague in the areas of Today there are over 90 welding processes in use. The
welding and filler metal development, it has shown that demands of industry in the future will force new and im-
advancements are inevitable and will continue, such as proved developments in machines, gases, torches, elec-
exotic multiple gas mixes, state-of-the-art electrodes, on- trodes, procedures, and technology. The shipbuilding,
board computers, ­hybrid processes, and robotic welding. space, and nuclear industries conduct constant research for
Some processes were developed for limited applications new metals, which in turn spurs research in welding. For

6   Chapter 1 History of Welding

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 “The best thing in the world for you, mamma,” said Dick, “and jolly for
us, once in a way, to have you all to ourselves.”
What could mortal woman, being the boys’ mother, say more? I am
afraid she would have considered favourably the idea of going to Nova
Zembla, wherever that may be, under such conditions. And Winks, though
he yawned as he listened, thought well of it too; he liked driving, on the
whole, though too much of it bored him, and he had not at all approved
when his mistress “put down” her carriage. They set off next morning in the
brightness of noon, through the country which had not yet lost any of its
beauty, though here and there the trees had yellow patches on them, and the
parks were all burnt brown with the heat of summer. They were a very
merry party, notwithstanding that the final examination was hanging over
Dick’s head, and the parting which must follow. Winks, for his part, after
two or three hours of it, got bored with the levity of the conversation, and
rustled about so, that he was put out of the carriage to run for the good of
his health. He went along for a mile or two, pleased enough, gathering dust
in clouds about him. But when he intimated a desire to be taken in, the
boys, hard-hearted beings, laughed in the face of Winks.
“A run will do you good, old fellow,” said Dick, with cruel satisfaction.
A short time afterwards, I am sorry to say, a dreadful accident, nature
unknown, happened to Winks. He uttered a heart-rending shriek, and
appeared immediately after making his way towards the carriage, holding
up one feathery paw in demonstrative suffering. The anxious party stopped
immediately, and Winks made his way to them, laboriously limping and
uttering plaintive cries. But when, all a-dust as he was, this hypocrite was
lifted into the carriage, holding up the injured member—and was softly laid
upon the softest cushion to have it examined, words fail me to express the
sardonic grin with which he showed his milk-white teeth. There was no
more the matter with the little villain’s paw, my gentle reader, than with
yours or mine.
Never was there a pleasanter two days’ journey than this which Mrs.
Eastwood made with her boys through the sunshiny autumn country, along
the road, where gold-coloured leaves dropped in her lap as they drove her
along, now one on the box, now another, in their turn; till the High Lodge at
last appeared in sight all covered with white downy clusters of clematis
done flowering, with late roses, and matted network of interlacing leaves.
Innocent rushed to the door, slim and pale in her black dress, her eyes
shining with sudden delight, her soft face inspired.
“You have come to take me home. I am Nelly now!” she cried, throwing
her arms about the common mother. Jenny, whom she had not noticed, leant
back upon the carriage, looking at her with eyes that glowed under his dark
brows. He had always stood by Innocent since the day when he had read
Greek to her in the Lady’s Walk; he had always been sure that “something
would come of her.” “We don’t know half what Innocent will come to!” he
repeated now to himself.

GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS, ST. JOHN’S SQUARE, LONDON.

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