Parts Application Handbook

MIL-HDBK-978-B (NASA)
MIL-HDBK-978B (NASA)
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
NASA Parts Appl icat ion Handbook
This handbook is approved for use by all elements of the Nat ional
Aeronaut ics and Space Administrat ion and is avai lable for use by
all departments and agencies of the Department of Defense .
Beneficial comments (recommendat ions , addi t ions* delet ions) and

any pert inent data which may be of use in improving this document
should be addressed to: Manager , NASA Parts Project Off ice ,
Goddard Space Fl ight Center , Greenbel t , Maryland 20771.
For user convenience this handbook was structured so that it could

be separated into five volumes .
ii
FOREWORD
This handbook provides a technological basel ine

for parts used throughout NASA programs . The
informat ion included wi l l improve the ut i l izat ion
of the NASA Standard Electrical , Electronic , and
Electromechanical (EEE) Parts List (MIL-STD-975)
and provide technical informat ion to improve the
select ion of parts and their appl icat ion , and
fai lure analysis on all NASA projects . This
handbook consists of five volumes and includes
informat ion on all parts present ly included in
MIL-STD-975 .
This handbook (Revision B) succeeds the ini t ial

release . Revision A was not released . The con-
tent in Revision B has been extensively changed
from that in the ini t ial release .
IV
CONTENTS
GENERAL CONTENTS
VOLUMES 1 through 5
VOLUME 1
Introduct ion
Capaci tors
Resistors and thermistors
VOLUME 2
Diodes
Transistors
Microwave Devices
VOLUME 3
Microcircui ts
VOLUME 4
Crystals
Fi l ters
Transformers and Inductors
Delay Lines
Motors
VOLUME 5
Connectors , Power
Connectors , Radio Frequency
Protect ive Devices
Swi tches
Relays
Wire and Cable
v
CONTENTS ^
T H I S PA G E I N T E N T I O N ALLY LEF T BLA NK
vi
CONTENTS
VOLUME CONTENTS
VOLUME 1
Page
Paragraph 1. INTRODUCTION - - 1-1

1.1 General - - - 1-1
1.1.1 Appl icat ion handbook - - - - - - — 1-1
1.1. 2 Object ives 1-1
1.1.3 Handbook organizat ion — - - - - - - - - - - 1-2
1.1.4 Special features - - - - - — - - - - - - - - 1-2
1.1. 5 Limi tat ions - - - - - - - - - - - 1-3
1. 2 NASA Standard parts program - - - - - - - - - 1-3

1. 2 .1 Standard parts program - - - - - - - - - - - - 1-3
1. 2 . 2 MIL-STD-975 1-3
1.3 Cost - 1-4

1.3.1 Cost impl icat ion of nonstandard parts- - - - - 1-4
1.3. 2 Typical basic costs 1-4
1.3.3 Addi t ional costs - - - - - 1-4
1.4 Rel iabi l i ty - - - 1-6

1.4.1 Rel iabi l i ty predict ion - - - - - - - - - - - - 1-6
1.4. 2 Part count analysis - - - - — - - - - - - - 1-6
1.4.3 Part stress analysis - 1-6
1.4.4 Limi tat ions of rel iabi l i ty predict ions - - — 1-6
2. CAPACITORS- - 2-1
2.1 General 2-1
2 .1.1 Introduct ion - - - - - — — — - -- -- - 2-1
2 .1 . 2 General def ini t ions - 2-1
2 .1.3 NASA standard parts 2-3
2 .1.4 General device characterist ics 2-3
2 .1 . 5 General parameter informat ion - - - - - - - - 2-6
2 .1.6 General guides and charts 2-19
2 .1.7 General rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - - — — 2-22
2.2 Ceramic 2-31

2 . 2 .1 Introduct ion 2-31
2.2.2 Usual appl icat ions 2-31
2 . 2 .3 Physical construct ion 2 -32
2 . 2 .4 Mi l i tary designat ion 2-36
2.2.5 Electrical characterist ics 2-37
2 . 2 .6 Environmental considerat ions 2-47
2 . 2 .7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - 2-47
vi i
CONTENTS
VOLUME CONTENTS
VOLUME 1
Subject Page
2 .3 Mica and glass 2-49

2 .3.1 Introduct ion - - 2-49
2 .3. 2 Usual appl icat ion - - - 2-49
2 .3.3 Physical construct ion . . . 2-49
2 .3.4 Mi l i tary designat ion - 2-51
2 .3. 5 Electrical characterist ics - - - 2-51
2 .3.6 Environmental considerat ions - - - - - — - - 2-59
2 .3.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - - - - - - - - - - 2-59
2 .4 Paper and plast ic - — - — - — - - 2-63

2 .4.1 Introduct ion - - - - — - - - - - -- - — - 2-63
2 .4. 2 Usual appl icat ions - - — - - - — 2-63
2 .4.3 Physical construct ions - - - - - - — 2-64
2 .4.4 Mi l i tary designat ion - - - - — 2-67
2 .4. 5 Electrical characterist ics - - - - - - - - - - 2-67
2 .4.6 Environmental considerat ions - - - - - - - - - 2-72
2 .4.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - - - - - - - - - - 2-73
2.5 Tantalum foil - 2-76

2 . 5 .1 Introduct ion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2-76
2.5.2 Usual appl icat ions - - - - - - - - - - - — - 2-76
2 . 5 .3 Physical construct ion - - - - — - - - - - - 2-77
2 . 5 .4 Mi l i tary designat ion — - 2-79
2.5.5 Electrical characterist ies - - - - - - - - - - 2-79
2 . 5 .6 Environmental considerat ions - - - - - - - - - 2-87
2 . 5 .7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - - - — - - - - - 2-88
2 .6 Sol id tantalum - - 2-90

2 .6.1 Introduct ion - - 2-90
2 .6. 2 Usual appl icat ions 2-90
2 .6.3 Physical construct ion 2-90
2 .6.4 Mi l i tary designat ion 2-92
2 .6. 5 Electrical characterist ies - - — - - - — - 2-92
2 .6.6 Environmental considerat ions - - - - - — - - 2-103
2 .6.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions 2-105
vi i i
CONTENTS
VOLUME CONTENTS
VOLUME 1
Page
Paragraph 2 .7 Wet slug tantalum - 2-107

2 .7.1 Introduct ion - 2-107
2 .7. 2 Usual appl icat ions - - - — - <— 2-107
2 .7.3 Physical construct ion 2-107
2 .7.4 Mi l i tary designat ion ^ - - - - - - - - 2-109
2 .7. 5 Electrical character ist ics- 2-110
2 .7.6 Environmental considerat ions - - - - 2-117
2 .7.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions 2-117
2.8 Variable 2-121

2 . 8 .1 Introduct ion 2-121
2.8.2 Usual appl icat ions - - 2-121
2 . 8 .3 Physical construct ion - — — - - 2-121
2 . 8 .4 Mi l i tary designat ion 2-123
2.8.5 Electrical considerat ions - 2-124
2 . 8 .6 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions 2-125
3. RESISTORS 3-1
3.1 General . . . . 3-1
3.1.1 Introduct ion — - - — . . . . . 3-1
3.1. 2 Appl icable mi l i tary speci f icat ions 3-1
3.1.3 General def ini t ions - — - - — - - - - - - 3-3
3.1.4 NASA standard parts 3-8
3.1 . 5 General device characterist ics - — 3-9
3.1.6 General parameter informat ion - - 3-11
3.1.7 General guides and charts - - 3-16
3.1. 8 Predict ion model 3-19
3. 2 Fi xed , composi t ion ( insulated)- - - - 3-22

3. 2 .1 Introduct ion - - - - - 3-22
3. 2 . 2 Ulual appl icat ions - - 3-22
3. 2 .3 Physical construct ion 3-22
3. 2 .4 Mi l i tary designat ion 3-23
3. 2 . 5 Electrical characterist ics - - 3-23
3. 2 .6 Environmental considerat ions 3-26
3. 2 .7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions 3-26
3. 3 Fi xed , f i lm (high stabi l i ty) 3-28

3.3.1 Introduct ion 3-28
3.3. 2 Usual appl icat ions 3-28
3.3.3 Physical construct ion - - 3-28
3.3.4 Mi l i tary designat ion 3-30
3.3. 5 Electrical characterist ics 3-30
3.3.6 Environmental considerat ions - - — - 3-31
3.3.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions 3-32
ix
CONTENTS ^
VOLUME CONTENTS
VOLUME 1
Page
Paragraph 3.4 Fi xed , f i lm (insulated) - - 3-33

3.4.1 Introduct ion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3-33
3. 4. 2 Usual appl icat ions — 3-33
3.4.3 Physical construct ion 3-33
3.4.5 Electrical characterist ics - - - - 3-34
3.4.6 Environmental considerat ions - - - — - - - 3-35
3.4.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - - - - — - - - 3-35
3. 5 Fi xed , wirewound (accurate) 3-37

3. 5 .1 Introduct ion — — - - — 3-37
3. 5 . 2 Usual appl icat ions - - - — - 3-37
3. 5 .3 Physical construct ion - - - - — - - 3-37
3. 5 . 5 Electrical characterist ics - — - - - — - 3-39
3. 5 .6 Environmental considerat ions — - - - — - 3-39
3. 5 .7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions 3-40
3.6 Fi xed , wirewound (power type) — - - - - - - 3-41

3.6.1 Introduct ion — - 3-41
3.6. 2 Usual appl icat ions - - - - - 3-41
3.6.3 Physical construct ion -- - — — - -- - 3-41
3.6.4 Mi l i tary designat ion - - - - - 3-43
3.6. 5 Electrical characterist ics - - - - - - 3-43
3.6.6 Environmental considerat ions — — - — - 3-43
3.6.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - - - - - - 3-44
3.7 Fi xed , wi rewound (power type , chassis mounted) 3-45

3.7.1 Introduct ion - - - — - - - - - - — - - - 3-45
3.7. 2 Usual appl icat ions — 3-45
3.7.3 Physical construct ion - - - - - -- -- -- - 3-45
3.7.4 Mi l i tary designat ion — - 3-47
3. 7. 5 Electrical characterist ics 3-47
3.7.6 Environmental considerat ions — -- 3-47
3.7.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - — - - - — - 3- 4 7
3. 8 Var iable , non-wirewound (adjustment type) — 3-49

3. 8 .1 Introduct ion 3-49
3. 8 . 2 Usual appl icat ions - - - — — 3-49
3. 8 .3 Physical construct ion 3-49
3. 8 . 5 Electrical characterist ics - - — - — -- 3-54
3. 8 .6 Environmental considerat ions - — — 3-54
3. 8 .7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - - — — 3-55
x
CONTENTS ^
VOLUME CONTENTS
VOLUME 1
Paê
Paragraph 3.9 Variable , wirewound (lead screw actuated) — 3-56

3.9. 2 Usual appl icat ions 3-56
3.9.3 Physical construct ion - - — — - - - 3-56
3.9.4 Mi l i tary designat ion - - - 3-60
3. 9. 5 Electrical characterist ics 3-60
3.9.6 Environmental considerat ions - - - - - - - - 3-60
3.9.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions 3-61
3.10 Fi xed , f i lm , networks 3-63

3. 10. 2 Usual appl icat ions - — 3-63
3.10.3 Physical construct ion - - - — - - — - - - 3-63
3.10.4 Mi l i tary designat ion - 3-65
3.10. 5 Electrical characterist ics — 3-65
3.10.6 Environmental considerat ions - - 3-66
3.10.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - 3-66
3.11 Thermistors (thermal ly sensi t ive resistors) - 3-68

3.11 . 2 Usual appl icat ions 3-68
3.11.3 Physical construct ion 3-69
3.11 . 5 Electrical characterist ics 3-72
3.11 .6 Environmental considerat ions — 3-72
3.11.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions - - - 3-72
xi
CONTENTS ^
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
xi i
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General .
1.1.1 Appl icat ion handbook . The NASA Parts Appl icat ion Handbook (MIL-STD-978)
has been prepared to provide a source of technical informat ion for NASA centers
and NASA contractors and to max imize standard part usage .
This handbook summarizes current technical knowledge over a broad spectrum of

high rel iabi l i ty electrical and electronic component parts . The handbook wi l l
not only assist in resolving frequent problems involving component parts but
wi l l help avoid such problems by encouraging more knowledgeable part select ion
and appl icat ion .
This handbook is an integral part of the NASA Standard Parts Program wi th

MIL-STD-975 , the NASA Standard Electr ical , Electronic , and Electromechanical
(EEE) Parts List . This handbook should not be used to select speci f ic parts
since it may , for informat ion purposes , describe technologies which aren ' t
l isted in MIL-STD-975 . Speci f ic parts should be selected from those shown in
MIL-STD-975 .
1.1. 2 Object ives . The ex tensive informat ion in this handbook and MIL-STD-975
should make the fol lowing possible:
a. Improved product rel iabi l i ty and qual i ty
b. Increased user knowledge for the select ion and appl icat ion of component
parts
c. Improved understanding of component trade-offs
d. Improved understanding of part design and construct ion for use when
conduct ing destruct ive physical analyses or fai lure analyses
e. Reduced product cost through increased standardizat ion
f. Simpl i f ied parts procurement system
g. Simpl i f ied logist ics and planning
h. Smal ler parts inventory
i. Uni form incoming inspect ion rout ines
j. Improved understanding and use of the NASA Standard Parts Program .
1-1
MIL-HDBK-978- B (NASA)
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.3 Handbook organizat ion . This handbook is divided into five volumes . Each
volume detai ls speci f ic components as fol lows:
Volume 1 Introduct ion

Capaci tors
Resistors and Thermistors
Volume 2 Diodes
Transistors
Microwave Devices
Volume 3 Microcircui ts
Volume 4 Crystals
FiIters
Transformers and Inductors
Delay Lines
Motors
Volume 5 Connectors , Power

Connectors , Radio Frequency
Protect ive Devices
Swi tches
Relays
Wi re and Cable
1.1.4 Special features . This handbook discusses a full range of electrical ,

electronic , and electromechanical component parts . It provides ex tensive
detai led technical informat ion for each component part . . The fol lowing l ist
shows some of the subjects covered:
Cost factors Screening techniques

Conversion factors Standard parts
Def ini t ions Environmental considerat ions
Construct ion detai ls Select ion cri teria
Operat ing characterist ics Circui t appl icat ion
Derat ing Fai lure rates
Fai lure mechanisms Radiat ion effects
The handbook is organized so that new part types and addi t ional topics can be
easi ly added . Consistent formats are used to ensure that speci f ic types of
informat ion are located in the same place wi thin each sect ion .
The standard format used for each general sect ion (e.g. , Capaci tor , general)
is:
a. Introduct ion
. b. Def ini t ions , abbreviat ions , conversion factors
1-2
1. INTRODUCTION
c- NASA standard parts
d. General device characterist ies
e. General parameter informat ion
f. General guides and charts
g. Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions .
The standard format used for each subsect ion (e.g. , Capaci tors , ceramic) is:
a. Introduct ion
b. Usual appl icat ions
c. Physical construct ion
d. Mi l i tary designat ion
e. Electrical characterist ics
f. Environmental considerat ions
g. Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions .
1.1. 5 Limi tat ions . This handbook was generated to supplement MIL-STD-975 and
should not be used for individual part select ion . The text often ci tes indi -
vidual parts for explanat ion purposes; in such cases , these parts should not be
selected unless they are l isted in MIL-STD-975 . Some technologies described in
this handbook are not included as standard parts in MIL-STD-975 . They are in-
cluded here solely for informat ion .
1. 2 NASA Standard Parts Program .
1. 2 .1 Standard parts program . The NASA Standard Parts Program provides for the
select ion of standard parts (MIL-STD-975 , NASA Standard Electrical , Electronic ,
and Electromechanical (EEE) Parts List) , def ines the guidel ines for their use
(MIL-HDBK-978 NASA Parts Appl icat ion Handbook) , and establ ishes pol icies and
direct ion from the NASA Parts Project Off ice .
1. 2 . 2 MIL-STD-975 . MIL-STD-975 is the standard that is the foundat ion of the

NASA Standard Parts Program . It establ ishes a l ist of standard electrical ,
electronic , and electromechanical parts for use in the select ion , procurement ,
and appl icat ion for f l ight and mission-essent ial ground support equipment .
MIL-STD-975 serves the fol lowing purposes:
a. To provide the designer wi th a l ist of acceptable parts and the speci -

ficat ions for procuring them
1-3
1. INTRODUCTION
b. To reduce the quant i ty of part numbers used in space fl ight missions

and mission-cri t ical ground support appl icat ions in order to obtain
the benefi ts of standardizat ion .
Two levels of qual i ty are used in this standard . Grade 2 parts are high qual i ty
government -speci f icat ion-control led parts for use in noncri t ical fl ight and
nonmission-essent ial ground support appl icat ions . Grade 1 parts are higher
qual i ty government -speci f icat ion-control led parts intended for cri t ical fl ight
and mission-essent ial ground support appl icat ions . Parts included in this
standard must have appl icat ion need , technological matur i ty , and test or usage
histories . Such requirements contribute to improved qual i ty and rel iabi l i ty
at lower cost wi th fewer del ivery problems .
In addi t ion , MIL-STD-975 includes derat ing cri teria for the di fferent part
types . Derat ing is the reduct ion of electr ical , thermal , and mechanical
stresses appl ied to a part to decrease the degradat ion rate and prolong the
expected l ife of the part . Derat ing increases the margin of safety between
the operat ing stress level and the actual fai lure level for the part and pro-
vides added protect ion from system anomal ies unforeseen by the designer .
MIL-STD-975 Appendi x A contains speci f ic derat ing condi t ions .
1.3 Cost .
1.3.1 Cost impl icat ion of nonstandard parts . In part select ion for a given
appl icat ion , the design engineer considers the sui tabi l i ty of the part for
the appl icat ion . This includes electrical and mechanical characterist ics ,
environmental capabi l i ty , rel iabi l i ty , avai labi l i ty , purchase cost , and other
evident factors . However , various intangibles , part icularly in the area of
cost , are frequent ly overlooked or afforded only cursory at tent ion .
1.3. 2 Typical basic costs . Experience has shown that typical costs involved
in the speci f icat ion of a new nonstandard part can range from very low for
simple devices to as high as $50, 000 for complex integrated circui ts . This in-
cludes only the basic costs of introducing a new part into inventory. The con-
tribut ion of act ivi t ies involved in the total basic cost is shown in Figure 1.
The relat ive contribut ion of each of these act ivi t ies will vary among the
various part types . For example , drawing preparat ion may be low for resistors
but may be 20 t imes as high for complex integrated circui ts . Qual i f icat ion
costs for an ini t ial source can be $50,000 or more depending on the complex i ty
of the device . Qual i f icat ion of addi t ional sources , if required , wi l l add
considerably to these costs .
1 .3.3 Addi t ional costs . Addi t ional considerat ions for which costs are d i ff i -
cul t to est imate , but are sti l l very signi f icant , include:
a. Stocking costs including handl ing , storage space , storage faci l i t ies ,
and inventory control
1-4
1. INTRODUCTION
ACTIVITV
DRAWING PREPARATION
DRAWING DISTRIBUTION
DRAWING MAINTENANCE
NONSTANDARD PART APPROVAL
SOURCE QUALIFICATION
PROCUREMENT
INCOMING INSPECTION
ALTERNATE SOURCING
lO ZO 30 40
PERCENT OF TOTAL COST
FIGURE 1. Typical new part act ivi ty costs .
b. Problems entai led by having only a single source which is typical wi th

special or nonstandard parts
c. Increased cost due to smal l procurement quant i t ies ; this cost is

est imated to average an addi t ional 40 percent over the purchase cost
of larger quant i ty standard parts
d. Problems of schedule sl ippage , exped i t ing , and decreased vendor re -

sponse on problems wi th special or nonstandard parts
e. Addi t ional fai lure analysis act ivi ty entai led by new , immature , or
unproven parts
f. Cost of equipment repair and replacement of addi t ional component

fai lures entai led by use of unproven parts
g. Costs of establ ishing inspect ion procedures and providing inspect ion
equipment for di fferent part types ; inspect ion costs are also i n-
creased because of t he larger number of smal ler lots of material
h. Cost of wr i t ing and developing programs for inspect ion of devices on

automat ic test equipment
i. Logist ic support for maintaining suppl ies of the new part for f ield
mai ntenance .
1-5
1. INTRODUCTION
1.4 Rel iabi l i ty .
1.4.1 Rel iabi l i ty pred ict ion . Rel iabi l i ty is a considerat ion at all levels of
electron ics , from mater ials to operat ing systems , because materials make up
parts , parts compose assemb l i es , and assembl ies are combined in systems of ever
increasing complex i ty and soph ist icat ion . Rel iabi l i ty engineering is concerned
wi th the t ime degradat ion of mater ia ls , physical and electronic measurements ,
equ ipment design , processes and system analysis , and synthesis .
The pr imary informat ion source for rel iabi l i ty predict ion is MIL-HDBK-217 ,
"Rel iabi l i ty Predict ion of Electron ic Equipment . " When performing an actual
rel iabi l i ty pred ict ion , this handbook should be consul ted . It includes for-
mulas and procedures for predict ing fai lure rates of equipment and parts .
MIL-HDBK-217 emphasizes the effect of factors such as part count , part qual i ty ,
environmental stresses , derat ing , etc . on rel iabi l i ty and provides the basic
fai lure rates for di fferent gener ic parts . Fai lure rate data has been compi led
from exper ience and is included as the most complete source of this informat ion .
MIL-HDBK-217 includes two methods of rel iabi l i ty predict ion , part count analysis
and part stress analysis .
1 . 4. 2 Part count analysis . This predict ion method is appl icable during bid
proposal and early design phases . The factors impact ing the rel iabi l ty pred ic-
t ion are part technology , comp lex i ty , part count , qual i ty levels , packaging ,
and appl icat ion envi ronment . This method provides a basic indicat ion of the
system potent ial to meet rel iabi l i ty goals .
1.4.3 Part stress analysis . This method is appl icable when most of the design
is completed and a detai led parts l ist including part stresses is avai lable .
It can be used for rel iabi l i ty trade-offs versus part select ion .
The qual i ty of the part and the appl icat ion environment have a direct effect
on the part fai lure rate . The qual i ty levels ident i f ied in MIL-STD-975 for
standard parts should be used in calculat ions for part rel iabi l i ty . The
envi ronment typical ly wi l l be space fl ight or benign ground (for m i ss i on-
essent ial ground support equ ipment ) .
Other factors which impact rel iabi l i ty predict ions are power and current
rat ings , vol tage stress , operat ing frequency , temperature , matching balance
wi th networks , construct ion , e t c . Microcircui ts are treated separately wi th
predict ion models for six major classes : digi tal , l inear , microprocessors ,
memor ies , hybrids , and converters .
1 .4.4 Limi tat ions of rel iabi l i ty predict ions . Rel iabi l i ty predict ion has at
—
least two pract ical l imi tat ions:
a. The abi l i ty to accumulate data of known val idi ty for new appl icat ions
b. The complex i ty of the predict ion techniques .
1-6
1. INTRODUCTION
Gathering data to provide stat ist ical ly val id rel iabi l i ty figures requires
effort and di l igence . Casual data gathering accumulates data so slowly that
a val id level of data may never be reached . When a number of part icipants
gathers data , di fferent methods and condi t ions are used which prevents exact
coordinat ion and correlat ion of the resul ts . Part rel iabi l i ty data from field
use of equipment is di ff icul t to examine due to the lack of sui table data being
acquired . The der ivat ion of fai lure rates is empirical ly di ff icul t and obta in-
ing val id conf idence values is pract ical ly precluded due to the lack of corre-
lat ion .
The fai lure rates and their associated adjustment factors presented in
MIL-HDBK-217 are based upon evaluat ion and analysis of the best avai lable data
at the t ime of issue of that handbook .
1-7
1. INTRODUCTION
1-8
2.1 CAPACITORS, GENERAL
2. CAPACITORS
2.1 General .
2 .1.1 Introduct ion . The fol lowing sect ions are intended to help the design
engineer select the proper capaci tor to fill a part icular need . In order to
select the proper capaci tor , the designer requires not only a descr ipt ion of
the device and i ts speci f icat ion l imi ts , but also some insight as to its advan-
tages and disadvantages for a given appl icat ion , pecul iari t ies of construct ion ,
mechanical or environmental l imi tat ions , rel iabi l i ty , and fai lure modes or
mechanisms .
2 .1.1.1 Appl icable mi l i tary speci f icat ions . The appl icable mi l i tary speci f i -
cat ions are given in Table I and in the appropriate subsect ion .
2 .1. 2 General def i n i t i ons . This paragraph def ines common terms used in the
rat ing and design appl icat ion of capaci tors .
Aging sensi t ivi ty . Aging sensi t ivi ty is the reduct ion of the useful l ife of
a device resul t ing from deter iorat ion mechanisms such as ox idat ion and wear .
Ambient temperature . The average or mean temperature of the medium (air, gas ,
l iquid , etc. ) surrounding a dev i ce .
Anode . The posi t ive electrode of a capaci tor .
Capaci tance . The property of a capaci tor which permi ts the storage of e lect r i -
cal energy when a given vol tage is appl ied . Capaci tance is measured in farads ,
microfarads , or picofarads .
Capaci tance tolerance . The max imum deviat ion (expressed in percent) from the
specified nominal value at standard (or stated) environmental cond i t ions .
Capaci t ive reactance . The resistance to the flow of an al ternat ing or pulsat -
ing current by the capaci tance , measured in ohms .
Capaci tor . An electronic component consist ing of two conduct ing surfaces sepa-
rated by an insulat ing (dielectric) mater ial . A capaci tor stores electrical
energy , blocks the flow of d i rect current and permi ts the flow of al ternat ing
or pulsat ing current to a degree dependent on the capaci tance and the frequency .
Capaci tor , 1 iquid-fi11ed . A capaci tor in wh ich a l iquid impregnant occupies

substant ial ly a! I or the case volume not required by the capaci tor element and
i ts connect ions . (Space may be al lowed for the expansion of the l iquid wi th
temperature variat ions . )
2-1
Capaci tor , 1iquid- impregnated . A capaci tor in which a l iquid impregnant is

predominant ly contained wi thin the foil and paper wind ing , but does not occupy
all of the case volume .
Capaci tor , temperature-compensat ing . A capaci tor whose capaci tance varies wi th
temperature in a known and predictable manner .
Cathode . The negat ive electrode of a capaci tor .
Derat ing . Derat ing is the intent ional reduct ion of the stress-vs-strength
rat io in an appl icat ion of the i tem, for the purpose of extending its operat ing
l i fe .
Dielectr ic . The insulat ing material (air, paper , mica , oi l , etc) between the
plates of a capaci tor .
Dielectric absorpt ion . The property of an imperfect d ie lect r ic whereby all

electrical charges wi thin the body of the material caused by an electric field
are not returned to the f ield .
Dielectric constan t . The property of a d ie lect r ic material that determines

how much electrostat ic energy can be stored per uni t volume when a uni t vol tage
is appl ied . (The rat io of the capaci tance of a capaci tor fi l led wi th a given
d ielectr ic to that of the same capaci tor wi th a vacuum dielectr ic . )
Dielectric strength . The max imum vol tage that a dielectr ic material can wi th-
stand wi thout rupturing . (The d ielectr ic strength will depend on the thickness
of the material and the test method and condi t ions) .
Dissipat ion Factor (DF) . The rat io of resistance to reactance , measured in

percent .
Electrolyte . A current -conduct ing solut ion (l iquid or sol id) between two elec-
trodes or plates of a capaci tor .
End-of- l i fe des ign l imi t . The end-of- l i fe design l imi t for devices is the
expected variat ion in the electrical parameters of devices for which al lowance
must be made in circui t des i gn . The parameter variat ions are expressed as a
percentage change from the specified minimum and max imum values .
Equi valent series resi stance (ESR) . All internal series resistances concen-
trated or "lumped" at one point in the circui t and treated as one resistance .
Flashpoint of impregnant . The temperature to which the impregnant (l iquid or

sol id) must be heated in order to give off sufficient vapor to form a flammable
mi x ture .
2-2
Impedance (Z) . The total resistance to the flow of an al ternat ing or pulsat ing
current , measured in ohms . (Impedance is the vector sum of the resistance and
the capaci t ive reactance; i .e. , the complex rat io of vol tage to current . )
Impregnant . A substance , usual ly l iquid , used to saturate the paper dielectric

and to replace the air between its f ibers . (Impregnat ion increases the d ie lec-
tric strength and the dielectr ic constant of the capaci tor . )
Insulat ion resistance (IR) . The d i rect current resistance between two conduc-
tors separated by an insulat ing mater ial . Capaci tors are commonly subjected to
two insulat ion resistance tests . One test determines the insulat ion resistance
from terminal to terminal ; the other test determines the insulat ion resistance
from one or more terminals to the exterior case or insulat ion sleeve .
Leakage , dc (DCL) . A stray d i rect current of relat ively small value which
flows through the capaci tor when vol tage is impressed across i t .
Power factor (PF) . The rat io of resistance to impedance , measured in percent .
Qual i ty factor (Q) . The rat io of reactance to resistance .
Radio interference . Undesired conducted or radiated electrical d isturbances ,

including transients , which may interfere wi th the operat ion of electrical or
electronic equipment .
Ripple vol tage (or current ) . The ac component of a unidirect ional vol tage or
current (the ac component is small in comparison wi th the dc component ) .
Stabi l i ty . The abi l i ty of a part to resist changes in characterist ic values

and/or coeff icients .
Surge vol tage /current . Transient variat ion in the vol tage/current at a point
in the ci rcui t . A vol tage of large magni tude and short durat ion caused by a
discont inui ty in the circui t .
Temperature Coeff icient (TC) . The change in capaci tance per degree change in
temperature . It may be posi t ive , negat ive , or zero and is usual ly expressed
in parts per mi l l ion per degree cent igrade (ppm/°C) .
2 .1.3 NASA standard parts . See General Sect ion 1.1 for a complete descr ipt ion
of the NASA Standard Parts Program . In addi t ion to this handbook , the princi -
pal elements of this program include MIL-STD-975(NASA) , a standard parts l ist
for NASA equipment .
2 .1.4 General device character ist ics . The relat ive size and cost characteris-
t ics of the most popular capaci tor types are described in Table I. Principal
appl icat ions are described in Table II .
2-3
TABLE I. Relat ive size and cost
Dielectric Appl icable Relat ive Size Relat ive Cost

Speci f icat ion For Equiva- 1/ For Equiva- 1/
lent CV Rat ing lent CV Rat ing
Cerami c
Fixed , general ] MIL-C-123 Smal l High

purpose J MIL-C-39014 Smal l Very low
Temperature com- MIL-C-20 Smal l Very low

pensat ing
Fi xed , chip MIL-C-55681 Small Low
Glass MIL-C-23269 Large Medium
Mica MIL-C-39001 Large Medium low
Paper and plast ic
Metal l ized MIL-C-83421 Small Medium

plast ic
Metal l ized paper MIL-C-39022 Smal 1 Medium
Tantalum electrolyt ic
Nonsol id MIL-C-39006 Very small Hi gh
Sol id MIL-C-39003 Very small Medium
Sol id chip MIL-C-55365 Very small Medium
1/ "C" = capaci tance , "V" = vol tage
2-4
TABLE II. Principal app l icat ions
AD j l icat ion
Mi l i tary Estab- Temper-
Speci f icat ion l ished Capaci tor B1 ock- Buff- By- Coup l - F i l ter- Tun i ng ature Tr i m- Mot or T i m i ng Noi se
re l i - type ing ing passing ing compen- m i ng star t - suppres-
abi l i ty ing sat ing ing sion
MIL-C-20 X Ceram i c X X X X X
MIL-C-123 Ceram i c X X X
MIL-C-10950 X Mica X X X X
MIL-C-23269 X Glass X X X X
MIL-C-39001 X Mica X X X X X X X
MIL-C-39003 X Sol id Tan t a- X X X X X

lum
MIL-C-39006 X Wet Tan ta l um X X X X X
MIL-C-39014 X Ceram i c X X X
MIL-C-39022 X Me t . Plast ic X X X
MIL-C-55365 X Sol id Tan t a- X X X

lum , Chip
MIL-C-55681 X Ceram i c , Chip X X X
MIL-C-83421 X Me t . Plast ic X X X X X X
2 .1 . 5 General parameter informat ion .
2 .1. 5 .1 Select ion . Var ious factors must be considered when select ing a capa
ci tor type for a part icular app l icat ion . These factors are discussed below
and in the subsect ion dea l i ng wi th speci f ic capaci tor types .
a. Electr ical .
Capaci tance
Tolerance
Vol tage rat ing
AC current -carrying capaci ty
Insulat ion resistance or leakage
Dissipat ion factor or equivalent series resistance
Effects of frequency
Capaci tance change wi th temperature
Vol tage coeff icient
Dielectric absorpt ion .
b. Mechanical .
Size
Terminal conf igurat ion
Mount ing .
c. Envi ronmental .
Operat ing temperature range

Moisture resistance
Shock and vibrat ion
Al t i tude
Radiat ion .
d. Rel iabi l i ty .
Derat ing
Fai lure rate
Fai lure modes
Stabi l i ty
Operat ing l i fe .
e. Economic .
Part cost
Cost of just i fying nonstandard parts
Cost of samples
Cost of test ing
Cost of negot iat ions wi th customer .
2-6
2 . 1 . 5 . 1 . 1 Important select ion factors . The most important factors are dis-
cussed below.
Temperature . Temperature can affect capaci tance by causing variat ions in

dielectric constant or conductor area and spacing . Temperature can also affect
leakage current (through changes in speci f ic resistance) , breakdown vol tage ,
current rat ing, and oi l , gas , or electrolyte leakage through seals .
Humidi ty . Humidi ty can affect leakage current , breakdown vol tage , power factor ,
or qual i ty factor .
Barometric pressure . Barometric pressure can affect breakdown vol tage and oi l ,
gas , or electrolyte leakage through seals .
Appl ied vol tage . Appl ied vol tage can affect leakage current , amount of heat ing,
dielectric Breakdown , frequency , corona , and insulat ion .
Vibrat ion . Vibrat ion can affect capaci tance and integri ty of the elements ,
terminals , or case .
Current . Current can affect internal temperature and operat ional l ife.
Life. Operat ing l ife is affected by a l \ environmental and circui t condi t ions .
Stabi l i ty . Stabi l i ty is affected by all environmental and circui t condi t ions .
2 .1. 5 . 2 Capaci tors types and their l imi tat ions .
2 .1. 5 . 2 .1 Ceramic capaci tors . There are two major types , NPO and BX . The NPO
(negat ive-posi t ive-zero) has a temperature coeff icient that is effect ively
zero, whereas the BX type may have a capaci tance change of +15 percent to - 2 5
percent over temperature range of - 5 5 °C to +125 °C wi th appl ied rated dc
vol tage . In general , the NPO has bet ter characterist ics but is larger (because
of the low dielectric constant) and more expensive .
Ceramic chip capaci tors are brf t t le and sensi t ive to thermal shock . Precau-
t ions must be taken during mount ing to avoid ceramic cracking . The substrate
material should have a thermal expansion coeff icient that closely matches that
of the capaci tors . This wi l l help to avoid mechanical stresses that may resul t
from changes in temperature .
The order of this l ist ing does not necessari ly imply an order of preference of
an individual group .
2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . 2 Plast ic f i lm capaci tors . These capaci tors offer extremely t ight

tolerances , very low leakage currents (high insulat ion resistance) , and minimal
capaci tance changes wi th temperature (low temperature coeff icient ) . They are
especial ly sui ted for ac appl icat ions since the i r extremely low dissipat ion
2
factor l imi ts the I R heat ing loss.
2-7
Plast ic fi lm capaci tors are l imi ted by their relat ively large size and we ight
and narrow range of avai lable capaci tances . Due to the nature of the d ie lec-
tric, under certain condi t ions these capaci tors may generate vol tage transients .
The vol tage transients occur as a resul t of clearing act ion of pin holes in the
plast ic f i lm , and electrochemical effects which cause spurious , random conduc-
t ion .
2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . 3 Tantalum capaci tors . The sol id tantalum capaci tors (both leaded
and chips) offer bet ter stabi l i ty over l ife and lower capaci tance- temperature
characterist ics than other electrolyt ic capaci tors . The tantalum chips are
the smal lest of the electrolyt ic styles .
Sol id tantalum capaci tors have l imi ted surge-current handl ing capabi l i t ies and
high leakage current . In addi t ion , tantalum chips have a relat ively narrow
range of capaci tance values and vol tage rat ings .
Wet tantalum capaci tors are substant ial ly smal ler than comparably rated capa-
ci tors , except for ch ips . The wet tantalum devices also have higher surge
current rat ings , higher ripple current rat ings , and lower leakage current than
other types of electrolyt ic capaci tors .
Wet tantalum capaci tors have l imi ted abi l i ty to wi thstand reverse vol tages ,
and they cost more .
Nonsol id tantalum (tantalum foi l) capaci tors offer the widest range and high-
est capaci tance values and vol tage rat ings and also the best ripple current
handl ing capabi l i ty . The nonpolarized tantalum foi l capaci tors are the only
electrolyt ic capaci tors which can operate cont inuously on unbiased ac vol tages .
However , the nonsol id tantalum capaci tors cannot be used at frequencies greater
than 10 kHz .
Nonsol id tantalum capaci tors are l imi ted by their very wide capaci tance toler-
ance and their large size compared to other electrolyt ic capaci tors .
2 .1 . 5 .3 Electrical considerat ions . Speci f ic electrical characterist ies may

require considerat ion from a design engineer ' s standpoint .
Capaci tance and Tolerance . The required capaci tance value usual ly l imi ts the
capaci tor select ion . Cow capaci tance values (up to about 10,000 pF) are pro-
vided by glass , mica , and ceramic types . The medium capaci tance range (approx-
imately 0 . 005 to 22 . 0yF) includes paper , plast ic , and some ceramic types . The
high capaci tance range (lyF and up) usual ly is provided by the electrolyt ic
capaci tors . These are very general classi f icat ions wi th considerable overlap
wi thin the types .
2-8
Wi thin broad l imi ts , the avai labi l i ty of various capaci tance tolerances is
direct ly proport ional to the absolute capaci tance value . Glass and mica types
are readi ly avai lable in tolerances down to ±1% or less; tubular paper or
plast ic capaci tors are normal ly avai lable in the ±0.5% to ±20% range , whi le
electrolyt ic capaci tors are usual ly suppl ied in the range of ±5% and up ,
depending on the type .
Figure 1 indicates the approx imate ranges of the commonly used capaci tor types .
TANTALUM-FOIL AND SLUG

-15 . +75/+5 I ELECTROLYTICS .1 - 1200 uF)
LU to +20
TANTALUM-SOLID
LU
—I +20/+5 ( .0023 - 3300 uF)
o
UJ
oc PAPER, PLASTIC
+20/+.25 (.001 - 22 uF)
•20/+.5 pF j GP - CERAMIC (0.5 - 1.000.000)
GLASS
5 / .25 pF 1 (0.5 - 1.000.000 pF)
+10 / .5 pF MICA
I (5 - 91.000 pF)
TC - CERAMIC
+10 /O. l pF 1 (0.5 - 68.000 pF)
0.1 1.0 10 102 103 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 10* 103 104 10*
1
Capaci tance and
2-9
Vol tage rat ing . Figure 2 dep i cts typical ranges of dc vol tage rat ings avai l -
able for d i fferent d i e l ect r i cs . It is important that the vol tage rat ing of the
capaci tor selected be suff icient ly high to al low for rel iabi l i ty derat ing , and
for vol tage surges or transients which may occur in the appl icat ion .
TANTALUM-FOIL AND SLUG (6-450V)

ELECTROLYTICS
TANTALUM-SOLID (6-100V)
PAPER - PLASTIC
I (30 - 1000V)
GLASS
(100 - 500 V)
I6P-CERAHIC (50 - 1600 V)
TC - CERAMIC
(50 - 500 V
10 100 1000
MAXIMUM WORKING VOLTAGE, V
FIGURE 2 . Max imum working vol tage vs d i e l ect r i c .
High vol tage capaci tors (1000 vol ts and up) must be selected wi th special care .
Corona effects must be considered . In addi t ion to generat ing spurious electri -
cal signals which may impair equipment performance , corona breakdown resul ts
in deter iorat ion of the capaci tor d ie lectr ic , and can cause eventual capaci tor
breakdown . Corona resul ts from voids in the dielectr ic/conductor layers . It
is bel ieved to cause d ie lect r ic deter iorat ion by generat ing local ized hot spots
(dependirtg on the type of d ie lect r ic and the corona level generated) . Complete
d i e l ect r i c breakdown may occur in a few seconds or after several thousand hours
of operat ion . Corona is l ikely to occur under ac or pulse cond i t ions .
The f irst step in select ing a capaci tor for a given ac appl icat ion is to de ter-
mine the vol tage/current wave shape , and the ambient temperature requi rements .
It is especial ly important to know the peak vol tage , the peak-to-peak vol tage ,
and rms current , and the peak current . In the case of a pure sine wave , the
informat ion is general ly straight forward . In the case of nonsinusoidal wave
shapes , it is somet imes necessary t o take an osci l loscope photograph . A scope
trace of the capaci tor wave shape is very helpful and in some cases absolutely
essent ial to determine the required informat ion .
2 - 10
AC rat ing . Operat ion of capaci tors under ac condi t ions involves three important
considerat ions: the dc vol tage rat ing of the device , the internal heat rise due
to I^R losses , and the corona start level .
Unless the capaci tor is rated specifical ly for ac operat ion , the ac l imi tat ions
of the device should be invest igated . The peak value of the appl ied ac vol tage
must not exceed the dc rat ing of the dev i ce . The temperature rise due to inter-
nal heat losses must not exceed the max imum temperature rat ing of the dev i ce .
The current -carrying capabi l i ty of d i fferent capaci tor types varies wide ly . The
general rule of thumb used by many manufacturers requires that case temperature
rise be l imi ted to 10°C .
Corona can be generated at fairly low ac vol tage levels . As an example , tests
on unimpregnated Mylar capaci tors indicate a corona start level of 250 vol ts
peak .
Insulat ion resistance . Insulat ion resistance (IR) is expressed in megohms or

megohm-microfarads for capaci tors wi th convent ional d ie lect r ics , and in terms of
leakage current (usual ly microamperes) for electrolyt ic capaci tors . The effects
of this parameter may be signi f icant in t iming and coupl ing appl icat ions , or
where the capaci tor is used as a vol tage divider . Leakage current increases
wi th temperature . Figure 3 shows typical values for various dielectr ic mater-
ials .
FIGURE 3. Typical values of insulat ion resistance vs temperature .
2 - 11
Dissipat ion factor (DF) or equivalent series resistance (ESR) . The dissipat ion
factor is a funct ion of capaci tance , ESR , and frequency . Unless otherwise
speci f ied , DF is measured at the fol lowing frequencies:
1 MHz for C < 100 pF

1 kHz for 100 pF < C
120 Hz for electrolyt ic capaci tors
DF may vary widely wi th temperature and to a great extent for ceramic and elec-
trolyt ic capaci tors .
Frequency effects . Most basic capaci tor parameter formulas include a frequency
term . Capaci tor character ist ics are to some extent affected by frequency . All
capaci tors have some inductance associated wi th their conductors and therefore
wi l l resonate at some frequency .
Figure 4 i l lustrates simp l i f ied equivalent circui t of a capaci tor wherein all
distributed parameters are shown as "lumped" values .
Rp
T Q V A nryy\
Rs L
FIGURE 4. Equivalent circui t of a capaci tor .
Under dc or low frequency condi t ions , Rs and L are negl igible compared to the C
and Rp combinat ion . As the frequency increases , part icularly to the megahertz
range , both R$ and L increase . Rs increases due to a "skin effect" (where the
current tends to travel only through the outer surface metal of a conductor
under high frequency condi t ions) . This appears as an increase in the resistance
of the conductor . L increases due to the act ion of the ac current flowing in
the leads , electrodes , and terminals , thus generat ing a magnet ic field around
them proport ional to the frequency .
Since the dielectr ic constant of most materials wi l l vary wi th frequency ,

capaci tance is also affected by frequency .
Further examinat ion of the impedance equat ion shows that as the frequency
increases , XQ tends to decrease whi le X|_ increases in value . This means that
2 - 12
the (Xc-X L ) 2 t erm decreases unt i l at some frequency , the t erm (XQ-X[_)^ wi l l
equal zGro and d i sappear . Then Z = R$ and the capaci tor wi l l resonate . This
is the point where the capaci tor appears as a Dure resistor in the circui t .
It also fol lows that if a capaci tor is operated at a frequency higher than i ts
resonant frequency , i t wi l l no longer funct ion as a capaci tor in the c i rcu i t ,
but wi l l appear as an inductor .
As there are so many var iab les affected by frequency , no at tempt wi l l be made
here to present comparat i ve va lues . As a gu ide for general frequency app l i ca-
t ions for d i fferen t types of capac i t ors , Figure 5 can be used for an ini t ial
approx i mat i on . Speci f ic compu tat i ons or measuremen ts should be implemented to
f inal ize any part icu lar •app l icat ion . Figure 5 ref lects frequency ranges for
the most eff icient app l icat ion based on normal des i gn values and cr i t er i a .
Both the upper and lower l imi ts of the frequency range can be ex tended by
special des i gn and const ruct ion t echn i ques , as shown by the dashed areas .
FREQUENCY APPLICATION RANGE

(STANDARD DESIGNS)
POLYSTYRENE, TEFLON, POLYCARBONATE
i
LOW-LOSS CERAMIC
c:: i m m s s m s s ^ i
MYLAR
H K CERAMIC
[ i m w w i i
PAPER
ims \ s \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ H::::
T A ELECT
1 1 1 1 1 I I I 1 I 1
o 101 to2 103 104 105 106 107 10® 109 10 10
FREQUENCY (Hz)
FIGURE 5 . Frequency app l icat ion range (standard des i gns) .
2 - 13
Temperature effects . Temperature variat ions (which affect the dielectr ic con-
stant of capaci tor mater ial ) resul t in capaci tance changes (AC) that can vary
from minor to major .
Figures 6 and 7 compare typical temperature coeff icient curves of commonly used
d ie lectr ic types . It should be noted that the curves shown in Figure 7 are for
nonimpregnated capaci tors . Plast ic f i lm capaci tors cannot be impregnated and
the impregnant (or f i l ler) serves mainly to replace part of the air f i lm . The
resul tant d ielectr ic constant wi l l vary sl ight ly , thus al tering the temperature
coeff icient curve proport ionately .
Vol tage coeff icien t . Capaci tance variat ion wi th appl ied vol tage is insigni f i -
cant except wi th Class II (general purpose) ceramics . High K dielectr ics are
ferroelectric in nature , and their molecular orientat ion varies wi th dielectr ic
stress . See the ceramic subsect ion for further de ta i l s .
Dielectric absorpt ion . This phenomenon is due to the tendency of the d i e l ec-
tric to retain electrons it has stored when the capaci tor is d i scharged . When
the short ing mechanism is removed , the electrons that remained in the d i e l ec-
tric wi l l eventual ly accumulate on an electrode and cause a "recovery vol tage"
gradient to appear across the capaci tor terminals . This recovery vol tage ,
divided by the charging vol tage and expressed as a percent f igure , is cal led
the "percent d ie lect r ic absorpt ion . "
The magni tude of this percent dielectr ic absorpt ion figure wi l l vary consider-
ably for d i fferent d ie lect r ic materials and their impregnants . It is important
to note that the measured value of dielectr ic absorpt ion is a funct ion of the
ampl i tude of the charging vol tage , the charging t ime , the d ischarge t ime , the
t ime after d ischarge that measurements are made , and the temperature .
This tendency of the d ie lect r ic to retain i ts electrons is primari ly due to

the polarizat ion that takes place at the d ielectr ic dipoles whenever the capa-
ci tor is energized . These electrons , in effect , become "bound" or trapped in
the dielectr ic dur ing the d ischarge period . When the short ing mechanism is
removed , these electrons become free again and move to the electrode surface .
This resul ts in a potent ial d i fference between the electrodes (the "recovery
vol tage") .
A second factor in the magni tude of recovery vol tage values is the random move-
ment of "free" electrons in the d ie lect r ic . These free electrons take a fini te
t ime to move from the d ie lect r ic to the electrode , and therefore contribute to
the recovery vol tage . The magni tude of their contribut ion is closely related to
the d ischarge t ime dura t i on .
2 - 14
7
I T V P I C A L V A L U E S O F D R Y SE CT I O N S)
MYLAR
/
POLYCARBONATE(A) >
P O L Y C A R B O N A T E (B) V
TEFLON
POLYSTYRENE
POLYCARBONATE
MYLAR
-10 25 35 so es 125
T E M P E R A T U R E <°C»
FIGURE 6 . Fi lm dielectr ic capaci tance vs temperature ,
2S 35 50 125
TEMPERATURE (°C»
FIGURE 7. Capaci tance vs temperature (typical ) .
2 - 15
Table III shows approx imate percent value of d ie lectr ic absorpt ion (DA) for some
typical d i e l ect r i cs . These values are for a given set of condi t ions . A change
in any of the cond i t ions wi l l cause a variat ion in the percent d ie lectr ic
absorpt ion .
TABLE III . Dielectric absorpt ion
Condi t ions: Charging vol tage: 200 Vdc

Charging, t ime: 1 minute
Discharge t ime: 2 seconds
Time after d ischarge : 1 minute
Temperature : 25°C
Dielectric % DA
Ai r 0
•Polystyrene 0. 02
•Tef lon 0. 02
•Polycarbonate 0. 08
•Mylar 0. 20
Mica (ruby) 0.70
Paper (oi l - impregnated) 2 .0
*The addi t ion of an oil impregnant wi l l cause the percent

DA figure to become essent ial ly that of the impreg-
nant (approximately 2 .0 for most oi ls) .
Dielectric absorpt ion is a cri t ical factor in circut try that is highly depen-
den t upon the speed of response or t ime de lays in the charge and d ischarge
cycles of a pulse ci rcu i t .
2 .1 . 5 .4 Mechanical cons iderat ions . Speci f ic capaci tor des ign characterist ics
may require special considerat ion from a product design standpoint .
Mount ing by leads . Whi le speci f icat ions require that components weighing
more than one-hal f ounce may not be mounted only by their leads , it does not
fol low that lead-only mount ing is sat isfactory for all components weighing
less than one-hal f ounce . Nearly all capaci tor speci f icat ions require rigid
mount ing of the body dur ing vibrat ion tests .
2 - 16
Encapsulat ion . Pot t ing wi th a hard epoxy can cause capaci tor fai lure by short ing
the dielectr ic as a resul t of di fferent ial pressures exerted after hardening .
Sol id tantalum capaci tors are subject to fai lure by short ing when pot ted , and
require a buffer coat ing to prevent internal short ing .
2 .1. 5 . 5 Environmental considerat ions . The behavior and service l ife of all
capaci tors are highly dependent upon the environments to which they are exposed .
The fol lowing is a summary of the environmental factors that are most cri t ical
in their effect on capaci tors . The design engineer should take into account
individual environmental factors as wel l as combinat ions of these factors .
Ambient temperature . The temperature of the immediate space surrounding the

capaci tor is of cri t ical importance since this is one of the factors that
determines the temperature at which the d ielectr ic operates .
Service l i fe . The service l ife of a capaci tor wi l l decrease wi th increased

temperature . Another factor affect ing service l ife is d ielectr ic degradat ion
resul t ing from chemical act ivi ty wi th t ime .
Capaci tance . Capaci tance will vary wi th temperature depending on the d i e l ec-
tric and construct ion . Both the dielectr ic constant of the material and the
spacing between the electrodes may be affected . These effects may reinforce or
cancel each other .
Insulat ion resistance . The insulat ion resistance decreases wi th increased

temperature due to increased electron mob i l i ty .
Dissipat ion factor . The dissipat ion factor is a complex funct ion of tempera-
ture and may vary up or down wi th increased temperature depending on the d i -
electric material .
Dielectric strength . The dielectr ic strength (breakdown vol tage stress level)
decreases wi th increased temperature . As temperature increases , the chemical
act ivi ty increases; this wi l l cause a change in the physical or electrical
propert ies of the d i e l ect r i c .
Seal ing . For sealed capaci tors , increased temperature resul ts in increased
internal pressure that can rupture the seal and resul t in impregnant leakage
and moisture suscept ibi l i ty .
Humidi ty (moisture) . Moisture absorpt ion by a capaci tor can cause parametric
changes , reduced service l i fe , and in some cases , early l ife fai lures if mois-
ture penetrat ion is suff icient . The most not iceable effect is a decrease in
insulat ion resistance .
The abi l i ty of various nonhermet ical ly sealed capaci tors types to wi thstand
moist environments is of considerable interest to component or design engineers
faced wi th miniaturizat ion requirements . General ly the nonhermet ic uni t is con-
2 - 17
siderably smal ler than an equivalent hermet ical ly sealed un i t . Most mi l i tary
capaci tor speci f icat ions require exposure to the moisture tests l isted be low .
Detai ls of test condi t ions and post - test l imi ts are cal led out in the individual
capaci tor speci f icat ions .
a. Immersion cycl i ng . This is a test in which the capaci tors are immersed
for two or more cycles in fresh or sal t water for a period of 15 to 60
minutes per cycle .
b. Moisture res istance . This test uses a combinat ion of temperature

cycl ing and humidi ty exposure for 10 cycles , each cycle last ing 24
hours . Subzero temperature exposure and vibrat ion are also included
in the cycl ing phase .
In any nonhermet ic uni t such as the plast ic case or the plast ic wrap-epoxy end-
fi l led type of capaci tor , moisture can penetrate through the epoxy and plast ic
casing . The amount of moisture that penetrates wi l l depend on the t ime , the
integri ty of the bonding junct ion between the epoxy and the lead , the densi ty
of the plast ic mater ial , and the thickness of the epoxy/plast ic mater ial .
A d ist inct ion should be made between paper and plast ic fi lm dielectr ic des i gns .
Nonhermet ic capaci tor des igns that "use paper for all or part of the d ielectr ic
are much more vulnerable to moisture than designs using plast ic fi lm as a d i -
electric . Once moisture vapor has penetrated into the d ie lectr ic , the paper
wi l l absorb the moisture , trapping it and eventual ly destroying the insulat ing
propert ies of the paper . For this reason , mi l i tary equipment speci f icat ions
d isal low the use of paper or paper-plast ic dielectrics in other than hermet ical -
ly sealed metal l ic cases . In the case of the fi lm d ielectr ic , there is pract i -
cal ly no absorpt ion of the vapor by the f i lm and it will ei ther be cycled back
out of the capaci tor or remain in the air space next to the f i lm surface . Whi le
the vapor is in the capaci tor , it causes a degradat ion in the insulat ion resis-
tance propert ies of the capaci tor . Usual ly , however , the insulat ion resistance
value of the f i lm d ie lect r ic capaci tor wi th moisture vapor present is still
superior to that of the paper d ie lectr ic capaci tor wi th absorbed moisture .
Vibrat ion , shock , and accelerat ion . A capaci tor can be mechanical ly destroyed
or damaged or may mal funct ion if it is not designed and manufactured to wi th-
stand vibrat ion , shock , or accelerat ion condi t ions present in the app l icat ion .
Movement of the internal assembly inside the container can cause capaci tance
changes , d ielectr ic or insulat ion fai lures due to physical movement of the e lec-
trode foi ls or internal roll connect ions , and fat igue fai lures of the terminal
connect ions . In addi t ion , external terminals , the case , and mount ing brackets ,
are subject to mechanical stress d i stor t i on . Some ceramic capaci tors also
exhibi t a piezoelectric effect which may be a problem in cri t ical ci rcu i t ry .
Barometric pressure . The al t i tude at which hermet ical ly sealed capaci tors
are to operate wi l l affect the vol tage rat ing of the capaci tor terminals . As
barometric pressure decreases , the abi l i ty of the terminal to wi thstand vol tage
arc-over also decreases .
2 - 18
For l iquid- impregnated capaci tors , the different ial between the internal and
external pressure becomes greater when the external pressure is reduced . This
puts added stress on the seams and terminal seals and can resul t in rupture of
the hermet ic seal and impregnant leakage .
Capaci tance can be affected by internal dimensional changes due to pressure

di fferent ials , and internal arc-overs can resul t when a part ial vacuum condi -
t ion ex ists in . the capaci tor .
Heat transfer by convect ion is decreased as al t i tude is increased . This con-

di t ion must be evaluated in cases where the appl icat ion resul ts in heat gener-
at ion wi thin the capaci tor .
2 .1.6 General guides and charts .
2 .1.6.1 Capaci tor formulas .
Capaci tance . Capaci tance is a measure of the quant i ty of electrical charge per
uni t of vol tage different ial that can be stored between electrodes (Figure 8) .
AREA (A)
DIELECTRIC MATERIAL
WITH DIELECTRIC CONSTANT <K)
FIGURE l . Capaci tor formulas .
J
(N-l)
1
A x 10-12
C « 0 . 224K — - — farads
d
where
A = area of one side of one plate in square inches
N = number of plates
d = distance between plates in inches
K = dielectric constant
C « KA/d
Table IV is a chart of various dielectric materials and their dielectric con-

stants . The approx imate («) sign is used rather than an equal sign because
these dielectric constants vary somewhat wi th pur i ty , temperature , frequency ,
vol tage , treatment during manufacture , and various other factors .
2 - 19
TABLE IV. Dielectric constants at +25°C
Dielectric Material (K) Dielectric Constant
Vacuum 1.0
Air 1.0001
Tef lon a 2.0
Polystyrene S3 2.5
Polycarbonate a 2.7
Mylar ' « 3.0
Polyethylene a 3.3
Kraft paper tst 2 .0 to 6.0
Mica w 6. 8
Aluminum ox ide n 7.0

Tantalum ox ide m 11.0
Ceramics BS 35 .0 to 6, 000 +
Dissipat ion factor , power factor , and Q . Each of these terms can be used to
express how far a capaci tor deviates from being a pure circui t element (see
Figure 9).
Capaci tor equivalent

circui t
Vector relat ionships
FIGURE 9. Capaci tor equivalent and vector relat ionship .
2 - 20
where R = effect ive series resistance in ohms .
XL = 2irf L = uL = induct ive reactance in ohms .
Xr = 1 = 1 = capaci t ive reactance in ohms

7 W T d T
Z = R 2 + (Xc - X L ) 2 = impedance in ohms .
0 = phase angle between current and vol tage .
RS = shunt leakage resistance (negl igible for these calcu lat ions) ,
f = frequency in Her tz ,
s
a) = 2irf frequency in radians per second .
Ohm ' s Law gives the fol lowing: Ez = III; Ec = IC X CJ E

R =
IrR
and power equat ions give: Total vol t -amperes = I^^z = Iz 2 Z * I 2 Z
React ive vol t -amperes - IQEc = I C 2 X C = I 2 X C

2 2
Resist ive VA (wat ts) = IRR E
L R = Ir R = I R
R
therefore PF = P( in)-P(out ) = j jk = i = cos e
P(in) 12 Z Z
and DF is def ined as the rat io of resistance t o reactance ,
DF = R = cot (0)
XC
Note that for "good" capaci tors
R 2 and
Z = R Xl
2
+ are - X L )Xq2 such
( X C << = X c 2 that
and since Z s X c
PF = R s R_ = DF
Z XC
Q (figure of meri t) is def ined as the rat io of reactance to resistance :

X
Q = C _ 1 . 1
=
T ~ W W
FIGURE 9. (Cont inued) .
2 - 21
2 .1 .7 General rel iabi l i ty considerat ions .
2 .1.7.1 Establ ished rel iabi l i ty parts . A large percentage of mi l i tary type
capaci tors are avai lab le as "establ ished rel iabi l i ty" (ER) parts . Capaci tors
procured to these speci f icat ions have been subjected to special process con-
trols and lot acceptance test ing , along w i th 100% screening and ex tended l i fe
test . This includes an operat ing vol tage condi t ioning for level "S" parts or
bet ter . Level M S M corresponds to a guaranteed fai lure rate of no more than
0 . 001%/1000 hrs at 60% or bet ter conf idence level under max imum rated operat -
ing condi t ions . The actual fai lure rate under normal use condi t ions wi l l be
considerably less .
2 . 1 . 7 . 2 Use of accelerated test ing techniques on capaci tors (Weibul l) . There

are several reasons for using accelerated test ing in establ ishing useful reasons
for operat ing l ife character ist ics (beyond 10, 000 hours) and veri fying product
l ife character ist ics . The Weibul l technique shows that by accelerat ing the
stress rat io, i t is possible to infer factors such as length of l ife , opt imal
sampl ing techniques , access fai lure rate level , effect iveness of manufacturing
processes and qual i ty control . It is also bel ieved to establ ish more real ist ic
fai lure rate computat ions , which represent cri t ical informat ion for design
engineers . Level "B" corresponds to 0 . 1%/1000 hrs , "C" to 0 . 01%/1000 hrs , "D"
to 0 . 001%/ 1000 hrs , and "E" to 0 . 0001%/1000 hrs . A Weibul l sample can be taken
at incoming inspect ion and the actual "real" fai lure rate can be compared to
that claimed by a vendor .
2 . 1 . 7 . 3 Capaci tor fai lure modes . Capaci tors usual ly fail in one of the fol low-
ing modes :
open
short
intermi t tent
low Insulat ion resistance
capaci tance dri f t
high leakage current (for electrolyt ic capaci tors) .
Probable fai lure modes vary wi th the type of capaci tor . Consul t the subsect ion
on individual types for more detai led discussion of fai lure modes .
2 .1.7.4 Fai lure mechanisms . The classic capaci tor fai lure mechanism is d i e l ec-
tr ic breaTHowru Assuming operat ion at or beneath max imum rated condi t ions , most
dielectr ic materials gradual ly deteriorate wi th t ime and temperature to the
point of eventual fai lure . This presumes the early el iminat ion by inspect ion
and screening techniques of infant mortal i ty due to manufacturing defects or
mistreatment .
In actual pract ice the fai lure mechanisms depend on the construct ion and type
of dielectric and other materials used . More detai led discussions of fai lure
mechanisms are l isted under the appl icable subsect ions .
2 - 22
2 . 1 . 7 . 5 Derat ing. Wi th the except ion of fai lures due to "random" occurrences
resul t ing from manufacturing defects or overstress , capaci tor fai lure rate is
a funct ion of t ime , temperature , and vol tage . Operat ional l ife can be sign i f i -
cant ly lengthened by vol tage derat ing and by l imi t ing the operat ing amhient
temperature .
The extent to which electrical stress (e.g. , vol tage , current , power) is derated
depends upon temperature . The general interrelat ionship between electrical
stress and temperature is shown in Figure 10. The approved operat ing condi t ions
lie wi thin the area below the derated l imi tat ion l ine (ESdr) . Operat ion at con-
di t ions between the derated l imi tat ion l ine and the max imum speci f icat ion curves
resul ts in lower rel iabi l i ty (see Handbook 217) . Operat ion in this reduced
rel iabi l i ty area requires speci f ic approval .
The derated vol tage is the sum of the peak ac vol tage and the dc polarizing
vol tage .
Numerical values are appl ied to the curves for each part type , based on a per-
centage of the device manufacturer ' s max imum rated values . The appl icable
derat ing curve or derat ing percentages are speci f ied in MIL-STP-975 .
100%
PROHIBITED
00 USE
oo
J—
Cd
ESdr
00
<
o
en APPROVED
I— USE
o
TCI
CASE TEMPERATURE
where
case temperature above which electrical stress must be reduced

max imum al lowable case temperature
T
dr max imum case temperature for derated operat ion
ESdr max imum electrical stress (e . g . , vol tage , power , current)
for derated operat ion
100% « max imum rated value per the detai l speci f icat ion .
FIGURE 10. Stress- temperature derat ing scheme ,
2 - 23
End-of- l i fe l i m i ts . C i rcu i ts shal l be des i gned such that requ i red funct ional
performance is ma i n t a i ned w i t h i n the ident i f ied end-of- l i fe design l imi ts . The
end-of- l i fe l imi t may be assumed to be a 10-year per iod when the parts are in
the approved app l i cat i on region (see Figure 10) . The end-of- l i fe values given
in the de ta i l ed requ i remen ts sect ion for each part type are percen tage changes
from ini t ial va lues .
Vol tage acce l erat i on fact or . In essence , if a capaci tor is opera t ed for a
cer tain t i me per i od at some vol tage stress level 1, the vol tage acce l erat i on
factor can be used to equa t e th i s t ime of opera t i on at vol tage (Ei) to an
equ i va l en t t ime at some ot her vol tage (£2) . The formu l a for th is "Vol tage
Power Law" is shown be l ow .
Vol tage Power Law

(constant temperature)
(L}/L2) = ( E 2 / E l ) n where :
- vol tage at Cond i t ion 1
Ll = 1i fe at Ei
E2 = vol tage at Cond i t ion 2
L2 = 1i fe at E2
n = proper exponent for the d i e l ect r i c material and
vol tage stress area under cons i dera t i on .
The express ion (E2 / E^) n is the acce l erat i on factor , and i ts accuracy depends
upon the proper de term i nat i on of the exponen t n . This value of n wi l l vary
for d i fferent d i e l ect r i c mater i a l s . It is also affected by des ign , process ing ,
and test cond i t i ons . Wi th all other cons i derat i ons being equa l , operat i ng
l i fe or rel iabi l i ty wi l l fol low this vol tage power law qu i te cl ose l y .
The main prob lem is to determine the proper value of n for speci f ic d i e l ect r i cs
over speci f ic vol tage stress values . Values of n have been emp i r ical ly deter-
mined for var ious capaci tor t ypes , and that these values general ly range from
about 2 to 6 , depend ing upon the type of uni t and the range of stress level .
Typical values wh i ch show the var iat ion of the exponen t w i th the stress rat io
are l isted below:
n = 5 for app l icat ion of 140% t o 100% of rated vol tage
n = 3 for app l icat ion of 100% to 50% of rated vol tage
n = 2 for app l icat ion of 50% t o 25% of rated vol tage .
Thus , operat ion at 50% of rated vol tage improves the fai lure rate by a factor
of the vol tage rat io when compared wi th operat ion at max i mum rated vol tage (n =
2 and 3 , respect ively) .
2 - 24

Temperature accelerat ion factor . The temperature accelerat ion factor is some-
what simi lar in concept to the vol tage factor . It is based on a chemical act iv-
ity rule that states , "For every 10°C increase in temperature , capaci tor l ife
expectancy will be cut in half ."
This statement , if accepted l i teral ly, would mean that the l ife expectancy of
the capaci tor would double for a 10 ° C reduct ion in temperature , whether from
125 ° C to 115 ° e or 35 ° to 25 ° C . Again , this is a variable exponent depending
on the stress area concerned .
Temperature Rule
(constant vol tage)
(L 1 / L 2 ) = 2 m where Lj = l ife at Ti
L2 = l ife at T2
m = (T2-Ti ) /n
Tl = temp at condi t ion 1
T2 = temp at condi t ion 2
n = °C rule appl icable for the temperature stress
area under considerat ion
Note: The expression on the right of the equat ion is the accelerat ion factor
for the temperature , where n varies according to the dielectric and the tem-
perature stress areas concerned .
2 .1.7.6 Capaci tor fai lure rate model . Various types of capaci tors require
di fferent fai lure rate models that vary to some degree . To perform an actual
rel iabi l i ty predict ion , MIL-HDBK-217 should be used .
2 .1.7.7 Radiat ion effects . The principal radiat ion effects in insulat ing
materials (both organic and inorganic) are related to the ionizat ion dose pro-
duced by the part icle or photon . The major changes in the macroscopic proper-
t ies (thermal , mechanical , electrical , and opt ical) of insulat ing materials
resul t ing from ionizing radiat ion are: increase of ionic conduct ivi ty and d i -
electric loss, resul t ing in decrease of the dielectric Q; changes in dimensions;
modificat ion of tensi le strength , yield point , and plast ic and elast ic proper-
t ies; gas evolut ion; smal l changes in the dielectric constant and dielectric
strength; and increased opt ical absorpt ion . Usual ly the predominant radiat ion
degradat ion of inorganic materials resul ts from increased conduct ivi ty of the
material , whereas for organic materials , mechanical changes are usual ly the
major effects . Mechanical changes in organic material occur because of modi -
ficat ion of the organic polymer structure caused by radical interact ion and
format ion .
Table V summarizes the radiat ion resistance propert ies of various dielectric
materials used in making capaci tors . It is based on the physical changes
taking place and should be used as a guide only . Data based on electrical
degradat ion levels may or may not support the conclusions shown .
2 - 25
TABLE V. Dielectric radiat ion resistance chart
Material Absorbed Energy Level For

Approx . 25% Degradat ion
Ceramics Highly resistant (no levels given)

Glass Highly resistant (no levels given)
Mica Highly resistant (no levels given)
Polystyrene Over 1 x 109 rads
Polycarbonate Approx . 2 x 10 8 rads
Mylar Approx . 1 x 10 8 rads
Polyethylene 9.3 x 107 rads
Cel lulose acetate 1.9 x 10? rads
Teflon 1 x 10 5 rads
Electrolyt ic* Very suscept ible (no values given)
Oi l -f i l led capa- Very suscept ible (no values given)
ci tors
*Not including sol id slug tantalum
The neutron-radiat ion sensi t ivi ty of various types of capaci tors is shown in
Figure 11. Analysis of this figure shows that permanent change in capaci tance
value , dissipat ion factor , and leakage current is not considered severe at a
fission neutron-f luence spectrum less than about 10* 4 n/cm^ . For most capaci -
tor appl icat ions this l imi t is about 10* ' n / c m s wi th the except ion of paper
and paper-plast ic capaci tors .
N/CM2 1!0 l l 10 12 10 i3 101<* li 015 !01S 10 17
,,,,,,,
1 1
i
GLASS 1 I I
CERAMIC
MICA
TANTALUM
PAPER
PLASTIC iy 1
i i ' ' i1"™
LEGEND: 1 1 SLIGHT-TO-MODERATE PARAMETER DAMAGE

I/////I MODERATE-TO-SEVERE PARAMETER DAMAGE
SEVERE PARAMETER DAMAGE
FIGURE 11. Neutron-radiat ion sensi t ivi ty of various types of components ,
2 - 26
The principal cause of radiat ion- induced capaci tance changes is dimensional
change in the interelectrode spacing due to gas evolut ion and swel l ing . This
change is more pronounced in organic-dielectric capaci tor construct ion . Gamma
heat ing and changes in dielectric constants of capaci tor dielectrics have been
rare and can be considered a second-order effect especial ly for inorganic
materials . Normal ly , capaci tors using organic materials such as polystyrene ,
polyethylene terephthalate (Mylar) , and polyethylene are less sat isfactory in
a radiat ion environment by a factor of about 10 than those using inorganic
dielectrics . However , it should be noted that even for these types , exper imen-
tal data indicate no signi f icant permanent changes occurred for exposures up to
about 10 1 2 / cm 2 . On the other hand , usage of tantalum and aluminum electrolyt ic
capaci tors indicates that both types show capabi l i ty of surviving extended
radiat ion exposure , wi th the tantalum being more radiat ion-resistant . Roth
decreases and increases in capaci tance value have been observed . For example ,
changes from -10 to +25 percent for tantalum have been observed for exposure
up to 10* ' n / c m 2 . These changes were observed during radiat ion exposure , wi th
some recovery in the electrical characterist ics noted wi thin several days after
the end of the radiat ion exposure . This recovery in some cases was rather slow ,
and in many instances complete recovery was never at tained .
The use of wet -electrolyte capaci tors is not normal ly permi t ted in h igh-
rel iabi l i ty equipment . Permanent changes in electrical characterist ics of
these capaci tors begin at about 5 x 1013- n/cm^ . The principal mechan ism is gas
evolut ion caused by the interact ion of the ionizing radiat ion wi th the e l ect ro-
lyte , which tends to rupture the capaci tor .
Radiat ion-hardening techniques . In select ing capaci tors for a radiat ion-
environment appl icat ion , a survey of avai lable component part radiat ion data
should be performed to determine whether radiat ion data exist on that part icular
part or a simi lar part . If no data ex ist , a radiat ion analysis should be made
of the materials that make up the capaci tor to try to reduce the number of
candidate parts . A radiat ion exposure is then performed on a few samples of
the remaining candidate parts to reduce their populat ion to one or two . These
remaining candidate parts then receive ex tensive invest igat ion in terms of
radiat ion characterizat ion . However , after a capaci tor becomes qual i f ied to a
nuclear envi ronment , there is always the problem of maintaining this nuclear
qual i f icat ion in any future procurement (i .e. , lot-to-lot radiat ion-qual i ty
assurance) . In real i ty , manufacturing processes do change and the vendor does
not always inform the procuring agency . Depending on the cri t ical i ty of the
appl icat ion , some type of screening for usage in radiat ion environment may have
to be performed . This can vary from conf irming that there was no change in
manufacturing techniques to electrical screening to lot-to- lot sample radiat ion
or to 100 percent radiat ion screening .
Hardening for fast neutrons . For neutron f luence less than about 10* d n / c m 2
(general ly the max imum level most semiconductors devices can survive) , changes
in capaci tance value , dissipat ion factor , and leakage resistance are considered
to be minimum if at all detectable . For some capaci tors , a fast-neutron f luence
2 - 27
of about 1017 n /cm2 is necessary before the radiat ion damage becomes severe .
Glass , ceramic , mi ca , and tantalum are qui te radiat ion-resistant , and they are
preferred in that order . Normal ly , the radiat ion deteriorat ion of organ ic
d ielectr ic mater ials is more severe than that of inorganic .
Ceramic , glass or tantalum dielectric material improves the capaci tor radiat ion
resistance over paper-dielectr ic capaci tors . In order to minimize radiat ion
effects , the capaci tor vol tage change , dc vol tage and capaci tor working vol tage
should be kept low . Where possible , Zener diodes should be subst i tuted for
capaci tors in vol tage-blocking appl icat ions . The ut i l izat ion of t ransistor
constant -current generators to supply emi t ter bias rather than emi t ter bypass
capaci tors is recommended .
In low-vol tage tantalum-capaci tor appl icat ions (i .e . , when the max imum appl ied
vol tage is much less than the contact potent ial ) , it is possible to cancel out
a large port ion of ionizing-radiat ion- induced vol tage in the external circui t
by using two tantalum capaci tors in series or paral lel . These two techniques
are shown in Figure 12 . In the paral lel conf igurat ion the net radiat ion-
induced charge is the di fference between the radiat ion- induced charges of each
capaci tor . In the series or back-to-back conf igurat ion , the external circui t
is subjected to only the di fference between the radiat ion- induced vol tage of
each capaci tor , since the induced vol tages are of opposi te polari ty . However ,
it should be noted that in ei ther conf igurat ion the cancel lat ion effect iveness
depends on how wel l the capaci tors are matched and how equal ly they are i rrad-
iated . The cancel lat ion wi l l not apply when the appl ied vol tage is large
compared wi th the contact potent ial .
CI
•H F
C2
A. Paral lel conf igurat ion .
Cl C2
• ^ F — - H F — •
B. Series or back-to-back conf igurat ions .
FIGURE 12 . Electrical conf igurat ion of sintered-anode sol id-electrolyte

tantalum capaci tor for ionizing-radiat ion hardening .
2 - 28
Tantalum capaci tors are frequent ly used in the back-to-back conf igurat ion where
large capaci tor values in a nonpolar type of appl icat ion are required .
Al though long-term exposure to neutron or gamma radiat ion can eventual ly cause
permanent degradat ion of component part parameters , the design engineer should
also be aware of the effects of short pulses of high-level gamma (or x-ray)
radiat ion .
The vol tage across a biased or unbiased tantalum capaci tor tends to approach a
value of approx imately -1 . 1 V when the capaci tor is exposed to a pulse of high-
level gamma radiat ion . The actual vol tage change for a given capaci tor is a
funct ion of both gamma level and ini t ial charge , and varies from uni t to uni t
for a given set of gamma and ini t ial -charge cond i t ions . These facts are not
changed by connect ing capaci tors back to back , but the effects experienced by
the circui t are changed . The greatest benef i t from back-to-back operat ion is
obtained for the unbiased state , when there is a net charge of zero across the
capaci tor pair . As noted previously , this does not necessari ly imply zero
vol tage across each capaci tor , but rather that their vol tages are equal and
opposi te . Whenever this condi t ion ex ists , the net resul t of a gamma burst is a
vol tage across the pair equal to the d i fference in the change in vol tage across
each capaci tor . This net resul t ing vol tage may be of ei ther polari ty or may
even be ini t ial ly of one polari ty and then change to the opposi te polar i ty .
The preceding theoret ical considerat ions , substant iated by considerable da ta ,

yield the fol lowing guidel ines for analysis and design of circui ts using back-
to-back tantalum pairs:
a. Because of cancel lat ion effects , induced vol tage across a pair of
zero-biased capaci tors is roughly an order of magni tude less in amp l i -
tude than for a single tantalum capaci tor , but the decay t ime is of
the same order of magni tude .
b. Inasmuch as the induced vol tage represents the d i fference between two
induced vol tages , it may be of ei ther polari ty ,
c. The vol tage induced in large capaci tors is no greater than that in-
duced in smal l ones . In circui ts involving operat ional ampl i f iers ,
therefore , it usual ly is advisable to use large capaci tors and small
resistors instead of the opposi te to obtain a given t ime constant ,
since this tends to minimize the effect of operat ional -ampl i f ier
(op-amp) offset current . This considerat ion can become qui te import -
ant in circui ts exposed to neutron radiat ion , since high neutron
dosage causes op-amp offset currents to increase rather drast i ca l l y .
For example , the zero-bias 3-sigma response for a group of back- to-
back 22-yF , 20 V tantalum capaci tors from the same manufacturer was
only 2 .7 mV/ krad . The t ime constant of the circui t was the same in
both cases .
2 - 29
d. Back-to-back tantalum capaci tors wi th a net charge (bias) across the

pair will general ly lose charge at a rate of approx imately 1.0 to
1. 5 percent per krad (25°C) . Of course , for very smal l biases (a few
mi l l ivol ts) , the vol tage loss may be masked by the random vol tage
which is normal ly induced on zero-bias capaci tors . If it is impera-
t ive that the ini t ial charge be retained in spi te of high gamma dosage ,
tantalum capaci tors should not be used . Tests on a l imi ted number
of high-k ceramic capaci tors indicate that these devices yield about
the same level of induced charge as a pair of back-to-back tantalum
capaci tors , wh i le losing an order of magni tude less ini t ial charge .
There is a considerab le penal ty in both size and cost when using
ceramic capaci tors in l ieu of tantalum capaci tors ; sol id- tantalum
capaci tors are also general ly more stable wi th age and temperature .
e. Where the gamma radiat ion to which the capaci tor pair is exposed is
of short durat ion (a few microseconds or less) , the response is almost
purely gamma-dose instead of qamma-dose-rate-dependent . That is, the
response to a pulse of 1 x l O^rads / s for 10 us would have essent ial ly
11
the same effect as a 100-ns pulse of 1 x 10 rads/s ampl i tude .
f. Virgin (previously nonirradiated) parts usual ly respond more than pre-

viously irradiated parts . This seems to be true of ceramic as wel l
as tantalum capaci tors and occurs even when several hours or even days
elapse between exposures , al though it is much more pronounced in the
case where the second burst fol lows the first by only a few seconds .
2 - 30
2.2 CAPACITORS, CERAMIC
2.2 Ceramic.
2 . 2 . 1 . Introduct ion . Ceramic capaci tors can be def ined as capaci t ive devices
in which the d ielectr ic material is a high- temperature , sintered , inorganic
compound . These d ie lect r ic materials general ly contain mi xtures of complex
t i tanate compounds such as barium t i tanate , calcium t i tanate , stront ium t i tanate
and lead niobate .
Ceramic capaci tors are avai lable in a variety of physical forms , ranging from
d iscs to monol i thic mul t i layered types . Tubular types , feed-through styles and
variat ions of these are also manufactured . Ceramic d ie lectr ic capaci tors are
used more than any other single d ie lectr ic fami ly , because of their low cost ,
wide range of character ist ics , good volumetric eff iciency , and excel lent high-
frequency capabi l i t ies . However , not all desi rab le characterist ies are avai l -
able in any given style .
2 . 2 .1.1 Classes . The characterist ics are determined by the d ielectr ic class .
There are two classes , Class II and Class I d ie lect r ics .
2 . 2 . 1 . 2 ^General purpose (Class II d i e l ect r i cs) . This term embraces a broad

fami ly of capaci tors manufactured wi th high K d ielectr ic formulat ions . These
types are characterized by relat ively large changes in capaci tance wi th tempera-
ture , vol tage , frequency , and t ime . Their main advantage is high volumetric
eff iciency . They include type BX .
2 . 2 .1 .3 Temperature compensat ing (Class I d i e l ect r i cs) . As the term impl ies ,
capaci tance varies in a fairly precise and predictable manner over the operat ing
range . These capaci tors are made wi th low K ceramic d ie lect r ic . They include
NPO (Nominal Zero Temperature Coeff icient) type , as wel l as both posi t ive and
negat ive temperature coeff icient styles . They are stable wi th t ime and vol tage .
2.2.2 Usual appl icat ions .
2 . 2 . 2 .1 General purpose types (Class II) . These devices are not intended
for precision appl icat ions , but are sui table for use as bypass , f i l ter , and
noncri t ical coupl ing elements in circui ts where appreciable changes in capaci -
tance can be tolerated . Considerat ion must be given to changes in dielectr ic
constant caused by temperature , , electric field intensi ty , appl ied frequency ,
and shelf aging . The piezoelectric effect of bar ium t i tanate may also be a
l imi t ing factor in low-level ci rcu i try . See Table VI .
2 . 2 . 2 . 2 . Temperature compensat ing types (Class I) . These can be used wherever

high capaci tance stabi l i ty wi th tenperature is required , or where a speci f ic
characterist ic is required to compensate for temperature variat ions of other
circui t components . These styles are stable wi th t ime , temperature , vol tage
and frequency , al though variat ions wi th frequency ex tremes may require cons i -
dera t i on .
2 - 31
TABLE VI . Usual appl icat ions
Circui t Appl icat ion Ceramic

NPO BX
Blocking No Yes
Coupl ing No Yes
Bypassing No Yes
Frequency discr iminat ion Yes Yes
Transient vol tage No Yes
ARC suppression No Yes
Timing Yes No
2 . 2 . 2 . 3 Appl icat ion notes . Considerat ion must be given to the fol lowing
appl icat ion requirements:
a. Capaci tance values above 0.33 yF are not recommended for use in cr i t i -
cal appl icat ions because the devices are more suscept ible to delamina-
t ions due to the thinness of the dielectric mater ial .
b. For low vol tage appl icat ions it is recommended that the rated vol tage
be a minimum of 100 vol ts dc .
c. If pot t ing in a hard material is required for some styles of capaci -

tors , then a resi l ient materials shal l be appl ied to the capaci tor as
a buffer .
d. For space f l ight use , wax impregnates or other volat i le materials must
not be appl ied to the capaci tor .
2 . 2 . 3 Physical construct ion . Class I dielectrics use calcium t i tanate or

t i tanium diox ide to which other t i tanates may be added in varying proport ions
to obtain the desired character ist ics . The temperature coeff icients in ppm/°C
of these materials are typical ly NPO, N750, N2200 , and so on . The primary
considerat ion here is the essent ial ly non-ferroelectric nature of the mater ia l .
This is the factor responsible for the temperature , vol tage and t ime stabi l i ty
characterist ics of the f inished capaci tor .
2 - 32
The Class II dielectrics are based on barium t i tanate . Modi f iers may be added
in the form of bismuth stannate , niobium or tantalum pentox ides , or various
combinat ions of other mater ials . These dielectric materials are ferroelectric
and exhibi t those characterist ics for which the so-cal led "high-K" general
appl icat ion ceramic capaci tors are known . These include high capaci tance ,
nonl inear temperature coeff icients , ac and dc vol tage sensi t ivi ty , and capaci -
tance hysteresis . The principal advantage offered by these materials is a
high dielectric constant , which ranges from 200 to as high as 16,000.
Table VII shows the typical range of dielectric constants and the variat ions in
electrical characterist ics that may be expected wi th di fferent formulat ions .
Since stabi l i ty normal ly varies inversely wi th dielectric constant , a device
wi th a K15 dielectr ic may have a 0.1 percent capaci tance change wi th temperature
over a given range , whereas a device wi th a K10 , 000 dielectric may have a 90
percent change over the same range and a device wi th a K1800 dielectric may
have a 15 percent change .
TABLE VII . Parameter variat ion wi th material change
Parameter Dielectric Constant Range
Dissipat ion factor 0.01% to 4%
Capaci tance change wi th 0.1% to 90%

temperature
Capaci tance drift 0.05%^ to 15%
Vol tage coeff icient Negl igible to 60%
Aging Negl igible to 15%
Frequency effects Negl igible to 50%
Four styles of construct ions are used in ceramic capaci tors . They are the
disc style , the feed-through or standoff style , the monol i thic style and
the tubular style .
2 . 2 .3.1 Disc style . This style consists of a metal l ized electrode on each
face of a flat ceramic disc . Si lver bonded wi th a glass fri t is the most
common electrode mater ial , al though other metals may be used .
2 - 33
The d i sc devices are basical ly commercial types , but have been adapted to mi l i -
tary speci f icat ion requirements to a l imi ted ex tent . They are not recommended
for normal NASA app l i ca t i ons .
2 . 2 . 3 . 2 Feed-through or standoff style . Feed-through styles are made wi th both

tubular and discoidal ceramic e lements . Figure 13 i l lustrates the d i fference
between electrode conf igurat ions .
FIGURE 13. Electrode conf igurat ion of tubular and feed-through capaci tors .
The discoidal version is made wi th a donu t type d i sc . One electrode connects

to the inner hole to permi t at tachment to the terminal . The other electrode
connects to the outer edge of the d isc for at tachment to the flange or housing .
This style is more expensive and is designed wi th frequency characterist ics for
UHF appl icat ion .
2 . 2 . 3 . 3 Monol i thic style . This style offers signi f icant size reduct ions as
wel l as much improved environmental capab i l i ty .
Monol i thic ceramic chip capaci tors are bri t t le and sensi t ive to thermal shock .
Precaut ions must be taken dur ing mount ing to avoid ceramic cracking . To avoid
mechanical stresses that may resul t from temperature changes , the substrate
material should have a thermal expansion coeff icient that closely matches the
thermal expansion coeff icient of the capaci tor .
Al though process de ta i l s vary among manufacturers , a typical process is as

fol lows: green ceramic sheet is screened wi th electrode pat terns , stacked so
that al ternat ing electrodes terminate on opposi te ends , and pressed . This
laminated material may consist of 30 or more sheets and contain up to 100 indi -
vidual capaci tors . The laminated sheet is then diced to separate each capaci tor .
The individual chips are fired at temperatures upwards of 2000 °F to fuse the
assembly into a monol i thic block . Where the electrodes are exposed on the ends
a si lver paste combined wi th glass fri t is painted on and f ired . This connects
all the al ternate plates together and provides a pad to which the leads may be
2 - 34
soldered . The chips are now funct ional capaci tors which are essent ial ly imper-
vious to most environmental condi t ions (Figure 14) . Final operat ions consist of
lead at tachment and encapsulat ion (Figure 15) .
CERAMIC ELECTRODE END TERMINATIONS

LAYER
TERM- ELECTRODES
INATE
EDGE
TERMINATE
EDGE
MARGIN
FIGURE 14. Typical construct ion of a monol i thic capaci tor ch i p .
FIGURE 15 . Out l ine drawing of a radial leaded ceramic capaci tor (CKR05 Style) .
2 . 2 .3.4 Tubular style . The tubular conf igurat ion is sti l l used (part icularly
in the temperature compensat ing devices) , but is rapidly becoming obsolete for
mi l i tary use . The tubular capaci tor is fabricated from a tube of ceramic wi th
one electrode painted on the inner surface and terminated at one end of t he
tube , and the other electrode painted on the outer surface and terminated at
the opposi te end . Si lver bonded wi th glass fri t is the most common electrode
material , al though others are also used . Its capaci tance is l imi ted to low
values because of the conf igurat ion , and cannot approach the volumetric eff i -
ciency of monol i thic styles .
2 - 35
The term "tubular" used here appl ies speci fical ly to the type of construct ion
described above , and not to the general category of ax ial - leaded styles in a
cyl indrical conf igurat ion such as the CKR12 and simi lar styles . These have
monol i thic capaci tor elements and only the external conf igurat ion is tubular
in shape .
2 . 2 .4 Mi l i tary des i gna t i on .
2 . 2 .4.1 Appl icable mi 1i tary speci f icat ions . Ceramic capaci tors are covered by
the fol lowing speci f icat ions:
MIL-C-20 Capaci tors , Fixed , Ceramic Dielectric (Temperature

Compensat ing) Covers CC and CCR Styles .
MI L-C-123 Capaci tors , Fixed , Ceramic Dielectric , (Temperature

Stable-BP and General Purpose - BX) High Rel iabi l i ty
- covers CKS Style . This is designed for space
programs and is an upgrade of MIL-C-55681 and
MIL-C-39014 . However , it does not cover all values
and styles cal led out in MIL-C-55681 .
MIL-C-39014 Capaci tors , Fixed , Ceramic Dielectric (General Pur-

pose) - Establ ished Rel iabi l i ty - covers CKR styles .
MIL-C-55681 Capaci tors , Fixed , Ceramic Dielectric , Establ ished

Rel iabi l i ty - covers CDR Style .
2 . 2 .4. 2 Part des i gna t i on . Parts are current ly selected by speci fying part
numbers detai led in the appropriate Mi 1i tary Speci f icat ion slash sheet . For
example , the part numbers l isted herein descr ibe fai lure rate level , vol tage
rat ing, capaci t ive value , tolerance , character ist ic , style , and other features .
MIL-C-20
CCR75 CH IF(0 S
T
I
Style Characterist ic Capaci tance Capaci tance Fai lure rate
tolerance
MIL-C-123
M123 01 BX 103
x T
Mi 1i tary Modifi- Slash Charac- Vol tage Capaci Capaci - Termina-
speci f i - cat ion sheet terist ic tance tance t ion
cat ion number val ue tolerance
number
2 - 36
MIL-C-39014/05-2237
The numbers fol lowing the slash describe fai lure rate , level , vol tage rat ing,
capaci tance value , and tolerance .
MIL-C-55681
CDR01 BX 1(30 K S
T T
Style Rated temper- Capaci tance Rated Capaci - Terminat ion Fail ure
ature and vol tage tance f inish rate
vol tage- tolerance level
temperature
l imi ts
Many styles are avai lable in the speci f icat ions l isted , each wi th separate capa-
ci tance ranges and vol tage rat ings . For select ion , consul t MIL-STD-975
(NASA) .
2 . 2 .4.3 Space app l icat ion . MIL-C-123 was developed for space appl icat ions
in order to meet the severe environmental condi t ions encountered in space .
MIL-C-123 is a replacement for MIL-C-55681 and MIL-C-39014 . MIL-C-123 is
designed to include stringent test ing requirements such as:
a. One qual i ty level
b. Preterminat ion Destruct ive Physical Analysis (DPA)
c. Pre-encapsulat ion terminal strength
d. Humidi ty , steady state low vol tage cri teria
e. Tighter moisture resistance requirements
f. DPA inspect ion (finished product)
g. 100% inspect ion for thermal shock , vol tage condi t ioning d ielectr ic
wi thstand ing vol tage and other electrical parameters .
2 . 2 . 5 Electrical characterist ics . Because of the wide di fference in charac-

ter ist ics , capaci tance ranges , and appl icat ions of Class I and Class II d ie lec-
t r ics , refer to MIL-STD-975 (NASA) and the individual mi l i tary speci f icat ion
for the requirements . See Table VIII .
2 - 37
TABLE VIII . Electrical character ist ics of ceramic capaci tors
Ceramic Capaci tor

Character i s t i c
NPO BX
Capac i t ance range (pf) 10 to 68 , 000 12 . 0 to 1 , 000 , 000
Tol erances 0.1 pf to ±10% ±0 . 5 pf to ±20%
Vol tage rat ing (Vdc) 50 50 to 1600
Aging (percent / decade) None 1 to 2
Cur i e point (°C) Outs ide the range 115

of interest
Temperature coeff icient 30 ppm/°C +15 to -25 percen t
Insulat ion resistance 1 , 000 m i n i mum 1 , 000 m i n i mum

(Megohm-uf)
Operat ing tempera ture (°C) -55 to +125 -55 to +125
NOTE:
Deaging : The aging process can normal ly be reversed by exposure to 125°C . Com-
p lete deaging wi l l occur at 150°C . Both the capaci tance and d iss ipat ion factor
wi l l revert to the former 10-hour levels and then the aging process wi l l resume .
2 . 2 . 5 . 1 Derat i ng . The fa i lure rate of ceramic capaci tors under operat ing con-
d i t ions is a funct ion of t i me , t empera t ure , and vol tage . Refer to MIL-STD-975
(NASA) for speci f i c derat ing cond i t i ons .
2 . 2 . 5 . 2 End-of- l i fe des ign l imi ts . For general purpose ceram i cs , the capac i -
t ance change is ±30 percent and insulat ion resistance change is -50 percen t .
Capaci tance change for temperature compensated ceramics is ±0 . 5 percent or
0 . 45 pF (whichever is greater) , and the insulat ion resistance change is -50
percen t .
2 - 38
2 . 2 . 5 .3 Design precaut ions . BX and BR dielectr ic ceramic capaci tors are rated
for dc use and may be used wi th ac if the sum of the dc vol tage and ac peak- to-
peak vol tage does not exceed the dc rat ing, and the heat generated does not
cause a temperature rise in excess of 35°C. Power can be calculated wi th the
fol lowing formula: Wat ts = E^ (2nfc) (Dissipat ion Factor) . Nominal rat ings
are 1/8 wat t .
Dielectric absorpt ion occurs in all sol id-dielectric capaci tors and is a
signi ficant parameter in pulse and other circui ts where rapid charge-and-
discharge characterist ics are important . In such appl icat ions , t ime de lays
caused by dielectric absorpt ion may be detrimental to circui t performance .
The rat io of the recovery vol tage of a capaci tor to the ini t ial -charge vol tage ,
expressed as a percentage , is cal led the percent d ielectr ic absorpt ion . The
percent dielectr ic absorpt ion for a BX d ielectr ic is 2 . 5 and for BR d ie lectr ic
is 4. 5 , and for an NPO is 0 . 75 .
BX and BR dielectr ic ceramic capaci tors exhibi t a piezoelectric response when

subjected to vibrat ion . Values up to several mi l l ivol ts can be expected ,
therefore circui ts wi th a high gain fol lowing a capaci tor may be sensi t ive to
this effect .
Capaci tors , f i xed , ceramic , (CCR, CKR , and CDR) . Fixed ceramic capaci tors
(i .e. , CCR , CKR , and CDR styles) should meet the destruct ive physical analysis
cri teria defined in Table IX, Group A Inspect ion , of MIL-C-123 , and the humid-
i ty, steady-state , low vol tage cri teria (+85°C/ 85% RH) def ined in Table X ,
Group B Inspect ion of MIL-C-123 (100% in order to minimize the risk of low IR
fai lures) .
2 . 2 . 5 .4 Measurement cond i t ions . The capaci tance of Class II d ielectr ics is

affected by variat ions in vol tage and frequency , part icularly as the dielectr ic
becomes thinner as in the case of monol i thic styles . Therefore , measurement
vol tage must be speci f ied ; e . g . MIL-C-123 speci f ies 1.0 Vrms @ 1,000 Hz as a
measurement potent ial . This is used as a standard for all measurements on parts
having a 50 Vdc rat ing or greater .
Class I d ie lect r ic capaci tance is largely independent of vol tage and frequency
wi thin the rat ings of the dev i ce . However , standard measurement condi t ions
simi lar to those of Class II d ie lect r ics are normal ly speci f ied .
2 . 2 . 5 . 5 Dissipat ion factor or "Q" . For Class II d i e l ect r i cs , the d issipat ion
factor wi l l seldomly affect circui t operat ion except in speci f ic appl icat ions
requiring the high Q of the Class I d ie lect r ics . Class II d issipat ion factors
range between 1.0 and 4.0 percent , al though mi l i tary grades are normal ly no
higher than 2 . 5 percent . The primary purpose for checking this parameter is
that for a given d ie lectr ic , variat ion in dissipat ion factor may provide the
manufacturer wi th informat ion on formulat ion and f iring var iat ions . An excep-
t ional ly high dissipat ion factor indicates poor terminat ion (cold solder joint ,
l ifted electrode , separated lead , etc . ) .
2 - 39
Often di fferences in d issipat ion factor as sl ight as 1. 5 percent vs 2.0 percent

are exploi ted as sales gimmicks . Figure 16 shows the effects of temperature-vs-
d issipat ion factor . The d iss ipat ion factor at -55°C increases by 5 to 10
percent depend ing on formulat ion . In this case , the d issipat ion factor of the
bismuth-free body , al though sl ight ly higher at room temperature , is signi f i -
cant ly lower at -55°C .
, BL!S M U T H B O D Y
\ K 1200
NON BISMUTH
K 1800
-55 -25 O 25 50 75 100 125

TEMPERATURE DEGREES CENTIGRADE
FIGURE 16. Dissipat ion factor vs temperature .
The dissipat ion factor is affected by measurement vol tage and frequency; since
this measurement is normal ly made at the same t ime as capaci tance , the same
comments apply .
The Class I d ie lect r ic d issipat ion factor for these devices is less than 0 . 1% .
This parameter is somet imes expressed as Q, which for capaci tors is the recipro-
cal of the dissipat ion factor expressed as a pure number . A d issipat ion factor
of 0.1% corresponds to a Q of 1000.
2 . 2 . 5 . 6 DC vol tage coeff icient . Class II ceramic capaci tors have a vol tage
coeff icient that normal ly becomes greater as d ie lectr ic constant increases .
This effect is dependen t on the formulat ion as wel l as d ie lectr ic thickness .
Figure 17 i l lustrates the effect of dc vol tage on K1800 mater ial . Note that
this effect is not l inear ; al though there is a change of 10 percent at rated
vol tage , the change at 50 percent of rated value is only about three percent ,
whi le below 30 percent of rated vol tage the change is ei ther negl igible or
sl ight ly posi t ive .
2 - 40
PERCENT RATED VOLTS
FIGURE 17. Capaci tance change vs dc vol tage .
The curves in Figure 18 show the combined effect of vol tage and temperature .
Vol tage coeff icient is greater at low temperatures than at high temperatures
and therefore -55°C is usual ly the point of greatest change for a given
character ist ic .
Class I dielectric curves are not shown for vol tage coeff icient , since these
dielectrics are not part icularly sensi t ive to vol tage . Depending on the formu-
lat ion , the vol tage coeff icient varies from negl igible to a max imum of about 2%.
15
10
UJ 5 T
O 4
z 0 * / r
4
/* /
O 2 5 / //
f
lug 10
w 15 f /
5
20
n
<
Q.
< 25
R0 VOLTS APPLIED
O 30 . — 50«16 RATED VOLTS APPLIED -
35 )% RATED VOLTS APPLIED..
40 1 1 i l l
-50 -25 0 25 50 75 100 125
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE
FIGURE 18 . Typical combined effect of vol tage and temperature ,
2 - 41
2 . 2 . 5 .7 AC vol tage effects . For Class II d ie lect r ics , the effects of ac

vol tage on capaci tance and d issipat ion factor are also dependent on material
and vol ts per mil stress . It is this lat ter effect that makes measurement
vol tage more cri t ical as the d ielectr ic decreases in th ickness . A capaci tor
wi th a 1 mil d ie lect r ic thickness is much more sensi t ive to 2.0 Vrms than a
20-mi l-thick d i sc .
Figure 19 shows the effects of ac vol tage on the capaci tance of typical capaci -
tors . Note that , an increase in ac vol tage causes an increase in capaci tance ,
opposi te to the effects of dc vol tage .
Dissipat ion factor also increases wi th ac vol tage . For example , d issipat ion
factor measured at 1.0 Vrms for K1800 d ie lect r ic is about 3% and increases
to about 8% at a measurement vol tage of 3.0 Vrms , 1 kHz .
S 50
ac
UJ
o / < 1 800
z
S 20
Z
<
fc 10
(J
< K J >50
12.5 25 37.5 50
V O L T S AC AT 1.0 KHz
FIGURE 19. Capaci tance vs ac vol tage .
Class I d ie lect r ics maintain their capaci tance and dissipat ion factor charac-
terist ics when used wi thin their vol tage rat ings .
2 . 2 . 5 . 8 Temperature character ist ies . Figure 20 shows typical temperature

characterist ics of Class TI ceramic d i e l ect r i cs . It can be seen that the
temperature stabi l i ty of the capaci tor decreases wi th increasing d ielectr ic
constant .
2 - 42
H 15
2
UJ
O
cc
UJ
10
. a.
UJ
a 5
z K 250 ^
<
i 0
o
UJ JR
o
z -5
<
K f K U300
5 -10
<
a
<
u -15
-55 -25 0 25 50 75 100 125
T E M P E R A T U R E DEGREES C E N T I G R A D E
FIGURE 20, Capaci tance change vs temperature ,
Higher dielectr ic constant materials are avai lable , but wi th decreasing

stabi l i ty and a narrower operat ing range of -55°C to +85°C . For example a
K5600 dielectr ic would give 4 t imes the capaci tance of K1800 d ie lectr ic at
25°C , but could lose 60 percent of i ts capaci ty over the temperature range .
A K8000 d ielectr ic would give 6 t imes the capaci tance but lose 80 percent of
i ts capaci ty . These d ielectr ics are effect ive only in control led ambient con-
d i t ions where full use may be made of the increased capaci tance at 25°C wi thout
concern for the fal loff at temperature ex tremes .
The most d ist ingu ish ing feature of the Class I ceramics is their relat ively
l inear change in capaci tance wi th temperature . This change will vary depend ing
on-formulat ion from P100 (posi t ive 100 ppm/°C) to N5600 (negat ive 5600 ppm/°C) .
The Class I d ie lect r ics are ident ified by their nominal temperature coeff icient
(TC) . It is important to remember that this TC is determined from a two point
measurement of capaci tance at 25°C and at 85°C . These materials have a more
negat ive TC as the temperature approaches -55°C . This is covered by speci f ic TC
l imi ts over the temperature range . Addi t ional ly , there is a tolerance on the
nominal TC which varies from ±30 ppm for NPO to ±1,000 ppm for N5600 . Effec-
t ively , an NPO ±30 ppm wi l l have a temperature coeff icient fal l ing between a
+30 ppm and a -30 ppm l imi t . Figure 21 shows the temperature characterist ic for
a N330 ±60 ppm envelope (note that it is more negat ive on the cold side) . Also
important is the fact that the tolerance is necessari ly greater for low capaci -
tance values (less than 10 pF) , because stray capaci tance becomes a factor and
the temperature coeff icient of the stray capaci tance has an effect .
2 - 43
Z
UJ 5
o 4
ac
UJ cAP. VS. TENAP.
OL 3 N 330 ± 60 PPM
UJ
0 2
z
< 1
1
U 0
UJ -1
o
z
< -2
-3
5
< N
Q_
<
o -55 ° -25 ° 0° 25° 50° 75° 100° 125°
T E M P E R A T U R E DEGREES
CENTIGRADE
FIGURE 21 . Temperature vs capaci tance .
2 . 2 . 5 .9 Effects of frequency . Figures 22 and 23 show comparat ive effects of

frequency for three typical formulat ions . Actual plots vary , depend ing on
capaci tance value , conf igurat ion , and lead length . However , these i l lustra-
t ions provide general informat ion in select ing the capaci tor type for a
part icular appl icat ion .
It can be seen that Class I (NPO) d ie lect r ics are least affected by frequency ,
and that the Q of the NPO d ie lect r ic is several t imes bet ter than that of the
high-K material
uu NPO
O /
Z
<
K 1800 ^
S 3X -10 S
? K 250
M, UJ
t Q-
5 - 20
<
Q.
< CAI 5 ACIT / \NCE \fS FRE:Q UE N CY
<J
-30 I! Ii II I! I
1 K HZ 100 K HZ 10 MHZ 1 GHZ
10 K HZ 1 MHZ 100MHZ
FREQUENCY
FIGURE 22 . Capaci tance vs frequency .
2 - 44
2000
Q VS F R E Q U E N C Y
1600
£
O
£ 1200
<
8 00
b K 250V
K 1800
400
0
1 KHZ 100 K HZ 10 MHZ 1 GHZ
10 K HZ 1 MHZ 100 MHZ
FREQUENCY
FIGURE 23. "Q" vs frequency .
2 . 2 . 5 .10 Aging . Class II ceramic capaci tors exhibi t a characterist ic referred

to as aging; i .e . , a decrease in capaci tance wi th t ime . Class I d ielectr ics are
not subject to this phenomenon and are qui te stable in storage and operat ion .
During storage at room temperature there is a decrease in the d ielectr ic con-

stant due to crystal l ine structural changes in barium t i tanate . The magni tude
of these changes increases as the dielectr ic constant increases .
These changes are exponent ial wi th t ime , and aging is normal ly expressed as
percent capaci tance change per logari thmic uni t of t ime (such as 2 percent per
decade) . Time zero in such computat ions relates to the last exposure to a
temperature in excess of 125°C , and t ime is expressed in hours . Figure 24 shows
typical aging curves based on an aging rate of 2 . 5 percent for K250 dielectr ic
and 4.0 percent for K1800 d ie lect r ic mater ial .
Due to its exponent ial rate , aging on a l inear t ime base is relat ively low after
1,000 hours . Manufacturers normal ly al low for aging when measuring capaci tance ,
so that purchase tolerances wi l l tend to run on the high side of nominal .
Longer shelf l ife can be guaranteed by preaging and sort ing to t ighter guard
bands .
Dissipat ion factor is also affected by aging , wi th a gradual decrease occurring

dur ing storage . Since this change is favorable and not of great magni tude , i t
is usual ly unimportant .
2 - 45
FIGURE 24. Aging curves , Class II dielectrics .
App l icat ion of a high vol tage , (e .g. , during a dielectric strength test) wi l l
cause a decrease in capaci tance . Provision is made for this effect in the
appl icable speci f icat ion , which permi ts a wai t ing, period for capaci tance and
power factor to age into tolerance after such exposures .
2 . 2 . 5 .11 Deaging . The aging process can be reversed by exposure to 125°C wi th

complete deaging usual ly occurring at 150°C. Both capaci tance and dissipat ion
factor wi l l revert to the former 1.0-hour levels and the aging process wi l l
resume .
2 . 2 . 5 . 12 Life . Both Class I and Class II ceramic capaci tors wi l l normal ly

operate for several thousand hours when properly derated . However , Class II
ceramic capaci tors wi l l general ly demonstrate a decrease in capaci tance of
10-15% in a standard thousand-hour l ife test at max imum condi t ions . Al though
this is apparent ly the resul t of di fferent phenomena wi thin the crystal l ine
structure , it is simi lar in effect to shelf aging . Because of the ferroelectr ic
nature of the Class II formulat ions , these capaci tors usual ly exhibi t less
change in capaci tance when tested at 125°C, as compared to being tested at 85°C ,
because some deaging takes place at the higher ambient .
Class I ceramic capaci tors typical ly exhibi t less than one percent change in
a simi lar l ife test .
2 - 46
2 . 2 .6 Environmental considerat ions . Barium t i tanate has a piezoelectric

effect and vol tage transients may be produced by mechanical stresses such as
vibrat ion and shock . This effect is greater on high-K bodies . It occurs after
the dielectric has been polarized by the appl icat ion of vol tage at high temper-
ature . It is for this reason that vol tage condi t ioned capaci tors exhibi t a
greater piezoelectric effect .
Vol tages in the order of 150 microvol ts have been measured under some vibrat ion
test condi t ions . Where this effect may be deleterious to sat isfactory circui t
operat ion , considerat ion should be given to using a Class I dielectric or
isolat ing the capaci tor from mechanical stress .
2 . 2 .7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions .
2 . 2 .7.1 Fai lure modes . Ceramic capaci tors usual ly fail because of an open
circui t , short circui t , or because of parameter degradat ion , (low insulat ion
resistance or excessive change in capaci tance wi th temperature) .
The most common fai lure modes are the catastrophic fai lures , i .e. , opens and
shorts . Signi f icant parameter degradat ion fai lures are relat ively rare and in
many appl icat ions are unnot iced unless the changes are ex treme .
2.2.7.2 Fai lure mechan isms .
a. Shorts . Operat ion under vol tage stress can resul t in shorts due to
puncture through the ceramic . This fai lure mode is common to all
styles of ceramic capaci tors and resul ts from contaminants in the
d ielectr ic , hairl ine cracks , thin spots in the dielectr ic , or voids .
These fai lure mechanisms can be precipi tated before instal lat ion in
the end equipment by proper screening techniques , part icularly vol tage
cond i t ion ing .
b. Opens . Opens are the major problem wi th monol i thic ceramic capaci tors ,
part icularly the smal ler ax ial - leaded conf igurat ions (0.1" diameter and
less) . These devices employ nai lhead or paddle-shaped leads soldered
to the end terminat ions and depend mainly on the epoxy encapsulat ion
for mechanical integri ty. Unfortunately , the encapsulat ion process ,
which is usual ly accompl ished by transfer molding at high pressures ,
wi l l fill any voids in the joint between the lead and the ceramic . The
epoxy wi l l then tend to open the connect ion by l ift ing the lead away
from the chip . This fai lure mechanism is insidious and often occurs
only at speci f ic temperatures , or may resul t in intermi t tent opens at
a given temperature .
c. Low insulat ion resistance . This may occur as the resul t of surface
contaminat ion during manufacture or because of moisture penetrat ion
through a defect ive epoxy encapsulat ion . Monol i thic ceramic capaci -
tors , when properly cured and f ired , are impervious to moisture as
2 - 47

far as the ch ip is concerned , but the shunt path formed by con t am i nan t s
or surface moi s t ure may resul t in ci rcu i t fa i lures . Low insulat ion re-
sistance fai lures may also occur in l ow-vol tage , h i gh- i mpedance ci rcu i t
app l i ca t i ons . App lying rated vol tage wi l l temporar i ly clear the par t .
Fai lures of this nature should be veri f ied by measur i ng insu lat ion re-
sistance at 1. 5 Vdc .
d. Process i ng prob lems . Con t am i nan t s in the d i e l ect r i c , ha1r l ine cracks*
t h i n spo t s* vo i ds , and del ami nat ions are some of the process i ng
related prob l ems t ha t may cause fa i lure of mono l i t h i c mu l t l l ayered
ceram i c capac i t ors . These defect s resu l t 1n t i me , tempera ture , and
environmental related fai lure mcchan l sms wh i ch have been a ser ious cause
of ceram i c capac i t or fai lure both at the part and equ i pmen t level .
The prob l em 1s more acute wi th t h i nner d i e l ect r i cs , I .e. h igher va l ue

capac i t ors , where voi ds can reduce ef fect i ve d i e l ect r i c t h i ckness t o
d an ge r ou s l y low leve ls , and ha i r l ine cracks and de l am l nat i ons can
eas i l y p r op a ga t e under st ress . When exposed t o humid cond i t i ons
ceram i c capac i t ance wi th d i e l ect r i c defect s can demonst rate fa i lures
even at low app l i ed vo l t age s ( low vo l t age fa i lure mode) . Th i s
mechan i sm resu l ts 1n low Impedance be tween t he p lates leading t o a
shor t c i rcu i t .
Adequa t e t es t s and screen ing can be app l i ed t o de t ect these d i e l ect r i c

prob l ems . Des t ruct i ve physical ana l ys i s 1s some t i mes used to de tect
void ing and de l am1na t1on . MIL-C-123 emp l oys both screen ing and lot
a cce p t a n ce t e s t s t o con t ro l such d e f e c t s for h i gh re l i ab i l i t y
app l i ca t i ons .
2 . 2 . 7 . 3 Screen i ng . Temperature cycl i ng , operat i ng vol tage cond i t i on i ng and

x-ray are usual ly performed to screen out manufactur i ng defec t s and potent ial
early l ife fa i l ures .
2 . 2 . 7 . 4 Rel iabi l i ty dera t i ng . If manufactur i ng anomal ies and early l ife fai l -
ures have been e l iminated by screen ing t echn i ques , the fai lure rate of all
cerami c capaci tors under operat ing cond i t i ons becomes a funct ion of t ime , tem-
perature , and appl ied vol tage . Operat ional l ife can be sign i f icant ly lengthened
by vol tage dera t i ng and by l imi t ing the max i mum operat ing t empera t ure .
Assuming an emp i r ica l ly establ ished fai lure rate for a given style of ceram i c
capaci tor , the actual fai lure rate is approx imate ly proport ional to the 3rd
power of the rat io of the appl ied vol tage to the test vol tage . Thus an average
fai lure rate of 0 . 20% / 1000 hours at max i mum rated vol tage can be reduced to
about 0 . 025% / 1000 hours (an improvement by a factor of 8) by operat i on at 50%
of rated vol tage .
The dera t i ng gu i de l i ne for ceramic capaci t ors are speci f ied in MIL-STD-975
(NASA) .
2 . 2 . 7 . 5 Fai lure rate de t erm i na t i on . Because of the wide variety of styles and
vol tage rat ings ava i l ab l e in ceramic capac i t ors , and rapid changes in t ech-
nology , the latest issue of MIL-HBK-217 should be consul ted for quan t i t a t i ve
fai lure rate de t erm i na t i on .
2 - 48
2.4 CAPACITORS,PAPERAND PLASTIC
2 .3 Mica and glass .
2 .3.1 Introduct ion .
2 .3.1.1 Mica . Mica is one of a very few natural materials direct ly adaptable
for use as a capaci tor d ie lectr ic . Its physical and electrical propert ies , and
its rare tendency to nearly perfect cleavage make it probably the best natural
capaci tor d ielectr ic known . It is inherent ly stable , both dimensional ly and
electr ical ly , so that mica capaci tors exhibi t excel lent temperature coeff icient
characterist ics and very low aging wi th operat ion .
The property of perfect cleavage enables blocks of mica to be spl i t into sheets
as thin as 0.0001 inch . The surfaces of the spl i t sheets are paral lel along the
planes of natural crystal l ine structure .
Most capaci tors are made from muscovi te mica , which is the best of several
natural variet ies . It has a d ielectr ic constant between 6. 5 and 8 . 5 , and is
capable of operat ion at temperatures up to 200°C .
2 . 3 . 1 . 2 Glass . Glass d ie lectr ic capaci tors were developed mainly as a sub-

st i tute for mica . Their electrical character ist ics are very simi lar to those
of mica capaci tors . They have excel lent long- term stabi l i ty , a low temperature
coeff icient , and a history of good rel iabi l i ty .
2 .3. 2 Usual app l icat ions . Both glass and mica capaci tors are designed for
use in circui ts requiring relat ively low capaci tance values , high Q , and good
stabi l i ty wi th respect to temperature , frequency , and aging . They may be used
for high-frequency coupl ing and bypassing , or as fixed elements in tuned ci r-
cu i ts . Their inherent characterist ics of high insulat ion resistance , low
power factor , low inductance , and excel lent stabi l i ty make them part icularly
wel l sui ted for high frequency appl icat ions .
Al though glass and mica styles are essent ial ly interchangeable from an e lect r i -
cal standpoint , f irst considerat ion should be given to the mica uni ts because
of the d i fference in cost .
Glass d ielectr ic types cost 2 to 10 t imes as much as an equivalent mica type ,

depend ing on capaci tance value , tolerance , and quant i ty .
2 .3.3 Physical const ruct ion . The commonly used mica styles have ei ther a
molded case or dipped construct ion , such as the CMR04 , CMR05 , and CMR06 . In
ei ther case , the capaci tor consists of a stack of mica sheets onto which a
thin layer of si lver is screened and f i red . Thin sl ips of conduct ing foil
are inserted at al ternate ends to provide a conduct ing path to the si lvered
p lates , folded over at the top of the stack , and cl inched together wi th a
clamp- lead assemb ly . The axial leaded styles are then molded in a polyester
plast ic case . The more popular radial leaded styles are dipped several t imes
2 - 49
in an electrical grade phenol ic resin , fol lowed by a final vacuum impregnat ion
wi th epoxy resin . This resul ts in a physical ly rugged assembly wi th high
moisture resistance and excel lent electrical propert ies (see Figure 25) .
FIGURE 25 . Out l ine drawing of a radial leaded mica capaci tor (CMR05 style) .
Glass capaci tors are made by stacking al ternate layers of aluminum foil and
glass ribbon unti l the desired capaci tance is obtained , then fusing the assembly
into a monol i thic block as shown in Figure 26. The same glass composi t ion is
used for both the case and the d ie lect r ic , insuring that the electrical proper-
t ies of the capaci tor are ent irely those of the dielectric material . Leads are
welded to the electrodes , and a glass-to-metal seal is formed at the entrance to
the case . There is some quest ion as to whether a true hermet ic seal is formed ,
but the capaci tors are highly resistant to environmental moisture .
GLASS D I E L E C T R I C A L U M I N U M FOIL
GLASS C O V E R
G L A SS-T O -M E T A L
L E A D - F O I L WELD A R E A
SEAL
ACTIVE
ELEMENT
FIGURE 26. Typical construct ion of the glass-dielectric capaci tor ,
2 - 50
2 .3.3.1 Feed through and stand-off conf igurat ions . Mica capaci tors are also
made in "but ton" style for RF bypassing and feed through appl icat ions . These
are avai lable in the CB series of styles in accordance wi th MIL-C-10950 . The
hermet ical ly sealed styles such as the CB60 series are preferred over the non-
hermet ic resin-sealed styles such as the CB11 series . They are high-qual i ty
uni ts intended for use at frequencies up to 500 MHz .
These capaci tors are composed of a stack of si lvered-mica sheets connected in

paral lel . This assembly is encased in a metal shell wi th a high potent ial
terminal connected through the center of the stack . The other terminal is
formed by the metal shel l connected at all points around the outer edge of the
electrodes . This design permi ts the current to fan out in a 360-degree pat tern
from the outer terminal , providing the shortest RF current path between the
center terminal and chassis . The internal construct ion resul ts in minimum
external inductance associated wi th the capaci tor . The uni ts are then welded
and hermet ical ly glass sealed .
2 .3.4 Mi l i tary des ignat ion .
2 .3.4.1 Appl icable mi l i tary documen t s . Mica and glass capaci tors are covered
by the fol lowing mi l i tary speci f icat ions:
MIL-C-10950 Capaci tors , Fixed , Mica Dielectric , But ton Style

CB, (covers feedthrough and stand - off styles ,
hermet ical ly sealed and resin sealed . )
MIL-C-23269 Capaci tors , Fixed , Glass Dielectric , Establ ished

Rel iabi l i ty , (covers glass d ielectr ic styles CRY) .
MIL-C-39001 Capaci tors , Fixed , Mica Dielectric , Establ ished

Rel iabi l i ty , General Speci f icat ion For (covers
radial lead dipped styles CMR) .
2 . 3 . 4 . 2 Part des i gnat i on . The type designat ion for mica capaci tors per MIL-C-
39001 is shown below . Al though simi lar for other types of mica and glass capaci -
tors , the appl icable speci f icat ion should be consul ted for other types .
CMR05 C 100 D
|
T T
Character- Capaci tance
|
Capaci tance Temperature Rated
1
Fail ure
Style
ist ic tolerance range vol tage rate
level
2 .3. 5 Electrical character ist ies .
2 .3. 5 .1 Derat ing . The fai lure rate of mica and glass capaci tors under operat -
ing condi t ions is a funct ion of t ime , temperature , and vol tage . Refer to
MIL-STD-975 (NASA) for speci f ic derat ing condi t ions .
2 - 51
2 . 3 . 5 . 2 End-of- l i fe des ign l imi ts . Capaci tance change for mica capaci tors is
±0. 5 percent and for glass d ielectr ic it is +0. 5 percent or 0. 5 pF (whichever is
greater) . The insulat ion Resistance change for mica is -30 percent and for
glass it is 500, 000 megohms at +25°C and 10,000 megohms at +125 °C.
2 . 3 . 5 . 3 Vol tage rat ing . Glass and mica d ie lect r ic capaci tors are avai lable as
standard parts in the fol lowing vol tage ranges:
Dipped mica style: 50 to 500 V But ton mica style: 500 V

Molded mica style: 300 to 2500 V Glass style: 100, 300, and 500 V
These are general ly operable over the temperature range of -55°C to +125°C at
full rated vol tage .
2 . 3 . 5 . 4 Capaci tance and tolerance . Glass capaci tors are avai lable in capaci -
tance values from 0. 5 to about 10,000 pF in the commonly used styles , and up to
150 , 000 pF in the larger transmi t t ing types . Tolerances down to ±1% or 0 . 25 pF ,
whichever is larger , are standard .
The same general range is covered by the dipped and molded mica styles of
MIL-C-5 and MIL-C-39001 , except that minimum avai lable value is 1.0 pF, and the
max imum value is somewhat higher . Dipped micas are made up to about 50, 000 pF ,
but are not widely used in the higher values because of their size . The most
popular range for both glass and mica capaci tors is 1000 pF and less .
But ton mica styles are avai lable up to 2400 pF , in tolerances of ±1, ±2, 5 , or
10%.
2 . 3 . 5 . 5 Dissipat ion factor or "Q." Capaci tor losses , expressed as DF (dissipa-
t ion factor) or Q , wh ich is equal to 1/DF , are a funct ion of the measurement
frequency . Max imum d iss ipat ion factors for mica and glass capaci tors procured
to MIL-C-23269 and MIL-C-39001 are shown in Figure 27. DF is measured at 1 MHz
for values equal to 1000 pF or less , and at 1 KHz for values above 1000 pF .
Glass capaci tors demonst rate somewhat lower losses , part icularly in the small
capaci tance values . This is because t ighter controls can be maintained on the
composi t ion of the glass and less al lowance must to be made for material var ia-
t ions . Also, the internal terminat ions are welded , rather than cl inched , al low-
ing for greater un i formi ty .
A simpler evaluated compar ison for many appl icat ions is shown in Figure 28 ,
which dep icts comparat ive Q at 1 MHz . In the midranges of capaci tance , both
glass and mica are comparab le , but glass is superior at both the high and low
ends of the capaci tance range . Further comparisons are discussed in paragraph
2 . 3 . 5 . 7 on effects of frequency .
2 . 3 . 5 . 6 AC vol tage rat ings . Glass capaci tors of the CYR series may be operated
wi th an impressed ac vol tage provided that the peak value of the appl ied vol tage
2 - 52
2.3 CAPACITORS, MICA AND GLASS
does not exceed the max imum rated dc vol tage . This rat ing appl ies for power
l ine frequencies and through the audio frequency range . For operat ion at high
frequencies , the power dissipated in the capaci tor becomes the l imi t ing factor .
M A X I M U M DISSIP.A T I O N F A C T O R A T 1 MHZ
F O R C A P A C I T A N C:E V A L U E S OF IOOOP f OR LESS
CE .01
o
»-
o
< M | CA
M A X I M U M DISSIP / kTION F A C T O R A T
IL 1 K H Z F O R CAPAC I T A N C E V A L U E S
2 G R E A T E R T H A N 1 000 pF
O MICA>
GLASS \
\
/
O .001
.0001 1 ! I ! II f Mill 1 1 1 1II I M M I I I I I

10 100 1.000 10,000 100,000
C A P A C I T A N C E IN pF
FIGURE 27. Dissipat ion factor vs capaci tance .
10,000 p
III I I
)
I
MICA
I
i
GLASS
/
1
\
I
a i.ooo
100 1 1 1 II III i > i i n t i

10
1 1 1 1 Mil
100
1 1 1 11 1 1 1
1,000
1 1 1 1 1 Ml
10,000
C A P A C I T A N C E (PF)
FIGURE 28 . Q vs capaci tance at 1 MHz .
2 - 53
Mica capaci tors can be operated under ac condi t ions , but the general ly higher
dissipat ion factor , as wel l as the possibi l i ty of corona ini t iat ion at relat ive-
ly low ac vol tages must be considered . Each potent ial ac appl icat ion of mica
capaci tors should be reviewed for part capabi l i ty before the design is f i xed .
Mica capaci tors are more suscept ible to corona problems at high ac vol tages
because of the presence of microscopic voids which may contain air .
2 .3. 5 .7 Effects of frequency . Since these types of capaci tors are often used
in circui ts where the designer is concerned wi th high frequency performance ,
the fol lowing should be considered: capaci tance variat ion wi th frequency , sel f-
resonant frequency , Q vs frequency , and RF current capabi l i ty .
Capaci tance vs frequency . Mica capaci tors remain qui te stable wi th frequency
from low audio through radio frequencies . Capaci tance variat ion in this ranye
is measured in hundredths of a percent . In the VHF range (30 MHz and up) the
apparent capaci tance tends to gradual ly increase and may show variat ions as
high as 10% above the 1 MHz measurement as frequency is raised still further .
This variat ion of capaci tance wi th frequency becomes more pronounced as the
capaci tance value increases , v
Glass capaci tors are also stable wi th frequency , as shown in Figure 29. In
this case , apparent capaci tance tends to gradual ly decrease wi th increasing
frequency .
< -1-5
z
" +4
L +2
1*1
S 0
—•
UJ o
fiL
-4
-5 1 1 1 Hill i iiinn i i n u n i i linn I I IIIIII
1 KHz lOKHz lOOKHz 1MHz
FREQUENCY
FIGURE 29. Typical capaci tance change vs frequency

for glass dielectr ic capaci tors .
Sel f-resonant frequency (SRF) . An upper l imi t of usual operat ing frequency
range is establ ished by the sel f-resonant frequency of a capaci tor . For both
mica and glass styles the length of the leads is a signi f icant factor in the
SRF. For a given case size , the inductance of the leads and internal termin-
at ions is approximately constant , so that the resonant frequency is approx i -
mately inversely proport ional to the square root of the capaci tance .
2 - 54
Figures 30 , 31 , and 32 show typical curves for glass and d ipped mica styles .
FIGURE 30 . Typical curves of sel f resonant frequency vs capac i t ance for

types CYR10 , CYR15 , CYR20 , and CYR30 glass d i e l ec t r i c capac i t orsT
LEAO LEISIGTH IN INCHES
1 1 1 11 I I I 1 1 1 1 llll I 1 II llll 1 1 j Mint

10 100 1000 10.000
CAPACITANCE IN pF
FIGURE 31 . Resonant frequency of a typical d i pped mica capaci tor (type CMR05) .
2 - 55
/H
/
I 1II
1
1
N
1
1
vss .
VS.
v sOsn.S .
v x\
L E A D L E N G T H IN I N C H E S
Va —
I I II 1111 I I 1 M III! 1 * 11 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 111

10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
C A P A C I T A N C E IN pF
FIGURE 32 . Resonant frequency of a typical dipped mica capaci tor (type CMR07) .
Q vs frequency . Figures 33 and 34 show typical curves of Q and DF as a func-

t ion of frequency . Glass capaci tors are superior to mica in this respect ,
part icularly at frequencies in the range of 1 MHz and above .
RF current capaci ty . Except for large transmi t ter type capaci tors , l i t t le
informat ion is avai lable concerning RF current -carrying capabi l i ty of glass and
mica capaci tors . Such informat ion is often required , since these uni ts are
used in high frequency appl icat ions . However , the pract ical ly inf ini te variety
of vol tage , frequency , and case size combinat ions makes compi lat ion of compre-
hensive data a formidable task . The fol lowing informat ion can be used as a
guidel ine for such appl icat ions (Figure 35) .
2 - 56
10,000
10KHz TOOK Hz 1MHz 10MHz 100MHz

FREQUENCY
FIGURE 33. Q and DF vs frequency for typical glass capaci tor
3500
3000
\\
2500
i\
\\
2000
\\
1500
C « >0pF
E C x /25pF
1000
c = 390pF-4
500
50pr-
C * 2! X « 100
1 pF
0 Ji 1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
F R E Q U E N C Y IN M E G A H E R T Z
FIGURE 34. Q vs frequency for typical dipped mica

capaci tor (type CMR05 , 500 V D C K
2 - 57
4.0
I
F R E Q U E N C Y 1.0 MHz
3.0
a.
5
<
CO
CM WO 7 -!
500 W.V.
5
a:
2.0
z
Ui
QC
QC
D
CJ
1.0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000

C A P A C I T A N C E (pF)
2.0
I I
FRIEQUENCY 3.0 PtfHz
CO
Q.
<
00
5
QC
H 1.0
Z
UJ
QC
QC
D
O
C A P A C I T A N C E (pF)
FIGURE 35 . Radio frequency current rat ings for dipped mica capaci tors .
2 - 58
2.4CAPACITORS,PAPERAND PLASTIC
Glass capaci tors (CYR10, CYR15 , CYR20) . The fol lowing max imum volt-ampere
rat ings are acceptable l imi ts for these capaci tors:
CYR10 - 400 VA
CYR15 - 600 VA
CYR20 - 1100 VA
These rat ings are based on a case temperature rise of 45°C which l imi ts the
operat ing ambient temperature to 70°C . For operat ion at higher ambients , the
d issipat ion must be reduced to l imi t the max imum case temperature to 125°C .
In any case , the peak value of the ac vol tage plus dc bias must not exceed the
dc rated vol tage of the capaci tor .
Dipped mica capaci tors . The curves shown in Figure 35 represent typical
manufacturers 1 recommendat ions for safe l imi ts of RF current for dipped mica
uni ts of various case sizes . These curves are based on a case temperature
rise of 15°C . This lower temperature rise l imi t is imposed because of the
greater tendency of mica uni ts to develop hot spots due to corona breakdown
or d ielectr ic imperfect ions , as compared to the more nearly homogeneous glass
dev i ces . Again , the peak ampl i tude of the combined ac and dc appl ied vol tages
must not exceed the dc vol tage rat ings , and the temperature rise plus ambient
temperature must not exceed the max imum operat ing temperature rat ing of the
capaci tor .
2 . 3 . 5 . 8 Effects of temperature . As stated previously , one of the signi f icant

advantages of glass and mica capaci tors is their stabi l i ty wi th temperature .
Glass has a fairly uni form posi t ive temperature coeff icient of capaci tance . As
measured at 100 kHz , the TC is equal to 140 ±25 PPM/°C . This translates into a
capaci tance change (from the 25°C value) of approx imately +1. 5% at 125°C , and
-1 . 0% at -55°C .
2 . 3. 6 Environmental cons iderat ions . Both glass and mica dev i ces , as procured
to the appropriate speci f icat ion , are adequate for most envi ronments , including
exposure to extreme humidi ty and high levels of shock and vibrat ion .
For severe vibrat ion envi ronments , the cases of the radial - leaded dipped mica
styles in part icular must be adequately anchored to prevent fai lure due to lead
fat igue .
2.3.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions . Both glass and mica dielectric capaci tors
when used wel l wi thin the i r vol tage and temperature rat ings* wi l l operate
rel iably for several thousand hours . However since construct ion methods vary
wi th d i fferent vendors , physical di fferences should be examined and analyzed
for use 1n the Intended appl icat ion .
2 - 59
2 .3.7.1 Fai lure modes and mechan isms . The most common fai lure mode for these
capaci tors is eventual short circui t due to d ielectr ic breakdown . Fai lure rate
varies direct ly wi th capaci tance value for a given case size , simply because
of the increase in the number of plates as capaci tance increases . The fai lure
rate of micas would be expected to be higher than glass , because of the greater
opportuni ty for flaws in the natural d i e l ect r i c , but historical data does not
indicate this . The deve lopment of the dipped mica style represented an improve-
ment over the molded types because of the el iminat ion of the high heat and
pressures of molding . These stresses tend to weaken or fat igue the mica fi lms
suff icient ly to make the effect not iceable in long- term l ife tests .
A broadly experienced fai lure mode exhibi ted by mica capaci tors is caused by
poor mechanical clamping of the lead end cl ips to the capaci tor foil stack .
Th i s mechanical connect ion , if not processed properly , is prone to develop
electrical intermi t tants over temperature excursions . Because of this , mica
capaci tors are not l isted in MIL-STD-975 . Use of these should be avoided for
cri t ical appl icat ions . If it is absolutely necessary to use these capaci tors ,
a 100% moni tored temperature cycl ing test should be performed to detect and
remove any intermi t tant devices .
2 . 3. 7. 2 Screening . Early l ife fai lures are best screened out by a condi t ion-
ing p e r i o d - o T ^ u hours or more under over-vol tage stress . Glass capaci tors
are typical ly condi t ioned at 300% of rated vol tage at 25°C , and micas at 200%
of rated vol tage at 150°C . These condi t ions reflect variat ions in manufac-
turers1 standard approaches to screening , rather than any basic d i fference in
part suscept ibi l i ty to fai lure . Temperature cycl ing is also often specified
prior to condi t ioning , in order to assist in precipi tat ion of fai lure of parts
wi th mechanical weakness or poor internal connect ions .
To screen out early l ife fai lures , the fol lowing screening tests are usual ly
performed : temperature cycl ing , operat ing burn- in or high vol tage stabi l iza-
t ion , and X-ray .
2 . 3. 7. 3 Fai lure rate . Figures 36 and 37 dep i ct typical curves of capaci tor
fai lure rate as a funct ion of vol tage and temperature stress . These curves
represent an accumulat ion of da t a including field experience and control led
laboratory tests . They do not represent screened or establ ished rel iabi l i ty
parts . For quant i tat ive rel iabi l i ty predict ions , current fai lure rate da t a
should be consu l ted . These curves , however , can be used to provide an order-
of-magni tude est imate as to probable performance . For further informat ion
refer to MIL-HDBK-217 .
2 - 60
FIGURE 36 . Fai lure rates (in fai lures per 10 6 hours) for
MIL-C-11Z7Z , glass and porcelain capaci torsT"
2 - 61
OPERATING
RATED VOLTAGE RATIO
.1
.08
CO
X .06
D
O
X .04
z
O
ZJ
-I
5 0.02
X
Ui
Q.
c/5 .01
UJ
<E .008
D
mJ
< .006
UJ .004
K
<
X
UJ
X .002
D
-j
<
u.
.0004 -
.0002
.0001
40 60 80 100 120 140
PART A M B I E N T T E M P E R A T U R E (©C)
FIGURE 37 . Fai lure rates (in fai lures per 10 6 hours) for MIL-C-5 , dipped
mica capaci tors , temperature range 0-125°C , characterist ic 0 .
2 - 62
2.4 CAPACITORS, PAPER AND PLASTIC
2.4 Paper and plast ic .
2 .4.1 Introduct ion . Paper , plast ic, and paper-plast ic d ielectr ic capaci tors
serve the broad middle ground of capaci tor requirements . This group includes
a wide variety of d ie lect r ic systems , styles , vol tage rat ings and temperature
characterist ics useful in appl icat ions once restricted mainly to wound paper-
foil devices . Al though the remarks in this sect ion apply mainly to the common
tubular conf igurat ion , these capaci tors are avai lable in a great variety of
combinat ions of case styles and electrical rat ings for part icular appl icat ions .
Some of the more commonly used types are: paper-foi l , metal l ized paper , Mylar-
foi l , metal l ized Mylar , metal l ized paper-Mylar , polystyrene-foi1 , Tef lon-foi l ,
polycarbonate-foi l , and metal l ized polycarbonate .
2 .4. 2 Usual appl icat ions . These capaci tors are used in most types of appl ica-
t ions , including coupl ing , bypassing , f i l ter ing , t iming , noise suppression , and
power factor correct ion . They are useful over frequency ranges up to 10 MHz
or more , depending on capaci tance value and type of construct ion . They have
high insulat ion resistance , fairly good stabi l i ty , and can operate at ambient
temperatures up to 125°C and above . Certain types of plast ic d ie lectr ic such
as polycarbonate , polystyrene , and Tef lon also have excel lent temperature
coeff icient character ist ics .
Any ac-rated capaci tor can be used in an equivalent dc ci rcu i t . However , the
converse is not true because of d ie lect r ic heat ing , corona , and resistance
heat ing (Rs) .
For high frequency ac appl icat ions , the dissipat ion factor (DF) of each capaci -
tor should be measured at the frequency of intended use ; capaci tors wi th DF ex-
cessively higher than the lot average (even though wi thin speci f icat ions) should
not be used . The capaci tor chosen for a lot acceptance l ife test should be one
wi th the highest DF rat ings and tested under accelerated actual -use stress con-
d i t i ons .
The combined dc and ac vol tages should not exceed the recommended derated dc
vol tage of the capaci tor (Figure 38):
Capaci tors may be operated at higher frequencies and at reduced rms vol tage such
that max imum ac current rat ings are not exceeded .
Fi lm capaci tors should not be used in circui ts wi th less than 500 microjoules of
energy avai lable for clearing and should not be used in circui ts that would be
degraded by vol tage transients dur ing clear ing . Because the f i lm is thin , it
contains pin holes . When the d ielectr ic strength at the hole is not suff icient
to wi thstand the vol tage stress , a momentary short develops (10 - 10,000 ohms) .
High peak currents at the faul t si te cause a clearing act ion when the metal
vaporizes from around the hole and the short clears .
2 - 63
f \ A A UPPER PEAK
T ~ V V T _ Z L _
OERATED DC VOLTAGE
OF CAPACITOR
CIRCUIT PEAK TO PEAK

DC WORKING RIPPLE V O L T A G E
VOLTAGE
FIGURE 38 . AC/DC rated vol tages .
All f i lm capaci tors (metal l ized f i lm , single or dual wrap , and extended foi l)
can funct ion intermi t tent ly when operated under certain cond i t ions . Electro-
chemical effects or contaminat ion wi thin the capaci tor enclosure can cause
spur ious , random conduct ion when the capaci tor is operated dur ing temperature
changes and where total circui t energy is less than 500 microjoules . The random
resistance for f i lm capaci tors at 125°C may vary from 1 to 10, 000 megohms for
capaci tance values below 1.0 microfarad .
2 . 4. 3 Physical const ruct ion . Both paper and plast ic d ielectr ic capaci tors are
made in convent ional wound foil form or as metal l ized d ielectr ic uni ts . Combi -
nat ions of two d ie lect r ics are also used such as paper and Mylar or metal l ized
paper/metal l ized Mylar to obtain some advantages from each d ie lectr ic mater ial .
2 .4.3.1 Wound foil const ruct ion . The capaci tor is produced by winding two
metal foi ls separated by two or more sheets of d ielectr ic into a compact rol l .
The foil is usual ly high puri ty aluminum . After the roll is wound , paper uni ts
are vacuum dried and impregnated wi th resin or a synthet ic compound . Plast ic
d ie lect r ic types do not require impregnat ion for moisture protect ion , though
impregnat ion is somet imes used to reduce corona and to improve vol tage breakdown
character ist ics .
End-connect ion contacts to the metal foil electrodes are ei ther the tab type or
the extended foil type , as shown in Figures 39 and 40 . In the tab type , short
metal l ic strips are inserted into the roll dur ing the winding process , and the
terminat ions are soldered or welded to the tabs before final encasement . This
type of construct ion is not preferred , since sel f- inductance is higher , d i ss i -
pat ion factor may be poorer , and the possibi l i ty ex ists of uneven mechanical
stresses on the d ie lect r ic material at the points of tab insert ion .
2 - 64
M E T A L FOIL
DIELECTRIC
DIELECTRIC
EXTENDED
W / FOIL T Y P E
M E T A L FOIL
FIGURE 39. End-connect ion contacts to foi ls,
TAB
\
KRAFT
FT I t KRAFT
u
PAPER FOIL PAPERS FOIL TAB PAPER FOIL PAPERS FOIL
DfE LE CTRIC D I E LE CT R I C
PAPER CUP PAPER CUP PAPER CUP PAPER CUP
INSULATOR INSULATOR INSULATOR INSULATOR
i VriTiY^ V
K O V A R G L A SS / SHELL AND SHELL AND
SEAL WINDING K O V A R G LA SS WINDING K O V A R GLASS
SEAL SEAL
Q r - .
CROSS S E C T I O N T A B SPOT W E L D E D
OF FINISHED CAPACITOR CROSS S E C T I O N PIGTAIL SOLDERED
T O WIRE OF FINISHED CAPACITOR T O E X P O S E D FOIL
T A B - T Y P E PAPER E X T E N D E D - F O I L PAPER
CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION
FIGURE 40. Construct ion of a kraft paper dielectr ic capaci tor .
The ex tended foil construct ion is used on most high qual i ty types . The conduct -
ing foi ls overlap the opposi te edges of the dielectr ic , and the ent ire exposed
edge of each foil is soldered to the lead terminat ion .
2 - 65
After winding and terminat ion , the roll is inserted into i ts case . For most
styles the case is metal l ic wi th glass-to-metal end seals forming hermet ical ly
sealed uni t , as shown in Figure 41 . For some d ie lectr ic mater ials , notably
Mylar , nonhermet ical ly sealed styles have proven adequate for most envi ronments .
Here an addi t ional wrap of several turns of Mylar f i lm is wound around the
terminated roll to provide an outer wrap . This addi t ional wrap ex tends beyond
the edges of the foi l . Epoxy resin is then poured into the cups thus formed
at ei ther end . This provides mechanical rigidi ty , insulat ion , and moisture
protect ion for the terminat ions .
M E T A L CASE WITH
INSULATING SLEEVE
FIGURE 41 . Typical hermet ical ly sealed metal l ized capaci tor (CRH style) .
2 .4.3. 2 Metal l ized f i lm construct ion . Metal l ized fi lm construct ion signi f i -
cant ly reduces overal1 capaci tor size . In this type of construct ion , the
aluminum foil conductors are replaced by a thin f i lm of metal which is eva-
porated direct ly onto the d ielectr ic f i lm . The metal l ized strips are then
wound in the same manner as the foil types .
Another basic d i fference in construct ion is the method of terminat ion . Since
the exposed edges of the metal l izing are qui te thin (about 25 microns thick) it
is impossible to solder direct ly to the ends of the foi ls . Therefore the ends
of the winding are coated wi th a mol ten metal l ic spray . The wire leads are
then soldered to this coat ing .
Another advantage of the metal l ized f i lm types is that the capaci tors are sel f-
heal ing . If breakdown occurs , a t iny area of the thin f i lm surrounding the
breakdown point burns away , leaving the capaci tor operable , but wi th a sl ight ly
reduced capaci tance . In the convent ional paper-foi l type (where the foil is
thicker) , a permanent condi t ion can occur on breakdown , causing a large area of
the paper surrounding the breakdown to be carbon ized , resul t ing in a permanent
short -circui t .
2 - 66
2 .4.4 Mi l i tary des i gnat i on .
2 .4.4.1 Appl icab!e mi 1i tary speci f icat ion . Fol lowing are the speci f icat ions
for paper and plast ic dielectr ic capaci tors :
MIL-C-83421 Capaci tors , Fixed Supermetal1ized Plast ic Fi lm

Dielectric (DC, AC , or DC and AC) Hermet ical ly
Sealed in Metal Cases , Establ ished Rel iab i l i ty ,
General Speci f icat ions for . This speci f icat ion
covers CRH series capaci tors .
MIL-C-39022 Capaci tors , Fi xed , Metal l ized , Paper - Plast ic

Fi lm, or Plast ic Fi lm Dielectric , Direct and
Al ternat ing Current , (hermet ical ly sealed in
metal cases) , Establ ished Rel iabi l i ty . This
speci f icat ion covers CHR Series tubular and rec-
tangular metal l ized styles for general use .
2 .4.4. 2 Part des i gnat i on . Parts are selected by speci fying part numbers
detai led in the appropriate speci f icat ion slash sheet . An example of such a
part number is M83421/01-1090 which descr ibes fai lure rate level , vol tage
rat ing, capaci tance value and tolerance . For further informat ion refer to
MIL-STD-975 (NASA) .
2 .4. 5 Electrical character ist ics .
2 .4. 5 .1 Derat ing . The fai lure rate of paper and plast ic capaci tors under
operat ing condi t ions is a funct ion of t ime , temperature , and vol tage . Refer
to MIL-STD-975 (NASA) for speci f ic derat ing condi t ions .
2 .4. 5 . 2 End-of- l i fe design l imi ts . Capaci tance change for paper and plast ic
d i e l ect r i c capaci tors is rated at ±2 percent and the Insulat ion Resistance
change is -30 percent .
2 . 4 . 5 . 3 Capaci tance and vol tage rat ings . Paper and plast ic capaci tors are
wound in a wide range of sizes and d ie lectr ic thicknesses . They are avai lable
in capaci tance values from about . 1000 pF to several microfarads , and in vol tage
rat ings from 30 vol ts through several thousand vol ts . The very high vol tage-
capaci tance rat ings are usual ly restricted to oi l -f i l led paper or paper-Mylar ,
but the range from about 0.001 to 1 yF in vol tage rat ings from 100 to 600 Vdc
offers the des igner a wide select ion of d ielectr ics and conf igurat ions .
2 .4. 5 .4 Capaci tance tolerance . Paper , Mylar , and paper-Mylar devices in ei ther
wound foil or metal l ized construct ion are normal ly specified to tolerances of
±5, ±10 or ±20%. Whi le it is possible to wind them to closer ini t ial tolerances ,
capaci tance variat ions wi th temperature and long term dr i f t under operat ional
condi t ions make it impract ical to do so .
2 - 67
Polycarbonate , polystyrene , and Tef lon d ielectr ic uni ts , in contrast , have good
temperature coeff icient character ist ics , and are stable to wi thin ±2% over
their respect ive operat ing temperature ranges . These types are avai lable in
tolerances of 0. 25 percent and greater .
2 . 4. 5 . 5 Dissipat ion factor . Paper and f i lm d ie lectr ic capaci tors typical ly

have d issipat ion factors (DF) of less than 1% at 25°C . The DF can vary widely
on a relat ive basis as measured at temperature ex tremes , but typical ly remains
at 2% or less for most d ie lect r ics . Losses in paper capaci tors are largely
dependen t on the impregnant used (see Figure 42) .
FIGURE 42 . Dielectric loss comparison of various d ielectr ic mater ials .
For most appl icat ions , the DF characterist ic of the capaci tor is not important
unless ac vol tages are involved . In this case the heat rise induced in the
capaci tor as a resul t of ac current is a d i rect funct ion of the effect ive DF at
the frequency of operat ion . This effect ive DF may vary signi f icant ly from that
measured under standard test condi t ions , and may resul t in internal heat rise
suff icient to cause early fai lure due to accelerated d ie lectr ic degrada t i on .
2 . 4. 5 . 6 Insulat ion resistance . As wi th dissipat ion factor , insulat ion resis-

tance (effect ive shunt resistance) is usual ly so high as to be of l i t t le concern
to the des igner . In some cases , however , such as long-t ime constant integrat ing
networks , holding capaci tors , or capaci t ive vol tage dividing networks , the shunt
leakage path may be important to circui t operat ion , part icularly when IR degra-
dat ion wi th temperature is considered . Under such circumstances the final
choice of d ielectr ic system may be determined by i ts insulat ion resistance
character ist ics .
2 - 68
Figure 43 shows comparat ive values of insulat ion resistance as a funct ion of
temperature for several commonly used dielectrics . - Note that insulat ion resis-
tance is specified in terms of megohm-microfarads , i . e . , the product of the
insulat ion resistance in megohms and the capaci tance in microfarads .
1.000.000
o
< 100,000
(E
<
u.
o
o:
u
10,000
1
5
O
G
UJ
5
2
U 1.000 -
z
<
m
tr
z
o 100
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
FIGURE 43. Insulat ion resistance vs temperature for various d i e l ect r i cs .
Since insulat ion resistance is inversely proport ional to capaci tance value for
a g i v e n style , this product forms a convenient dev i ce for comparison among
various dielectr ic systems . The curves show typical values for wound foil
capaci tors; corresponding values for metal l ized d ielectr ics would be decreased
by a factor of about 2 to 5 .
2 .4. 5 .7 AC operat ion . Two main factors to be considered in ac appl icat ions
of paper and plast ic capaci tors are corona and internal heat r ise . Corona is
not strict ly an ac phenomenon but must be considered because of the relat ively
low vol tages at which ac corona is ini t iated .
Corona offset vol tage is the ac rms vol tage at which corona once ini t iated is
ext inguished as the vol tage is reduced . It should always be used as the cr i ter-
ion for establ ishing safe operat ing levels . The corona onset vol tage is defined
as the point at which corona begins to occur as the vol tage is increased from
zero. The offset vol tage is the lower of the two values .
2 - 69
A typical curve of empirical ly determined corona offset vol tage as a funct ion
of d ie lect r ic thickness (dc vol tage rat ing) is shown in Figure 44 . These curves
apply to unimpregnated Mylar capaci tors . Whi le the curves show the resul ts of
tests conducted at 25°C , other da t a indicates that corona offset vol tage does
not decrease signi f icant ly at temperatures up to 125°C . These curves represent
upper l imi ts for any impregnated plast ic d ie lect r ic capaci tor , since the pres-
ence of air voids is the problem in all cases .
FIGURE 44 . Corona offset vol tage vs Vdc rat ing .
The final and often prinicipal l imi t ing factor in select ing a capaci tor for
ac appl icat ion is internal heat loss , represented by I^R . The "R" in this
expression is composed of the fol lowing series elements:
a. The resistance of the metals used for the leads , electrodes , solder ,
and metal spray . This resistance is primari ly control led in ini t ial
design stages by choice of mater ials , sizes , e tc .
b. The inherent equivalent series resistance of the d ielectr ic mater ial .

This resistance is also control led by ini t ial choice of mater ial .
c. The resistance of the ox ides resul t ing from the interface connect ions
between the various elements compr ising these connect ions . The main
controls on the resistance of these ox ides are manufacturing processes
and workmansh ip .
2 - 70
If other factors have been opt imized to provide minimum series resistance , the
choice of d ielectr ic material becomes the l imi t ing i tem in minimizing heat
generat ion . Figure 42 shows that some dielectr ics have significant ly low d i ss i -
pat ion factors , part icularly polystyrene , Teflon and polycarbonate . Al though
these di fferences compared wi th paper or Mylar are insigni f icant in most appl i -
cat ions , they can be of considerable importance under ac condi t ions .
Polystyrene and Tef lon have other l imi tat ions as d i e l ect r i cs , e . g . l imi ted
operat ing temperature for polystyrene and large physical size for Tef lon .
Polycarbonate is an excel lent choice for ac operat ion . In addi t ion to its low
d issipat ion factor , polycarbonate also has an excel lent temperature coeff icient ,
is capable of operat ion up to 125°C , and is readi ly avai lable in metal l ized
form .
Figure 45 shows some comparat ive ac rat ings for typical metal l ized polycarbon-
ate , metal l ized paper-Mylar , and impregnated paper styles .
FIGURE 45 . Dielectric loss character ist ics .
2 . 4. 5 . 8 Effects of frequency . Dielectric losses tend to increase at high

frequencies^ The character ist ics of high qual i ty paper and plast ic d ie lectr ic
are such that d ie lect r ic losses can be considered constant over the usable
frequency range . The upper usable frequency is then l imi ted by the se l f-
resonant frequency of the dev i ce .
As a general rule , the sel f-resonant frequency of the paper-plast ic fami ly can
be considered a funct ion of capaci tance value and lead length . Figure 46 can
be used as a guide to the typical sel f-resonant frequency of all tubular styles ,
regardless of d ielectr ic mater ial , vol tage rat ing , or case size .
2 - 71
FIGURE 46 . Typical sel f-resonant frequency as a funct ion of capaci tance

for tubular capaci tors wi th 1/4- inch leads."
2 .4. 5 .9 Effects of temperature . The capaci tance variat ion wi th temperature is

often a prime considerat ion in select ion of dielectr ic type . Figure 47 i l lus-
trates typical temperature characterist ics of the dielectr ic types .
2 .4. 5 .10 Dielectric absorpt ion . Dielectric absorpt ion of unimpregnated plast ic
d ie lect r ic capaci tors is 0. 2% or less .
For oi l - impregnated paper styles , the f igure is about 2% , which is essent ial ly
the d ielectr ic absorpt ion of the oi l . For oi l - impregnated plast ic d ie lectr ic
styles , the d ie lect r ic absorpt ion also rises to 2% .
2 .4.6 Environmental considerat ions . Except for MIL Type CTM capaci tors , which
are Mylar d ielectr ic uni ts enclosed wi th an outer Mylar wrap and epoxy end fi l l ,
most paper and plast ic capaci tors are of hermet ical ly sealed metal case con-
struct ion . As such , they are highly resistant to moisture and other hazardous
environments and operate rel iably when used well wi thin their rat ings .
2 - 72
1
PETP FILM
/
/
/
ut /
o
z
< / VITAMIN Q-PAPER
z PETP FILM
(J
UJ VITAM IN Q-PAPER
g
POLYC ARBONATE
£
CL POLY:STYRENIE —
< <
o
POLYP R0PYL ENE & TFE FLLU0R0C:ARBON
-25 0 +25 +50 +75 +100 +125 +150 +175 +200
TEMPERATURE IN °C
FIGURE 47 . Capaci tance change character ist ies at d i fferent

temperatures for various d ie lectr ic mater ials .
2 . 4. 6. 1 Vibrat ion . Al though most paper and plast ic capaci tors are rated for
operat ion at vibrat ion levels up to 15 6 and 2000 MHz , the capaci tor speci f ica-
t ions require that the devices be rigidly mounted by the body dur ing qual i f ica-
t ion tests . For severe vibrat ion requirements , part icularly in the larger case
sizes , supplementary mount ing means should be used to prevent part fai lure due
to lead fat igue .
2 .4.7 Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions .
2 . 4. 7. 1 Fai lure modes and mechan isms . Paper and plast ic capaci tors are subject
to two primary fai lure modes: opens and shorts . This includes intermi t tent
opens and intermi t tent or high-resistance shorts . In addi t ion , a capaci tor may
fail in other ways , such as capaci tance dr i f t , high d issipat ion factor , insta-
bi l i ty wi th temperature , and low insulat ion resistance .
Fai lures can be the resul t of manufacturing defects , electr ical , mechan ical , or
environmental overstress , or eventual wearout due to d ie lect r ic degradat ion
wi th operat ion .
Open capaci tors usual ly occur as a resul t of manufacturing defect s , but occa-
sional ly resul t from overstress in app l icat ion . Fai lure analysis indicates
that about 40% of capaci tor fai lures are "opens" , and the large majori ty of
this populat ion is made up of paper or plast ic types . Most of the open type
fai lures are the resul t of a poorly consummated solder or weld joint between
the end or the roll and the wire lead .
Such latent fai lures wi l l often endure several hours of operat ion wi th no in-
d icat ion of fai lure , but wi l l eventual ly mani fest themselves as open , intermi t -
2 - 73
tent , or high-resistance joints (high d issipat ion factor) under some set of
operat ing cond i t ions , somet imes over a very l imi ted range of ambient tempera-
ture . The frequency of occurrence of this problem is greatest wi th low capaci -
tance values in smal l -diameter cases , part icularly in d iameters of less than
0 . 250 i nch .
As noted above , an open condi t ion can somet imes be caused by operat ing over-
stress . For instance , operat ion of dc rated capaci tors at high ac current
levels can cause local ized heat ing at one of the internal terminat ions as a re-
sul t of l2R losses at that point . Cont inued operat ion resul ts in ox idat ion of
the joint , increased terminat ion resistance and heat ing , and eventual fai lure of
the connect ion . This is one reason that care must be exercised in ac appl i -
cat ions .
Capaci tance dr i f t is not normal ly of serious consequence as a fai lure mode since
most appl icat ions tolerate relat ively wide variat ions in capaci tance value wi th-
out equipment fai lure . Most speci f icat ions al low a max imum change of ±10% for
paper and plast ic devices when subjected to a l ife test of 1000 hours at max imum
rated vol tage and temperature . Derat ing by the design engineer will enhance the
long- term stabi l i ty of these capaci tors .
Temperature instabi l i ty beyond specified manufacturers 1 l imi ts rarely occurs ,

but can be induced by excessive clamping pressures on nonrigid containers , or
can resul t from loose wind ings .
Insulat ion resistance fai lures usual ly resul t from moisture entrapped in the
winding or case dur ing manufacture , or from operat ion of nonhermet ical ly sealed
or improperly sealed uni ts under prolonged exposure to a humid atmosphere .
Part icular care must be taken by the manufacturer in the drying and impregnat ing
of paper capaci tors , since Kraft paper contains about 13% water in i ts natural
form . Fai lure to completely remove this water or to thoroughly impregnate the
winding wi l l resul t in high leakage dur ing operat ion .
Dielectric breakdown and a consequent shorted condi t ion is predominant ly the

most common fai lure mode , and nearly always the ul t imate reason for fai lure of
a properly designed and manufactured un i t .
All the act ive d ie lectr ic material in capaci tors is subjected to the full po-
tent ial to which the capaci tor is charged . To achieve smal l physical size ,
relat ively high electrical stress levels are common . Breakdowns develop after
many hours of sat isfactory operat ion . There are numerous causes for these
breakdowns , many associated wi th slowly changing physical or chemical cond i -
t ions . The ul t imate fai lure is somet imes brought about by abnormal electrical
or mechanical stress .
If a conduct ing part icle is embedded among the electrode and d ie lectr ic layers ,
it may cause an immediate short ci rcu i t . However , if it is suff icient ly smal l
and blunt , it may only create a region of high electrical and mechanical stress .
2 - 74
This part icle will always be under pressure and wi l l tend to slowly push through
the adjacent mater ials . Many d ielectr ics become softer wi th increasing temper-
ature , therefore increasing the internal pressure that produces the part icle
penetrat ion . Thus , higher temperatures promote earl ier fai lure .
Contaminat ion dur ing assembly and traces of impuri t ies in basic materials can
cause general or local ized degradat ion of the dielectr ic or electrode . The pro-
cess is basical ly chemical and higher temperatures resul t in greater act ivi ty
and earl ier fai lure . One common contaminant is water , which promotes hydroly-
sis . Along wi th the associated decomposi t ion , this process provides an abund-
ance of ions to ini t iate a discharge through a weak area .
Many d ielectr ic mater ials , part icularly paper and the plast ics , go through a
slow aging process wherein they gradual ly become more bri t t le and suscept ible
to cracking . The higher the temperature , the faster the process . Once the
capaci tor has aged , it becomes part icularly suscept ible to temperature cycl ing ,
which produces excessive stresses in the capaci tor body .
Dielectric breakdown may also occur as a resul t of swi tching transients or

vol tage surges induced by mal funct ion of associated ci rcu i t ry . Transient ex-
posure is of part icular concern . The device may survive several appl icat ions
of temporary overvol tage wi thout apparent degradat ion , but repeated overstress
wi l l eventual ly cause premature breakdown .
2 . 4. 7. 2 Screening . Proper screening techniques can be highly effect ive in

screening out manufacturing defects and potent ial early l ife fai lures . Screens
for paper and plast ic capaci t ive devices usual ly include temperature cycl ing ,
ESR and DF measurement high frequencies , operat ing vol tage cond i t ion ing , and
seal test .
2 . 4 . 7 . 3 Rel iabi l i ty dera t i ng . Capaci tor fai lure rate rises at an increasing
rate wi th appl ied vol tages and temperatures . Fai lure rate of paper and plast ic
capaci tors is proport ional to a power of the rat io of the appl ied to the rated
vol tage , where the value of the exponent is usual ly in the range of 3 to 6,
depend ing on the type of dielectr ic and the actual port ion of the operat ing range
under considerat ion . The general rule of 50% decrease in operat ing l ife wi th
10°C increase in operat ing temperature up to rate condi t ions also app l ies .
2 .4.7.4 Fai lure rate determinat ion . Basic fai lure rate can be determined from
MIL-HDBK-217 for any combinat ion of vol tage stress and ambient temperature wi th-
in the rat ing of the dev i ce . This fai lure rate should then be mul t ipl ied by the
K-factor appl icable for the intended use . For f l ight appl icat ions , the fai lure
rate obtained from the curves must be mul t ipl ied by 10.
These da t a are intended only as a guide . They indicate the general area of
fai lure rate to be expected wi th paper and plast ic capaci tors in part icular
areas of appl icat ion . For quant i tat ive rel iabi l i ty predict ions , current fai lure
rate da t a for the part type as procured to a part icular speci f icat ion must be
considered .
2 - 75
2.5 CAPACITORS, TANTALUM FOIL
2.5 Tantalum foi l .
2 . 5 .1 Introduct ion . Foil type tantalum capaci tors are probably the most
versat i le of all electrolyt ic capaci tors . They are avai lable in both polar and
nonpolar construct ion and in vol tage rat ings from 3 to 450 vol ts . They are
capab le of operat ion at 125°C wi th proper dera t i ng , and are electrical ly the
most rugged of the three basic tantalum types .
These capaci tors are most commonly suppl ied in nonhermet ical ly sealed styles ,
wi th elastomer seals at ei ther end of the tubular metal case . They are also
avai lable in hermet ical ly sealed cases except in the smal ler case sizes . The
elastomer sealed style is both more economical and more readi ly avai lable .
Their prime d isadvantages when compared wi th other tantalum types are relat ively
large size , fairly large change in capaci tance wi th temperature , and high equ i -
valent series resistance especial ly at cold temperatures . In addi t ion , they
are not sui table for t iming or precision circui ts due to their very wide design
tolerances . Etched foil types can have as much as ten t imes the capaci tance
per uni t area as plain foil types . However , the plain foil types can wi thstand
30 percent higher ripple current , have bet ter capaci tance temperature charac-
ter ist ics , and a low power factor (lower dissipat ion factor) . Plain foil types
a r e a s rel iable as etched foil types . The l ife and capaci tance- temperature
(stabi l i ty at temperature extremes) characterist ics of these devices are
exce l lent .
2.5.2 Usual app l icat ions .
2 . 5 . 2 . 1 Polarized styles . The polarized foil types are used where low-
frequency pulsat ing dc components are to be bypassed or fi l tered out and for
other uses in electronic equipment where large capaci tance values are required
and comparat ively wide capaci tance tolerances can be tolerated . When used for
low-frequency coupl ing in transistor ci rcu i ts al lowance should be made for the
leakage current .
This leakage current could cause excessive base , emi t ter , or col lector currents .
These polarized capaci tors should be used only in dc circui ts wi th polari ty pro-
perly observed . If ac components are present , the sum of the peak ac vol tage
plus the appl ied dc vol tage must not exceed the dc vol tage rat ing . Even though
those uni ts rated at 6 vol ts and above can wi thstand a max imum of 3 vol ts in the
reverse d i rect ion , it is recommended that they not be used in circui ts where
th is reversal is repet i t ious .
2 . 5 . 2 . 2 Nonpolarized styles . The nonpolarized types are primari ly sui table

for ac appl icat ions or where dc vol tage reversals occur . Examples of these
uses are in tuned low-frequency ci rcu i ts , phasing of low vol tage ac motors ,
computer circui ts where reversal of dc vol tage occurs , and servo systems .
2-76
2 , 5 .3 Physical const ruct ion . These capaci tors consist essent ial ly of two thin
tantalum foil sheets , approx imately 0. 5 to 1.0 mi ls thick , wi th a tantalum wire
lead spot-welded to each foi l . The anode foil is electrochemical ly treated to
form tantalum pentox ide (Ta205) on the surface of the foi l . This ex tremely
thin ox ide is the d ie lect r ic material of the capaci tor . The cathode foil is
left unanodized . See Figure 49 .
The two foi ls are then wound into a cyl indrical conf igurat ion wi th two or three
sheets of Kraft paper as spacers . These spacers serve a dual purpose . They
prevent the possibi l i ty of short -circui ts between the two foi ls as a resul t of
rough surfaces or jagged edges on the foi ls and when later impregnated wi th
electrolyte , they help to maintain int imate and uni form contact of the electro-
lyte wi th all surfaces of the anodized foi l .
The rol ls are then taped to prevent unwinding and inserted into a metal l ic case .
They are impregnated wi th a sui table electrolyte (e .g. ethylene glycol) and
sealed . The tantalum leads are brought out through the end seals . A solderable
lead , usual ly nickel , is but t-welded to the tantalum wi re . See Figure 48 .
For nonpolar uni ts , the construct ion is the same as out l ined above except that
the surfaces of both foi ls are formed wi th an ox ide d ielectr ic f i lm .
T A N T A L U M FE E D-
THROUGH LEAD
FIGURE 48 . Out l ine drawing of a tantalum capaci tor (CLR style) .
2 . 5 .3.1 Etching . Both polar and nonpolar uni ts are avai lable ei ther in plain
foil styles or wi th various degrees of etched foi l . By etching the surface of
the tantalum foi l , i t is possible to increase the surface area several -fold
and to correspondingly increase the capaci tance . This increased capaci tance ,
however , is at tained at the expense of higher d issipat ion factor , poorer
capaci tance- temperature character ist ics , and lower ripple current -carrying
abi l i ty than the plain foil styles .
2 - 77
NICKEL LEAD
SEAL 8EAO
CASC
CAPACITOR ELEMENT
(FOIL. SPACER. ELECTROLYTE)
5 ANO TANTALUM LEAD
CASE INSULATOR
LEAOTO FOIL WELD
INSULATOR
GLASS END SEAL
WELD BEAD
HEADER RING
WELD JOINT
INSULATION
FIGURE 49 . Typical construct ion of a tubular tantalum foil capaci tor .
2 . 5 .3. 2 Mount ing . These capaci tors are not intended to be mounted by their
leads , part icularly in the larger case sizes . Cl ips or other restraining
devices should be used to prevent lead breakage in shock and vibrat ion envi ron-
men ts .
In addi t ion , the elastomer end seals on the nonhermet ical ly sealed styles pro-
vide l i t t le restraint to torsional stress on the body of the capaci tor . If the
body is twisted after the leads have been soldered into place to examine the
2 - 78
marking , it is qui te possible that the foi ls will be torn away from the leads
at the internal we lds . This resul ts in an open or intermi t tent capaci tor . The
smal ler case sizes , and part icularly the etched foil types , are especial ly
suscept ible to such mishandl ing . For this reason the capaci tors should be
assembled wi th the marking properly exposed .
2 . 5 .4 Mi l i tary designat ion .
2 . 5 . 4. 1 Appl icable mi l i tary speci f icat ion . Tantalum foil capaci tors are covered
by the fol lowing speci f icat ion :
MIL-C-39006 CLR (establ ished rel lab l l1ty) styles
2 . 5 . 4. 2 Mi l i tary type designat ions . The fol lowing is an example of a typical

mi l i tary cal lout , along wi th a descript ion of the signi f icance of each of the
let ters and digi ts in the designat ion . This is included only for reference in-
format ion .
Type designat ion example
CLR25 B D 600 G S
j : I _ i _ _ r _ _ i _ J _ . _ L
Style Characterist ic Vol tage Capaci tance Capaci tance Type of Fai lure
tolerance seal rate level
2.5.5 Electrical character ist ics .
2 . 5 . 5 . 1 Derat ing . The fai lure rate of tantalum foil capaci tors under oper-
at ing condi t ions is a funct ion of t ime , temperature , and vol tage . Refer to
MIL-STD-975 (NASA) for speci f ic derat ing condi t ions .
2 . 5 . 5 . 2 End-of- l i fe design l imi ts . When operated under electrical and env i ron-
mental condi t ions def ined in the appl icable mi l i tary speci f icat ion , the capaci -
tance can be expected to change by ±15% . The leakage current can increase to
130% of the ini t ial value .
2 . 5 . 5 . 3 Vol tage rat ings . The dc rated vol tages for typical mi l i tary styles are
shown in Table IX.
2 . 5 . 5 . 4 Operat ing temperature range . These capaci tors are sui table for opera-
t ion over a temperature range of -55° to +85°C wi th full rated vol tage appl ied .
2 . 5 . 5 . 5 Reverse vol tage . Whi le it is advisable to operate polarized styles

only in the forward di rect ion , these uni ts are capable of wi thstanding reverse
vol tages up to a value of 3 vol ts wi thout damage . Nonpolarized styles may be
operated at ful l rated vol tage in ei ther di rect ion .
2 - 79
TABLE IX. Vol tage rat ings
Style Anode Vol tage Range

(vol ts)
CLR25 Etched foil 15 to 150

CLR35 Plain foil 15 to 450
CLR37 Plain foil 15 to 375
2 . 5 . 5 .6 Ripple vol tage . Tantalum foil capaci tors are the only tantalum e lec-
trolyt ic capaci tors capable of operat ing cont inuously on unbiased ac vol tages .
Nonpolarized styles may be operated cont inuously on an unbiased ac vol tage wi th
a peak value of 150 vol ts or the dc rat ing of the capaci tor , whichever is less .
Polarized styles must be biased to prevent dc vol tage reversals .
However , in most app l icat ions , vol tage is not the l imi t ing factor . Except at
relat ively low frequencies , ripple is general ly l imi ted by the I. P loss in the
capaci tor . This loss is high because of the relat ively high equivalent series
resistance . The al lowable ripple current is a funct ion of case size , capaci -
tance value , frequency , and ambient temperature .
When complex ripple wave shapes are involved they should be measured on an
osci l loscope or by some other method which wi l l give the peak rat ing. Tantalum
foil capaci tors should be l imi ted to operat ion at ripple frequencies between 60
and 10,000 Hz. Above 10,000 Hz effect ive capaci tance rapidly drops off to the
point where these devices act as pract ical ly pure resistance at frequencies of
only a few hundred kHz .
Figure 50 indicates max imum al lowable ripple vol tage and current for typical
tantalum foil styles . This figure shows al lowable rms values at 60 Hz and 25°C
for the most popular case sizes , as a funct ion of case size and capaci tance
value . Note that for etched foil styles , the values must be mul t ipl ied by 0. 5 .
The al lowable ripple obtained from Figure 50 must then be mul t ipl ied by a fre-
quency correct ion factor (Figure 51) , and a temperature derat ing factor (Figure
52) . Thus , for operat ion wi th an 800 Hz ripple frequency at 35°C ambient , the
vol tage or current value obtained from Figure 50 must be reduced by a factor of
approx imately 8 .
2 . 5 . 5 . 7 DC leakage current . The leakage current of foil tantalum capaci tors

ranges from less than 1 uA to 100 uA or more depending on electrical rat ing,
the type of construct ion , and temperature .
2 - 80
CAPACITANCE IN MICRO FARADS
FIGURE 50. Max imum al lowable ripple vol tage and current
for styles CLR25 , CLR27 . CLR35 & CLP37 .
FIGURE 51. Correct ion factor for max imum al lowable ripple
current vs frequency for tantalum foil capaci tors .
2 - 81
CURV 'ES APPL>f T O BOTI •1 PLAN

AND ETCHED-f =0IL UNITrS
25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 125

T E M P E R A T UR E IN DEGREES
FIGURE 52 . Correct ion factor for max imum al lowable ripple

vol tage vs temperature for tantalum foil capaci tors .
Leakage current , as in all tantalum capaci tors , is the resul t of minute faul ts
in the dielectr ic f i lm . These faul ts tend to be sel f-heal ing under appl ied vol -
tage , so that leakage current wi l l normal ly decrease exponent ial ly wi th l i fe .
Leakage current is roughly proport ional to appl ied vol tage up to the max imum
dc vol tage rat ing .
Leakage current increases rapidly wi th temperature as shown in Figure 53. Note

that leakage at 125°C is about 30 t imes the room temperature value .
2 . 5 . 5 . 8 Effects of frequency . Capaci tance , d iss ipat ion factor or effect ive
series resistance , and impedance wi l l vary wi th the frequency of the appl ied
vol tage .
Capaci tance vs frequency . Typical curves are shown in Figure 54 for frequencies
up to 5 kHz .
2 - 82
Z
UJ
{£
C
D
U
UI
C
<
<
25 50 75 100 125 150

FIGURE 53, Typical curve , rat io of dc leakage current at rated vol tage vs
temperature for foil tantalum capaci tors .
105
100
48yF, 60V-P
— P
95
lOyF, 30V-P
^ ^ ^ N ^ ^ E W F , i o v-P
^ v ^ W HuF, 150V-E
90
\^130yF,3V-P
\ l 2U F, 7 5 V-E
85
-X ' * 5 0 V F 25V-E
N^00yF,19 V-E
80 111 1 ! 1 1 1 II 1 1 f i t
FREQUENCY IN KHz AT 25 C
FIGURE 54 . Effect of frequency on capaci tance of typical

foil type tantalum capaci tors .
2 - 83
Dissipat ion factor vs frequency . Dissipat ion factor (ESR / XQ) increases rapidly
wi th frequency for the higher capaci tance values , mainly because of the large
t ime decrease in capaci t ive reactance relat ive to the fairly smal l decrease of
equivalent series resistance . See Figure 55 for typical curves .
FIGURE 55 . Effect of frequency on d issipat ion factor

of foil type tantalum capaci tors .
Impedance vs frequency . Figure 56 shows typical curves for various capaci tance
values over the range from 60 Hz to 100 MHz for foil tantalum capaci tors . The
curves are simi lar to those of other tantalum types , wi th a downward slope at
low frequencies , a trough in the range about 10-500 KHz , and an induct ive i n-
crease in impedance at higher frequencies . Figures 57, 58 and 59 i l lustrate
temperature correct ion factors to be appl ied to the impedance value obtained
from Figure 56 . Since equivalent series resistance of tantalum foi ls increases
signi f icant ly at low temperatures , these correct ion factors must be taken into
considerat ion in des i gn . Note that impedance at -55°C at a given frequency
may be several t imes the 25°C value .
2 - 84
10,000
2*r
1.000
8MF
2S*lF
100
¥i
2 SOfiF
X
01 IOOMF
m
u
z 10
<
oI I I SOOMF T1UBULARS
•l
2
J.OOO^F
3.500MF
/CSR
0.1
0.01
•G 100 1,000 10K 100K 1M 10M 100M
FREQUENCY Hi
FIGURE 56. Impedance curves for tantalum foil capaci tors at 2 5°C y .
/
s .
B
U
< 8 /L/
J
-S5°C
I -
P •30
(°Ii *3
C
T /
S »
u
1
- ,,
0
100 200 500 IK 2K BK 10K 20K 80K 0.1M 0.2M 0.5M 1M
FREQUENCY - HERT2
FIGURE 57. Tantalum foil impedance correct ion

factors for capaci tance up to t t t f :
2 - 85
7
oc S y - 5 5 °C
o 6
H
u
<
IL 5
z -3Cl°C
o
H 4
U
Ul
cc 3
AC
o
u 2
85/1 2S°C
1
0
|
100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K 20K 50K 0.1M 0.2M 0.5M 1M
FREQUENCY - HERTZ
FIGURE 58 . Tantalum foil impedance correct ion

factors for capaci tance 2-50 yF
500 5K 10K 20K 50K 0 1M .2 M .5M 1M

FREQUENCY - HERTZ
FIGURE 59 . Tantalum foil impedance correct ion factors

for capaci tance 50 yF and over .
2 - 86
2 . 5 . 5 .9 Circui t impedance . No special precaut ions are required wi th foil

tantalum capaci tor current l imi t ing . These uni ts wi l l wi thstand sudden inrush
and d ischarge currents wi thout deleter ious effects .
2 . 5 . 5 .10 Series appl icat ions .
Series operat ion . Whenever tantalum capaci tors are connected in series for
higher vol tage operat ion , a resistor should be paral leled across each uni t .
Unless a shunt resistor is used , the dc rated vol tage can easi ly be exceeded on
the capaci tor in the series network wi th the lowest dc leakage current . To pre-
vent capaci tor dest ruct ion , a resistance value not exceeding a certain max imum
should be used . This value will depend on capaci tance , average dc leakage , and
capaci tor construct ion for plain foil types . The resistance across each capaci -
tor should not exceed 5/C megohms , where C is in microfarads . For etched foil
types use 15/C megohms .
Paral lel operat ion . When tantalum foil capaci tors are connected in paral lel
the sum of the peak ripple and the appl ied dc vol tage should not exceed the
recommended derated dc vol tage rat ing of the capaci tor wi th the lowest rat ing.
The connect ing leads of the capaci tors in paral lel should be large enough to
carry the combined currents wi thout reducing the effect ive capaci tance due to
series lead resistance .
2 . 5 .6 Environmental considerat ions .
2 . 5 .6.1 Stabi l i ty and l i fe . Tantalum electrolyt ic capaci tors have excel lent
l ife and shelf l ife character ist ics . Li fe , at higher temperatures will show a
comparat ively lower decrease in capaci tance . Wi th rated vol tage appl ied , more
than 4,000 hours of l ife can be expected at +85°C . These devices may be ex-
pected to operate at least 1,000 hours at +85°C wi th less than 10 percent loss
of capaci tance .
Because the more stable tantalum f i lm is less subject to d issolving by the sur-
rounding electrolyte than the f i lm in an aluminum capaci tor , the shelf l ife of
the tantalum uni t is much longer , and less reforming is required . After storage
for long periods , the reforming current required is low and the t ime required
for reforming is comparat ively short . Reforming may be expected to take less
than 10 minutes . These propert ies are affected by the storage temperature to a
signi f icant degree , being excel lent at temperatures from -55° to +25°C; good at
+65° and relat ively poor at +85°C .
2 . 5 . 6 . 2 Effects of temperature . The characterist ics of these capaci tors vary

signi f icant ly wi th temperature , part icularly wi th low temperatures .
Capaci tance (C) . Capaci tance change wi th temperature is posi t ive and depends on
capaci tance value and vol tage rat ing . Capaci tance change ranges from a max imum
al lowable of -20% to -40% at -55°C to an increase of +10 to +50% at max imum
operat ing temperature .
2 - 87
Equivalent series resistance (ESR) . ESR increases rapidly at temperatures be-

low 0° as shown in Figure 60 for a typical capaci tor . It may also increase at
temperatures over 80°C and vol tages over 50 Vdc . Figure 61 dep icts variat ion
of impedance wi th temperature and frequency . The increase in impedance at -55°C
in the mid frequencies is essent ial ly due to an increase in ESR .
-25 O +25 +50 +75 +100 +125

FIGURE 60 . Typical curves of impedance , capaci tance , and

equivalent series resistance wi th temperature" for
26-yF, 100-vol t polarized etched-foi l capaci tors .
2 . 5 .7 Rel iabi l i ty cons iderat ions . Foil tantalum capaci tors properly used are
the most rel iable of the three types of tantalum capaci tors . Unless subjected
to electrical or mechanical overstress , the normal fai lure mode is by degrada-
t ion rather than a complete open or short .
2 . 5 .7.1 Fai lure modes and mechan isms . Except for manufacturing defect s , such
as poor welds or improper end seals , a foil tantalum capaci tor eventual ly fai ls
by a decrease in capaci tance beyond some acceptable l imi t . This resul ts from
vaporizat ion of the electrolyte and i ts escape through the end seals , so that
the capaci tor dr ies out . Such fai lures are unl ikely for several thousand hours
of operat ion when used wi thin their rat ings .
2 - 88
10
•53 I
1.0
IZ
2 -40°C >
—
-20°C /
o°c
-
0.1
1
0.06 1 1 1 Mi l l i i i i IIII 1 1 1 1 III! 1 I 1 1 Ii III 1 1 1 1 Mi l
10 100 1M TOM
FREQUENCY IN KHz
FIGURE 61 . Typical curves of impedance wi th frequency at various

temperatures for 200-yF , 6-vol t plain-foi l capaci tors .
2 . 5 . 7. 2 Screening . Establ ished rel iabi l i ty speci f icat ion MIL-C-39006 requires
100% operat ing vol tage condi t ioning to screen out potent ial early l ife fai lures .
Capaci tors which exhibi t excessive leakage are screened out as rel iabi l i ty
hazards . For hermet ical ly sealed types , a 100% seal test is also conducted .
Moun t i ng . Cl ips or other restraining devices /methods should be used to prevent

lead breakage and fat igue in shock and vibrat ion envi ronments .
2.5.7.3 Fai lure rate level de term i nat i on . Consul t MIL-HDBK-217 for current
da t a on the part icular style and quantat ive rel iabi l i ty level pred ict ions .
2 - 89
2.6 CAPACITORS, SOLID TANTALUM
2 .6 Sol id tantalum .
2 .6.1 Introduct ion . Sol id tantalum capaci tors are the most widely used elec-
trolyt ic capaci tors for electronics equ ipment . They have high volumetric
eff iciency , good stabi l i ty wi th t ime and temperature , and are rel iable devices
when properly appl ied .
Because the electrolyte used is sol id and dry , these capaci tors have a more
stable capaci tance- temperature character ist ic than any of the other e l ect ro-
lyt ic capaci tors . Max imum capaci tance variat ion is less than 10% over the
operat ing temperature range of -55°C to +125°C .
Their l imi tat ions are relat ively high leakage current , possible d ie lect r ic
punctures , l imi ted vol tage range avai lable (6 to 100 vol ts) , and a max imum
al lowable reverse vol tage of 15 percent of the rated dc vol tage at +25°C and
only 1 percent at +125°C .
These capaci tors are avai lable in polarized and nonpolarized uni ts under
mi l i tary type des i gnat i ons . ~
2 .6. 2 Usual app l icat ions . These capaci tors . are general ly used where low-
frequency pulsat ing dc components are to be bypassed or fi l tered and where
large capaci tance values are required where space is at a premium , and where
there are signi f icant levels of shock and vibrat ion . These capaci tors are
mainly designed for f i l ter , bypass , coupl ing , blocking , energy storage , and
other low vol tage dc appl icat ions (such as transistor circui ts in missi le ,
computer , and aircraf t electronic equipment) where stabi l i ty , size , we ight ,
and shelf l ife are important factors .
2 .6.3 Physical const ruct ion . The anode consists of tantalum powder mixed
wi th an organic binder and pressed into pel let form . The pel lets are then
sintered in a vacuum oven to decompose and evaporate the binder , yie ld ing a
pel let of high porosi ty and high surface area .
The pel lets are anodized in an acidic bath to form the tantalum pentox ide
d ie lectr ic on all surfaces reached by the e lect rolyte . The pel lets are then
impregnated wi th an aqueous solut ion of manganous sal t , which is pyrolyt ical ly
decomposed to yield manganese d i ox i de . The manganese d i ox i de is the working
electrolyte in sol id form . A carbon compound is appl ied over the surface of
the manganese d i ox i de (Mn02) t 0 al low for appl icat ion of a si lver paint . The
completed pel let is then inserted into a pool of mol ten solder inside the metal
case which is then sealed . The solder is displaced up around the sides of the
pel let to provide an electrical and mechanical bond to the case . Figure 62
shows the construct ion of a typical sol id tantalum capaci tor .
2 - 90
GLASS-TO-METAL
SEAL
-EYELET
POSITIVE
LEAD
FIGURE 62 . Typical construct ion of a sol id tantalum electrolyt ic capaci tor .
2 .6.3.1 Mechanical considerat ions .
Mount ing . Precaut ions must be observed when encapsulat ing these capaci tors in
hard epoxy resins , part icularly wi th the smal ler case sizes .
Shrinking of the pot t ing material induces high pressures of varying intensi ty
on the surfaces of the parts enclosed . For sol id tantalum capaci tors , these
di fferent ial pressures can induce strains (in the case and leads) suff icient to
resul t in fractures of the d ielectr ic f i lm . The conduct ive Mn02 coat ing on the
pel let penetrates these minute openings , and a shorted capaci tor resul ts . Upon
removal of the pot t ing mater ial , the capaci tor wi l l of ten return to norma l .
To el iminate this cond i t ion , these capaci tors must be protected wi th a buffer
coat of resi l ient material such as si l icone rubber . It is important that the
posi t ive end seal be coated , as wel l as the metal l ic case surfaces .
2 - 91
2 .6.4 Mi l i tary designat ion .
2 .6.4.1 Appl icab!e mi 1i tary speci f icat ion . Sol id tantalum capaci tors are
covered by the fol lowing speci f icat ion:
MIL-C-39003 Capaci tors , Fi xed , Electrolyt i c (Sol id Electro-

lyte) , Tantalum , Establ ished Rel iabi l i ty , General
Speci f icat ion for .
2 .6.4. 2 Mi l i tary type designat ion . The fol lowing is an example of a typical
designat ion for an establ ished rel iabi l i ty sol id tantalum capaci tor . For
actual ordering reference , the latest issue of the appl icable M39003 slash
sheet must be consul ted .
GSR13 B 565 <
Style dc rated
T
Capaci tance Capac tance
vol tage tolerance rate level
2 .6. 5 Electrical characterist ics . These capaci tors are avai lable in three
basic case conf igurat ions under MIL-C-39003 . The CSR13 style is procured per
speci f icat ion sheet M39003/01 , and the CSR09 style per M39003/02 and the CSR33
per M39033/06 .
2 .6. 5 .1 Vol tage derat ing . Of all the electrolyt ic capaci tors , the sol id tanta-
lums are the most stable over l ife and posses the lowest capaci tance temperature
characterist ic . The l imi tat ions of the sol id tantalum capaci tors are relat ively
high leakage current (DCL) , l imi ted vol tage range , and relat ively low al lowable
reverse vol tage .
When properly derated , these uni ts may be operated over a temperature range of
-55°C to +125°C . Refer to MIL-STD-975 (NASA) for speci f ic derat ing condi t ions .
The fai lure rate of sol id tantalum capaci tors is a funct ion of temperature ,
vol tage , and circui t impedance . Wi th each 10°C rise in operat ing temperature ,
the fai lure rate approximately doubles . The fai lure rate is also approx imately
proport ional to the cube of the rat io of appl ied vol tage to the rated vol tage .
DC leakage current increases when ei ther vol tage or temperature are increased;
the rate of increase is greater at the higher vol tages and temperatures . A
point can be reached where dc leakage current wi l l avalanche causing the capaci -
tor to be permanent ly shorted . For this reason the max imum rat ings should never
be exceeded and the derat ing guidel ines should be observed .
2 - 92
By increasing circui t impedance , the leakage current is reduced . In high-

impedance circui ts momentary breakdowns will sel f-heal . In low- impedance ci r-
cui ts the sel f-heal ing characterist ics under momentary breakdown of the d ie lec-
tric do not ex ist . The large currents in low- impedance circui ts may cause the
capaci tor to short .
To minimize the incidence of catastrophic shorts due to momentary d ielectr ic

breakdowns , and to al low sel f-heal ing act ion to take place , a series resistance
of 3 ohms per appl ied vol t should appear in series wi th the capaci tor and its
power source , or there should be l imi tat ions on the "turn-on" surge current .
The charging current avai lable to the capaci tor should be one ampere or less .
This need not be a discrete resistor at the capaci tor terminals , but can in-
clude the impedance of the power source and associated circui try provided that
no other large capaci tors are direct ly in paral lel wi th the one to be protected .
2 .6. 5 . 2 End-of-l ife design l imi ts for sol id tantalum capaci tors . Expected
capaci tance change is ±10% and the leakage current change is 200% of ini t ial
l imi t .
2 . 6. 5 . 3 Reverse vol tage . These capaci tors are capable of wi thstanding peak
vol tages in the reverse direct ion equal to 15 percent of their dc rat ing at
+25°C , 10 percent at +55°C , 5 percent at +85°C , and 1 percent at +125°C .
2 .6. 5 .4 Ripple vol tage . These capaci tors may be operated wi th an impressed
ac ripple vol tage , provided the capaci tors do not exceed their heat dissipat ion
l imi ts . Total heat dissipat ion l imi ts depend on the ambient operat ing tempera-
ture and the operat ing frequency .
The individual detai l speci f icat ion should be consul ted for max imum al lowable
ripple vol tage at the frequency and temperature required . However , Figures 63
and 64 give typical ripple vol tage l imi ts for CSR13 styles .
In addi t ion , the sum of the appl ied dc bias vol tage and the peak of the ac
ripple must not exceed the al lowable rated dc vol tage for the appl icable tem-
perature . The permissible ripple vol tage may also be appl ied wi thout a dc bias
vol tage , provided that the negat ive peak ripple does not exceed the al lowable
reverse vol tage .
For example: Referring to Figure 63, a 10 yF capaci tor of any vol tage
rat ing may be operated at 1.9 Vrms , 120 Hz , at 25°C; at 125°C the permis-
sible vol tage is reduced to 0. 75 Vrms . When this same capaci tor is sub-
jected to a ripple frequency of 1000 Hz , the permissible ac must be reduced
by a factor equal to the rat io of the al lowable ripple at 1000 Hz , 25°C ,
(Figure 64) to the al lowable ripple at 120 Hz , 25°C (Figure 63) , i . e . ,
Vrms (1000 Hz , 25°C) = 0.47 Vrms (Figure 63)

0.47
Vrms (1000 Hz, 125°C) = 0. 75 (175") = 0-19 Vrms
2 - 93
10
—'
7
N
z
8
o
1-
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o -
< —
§
00
-
.1 I I I I I III I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 III
C A P A C I T A N C E IN M I CR O F A R A DS
FIGURE 63 . Permissible ripple vol tage vs capaci tance and

ambient temperature at 120 Hz (style CSR13) .
2 . 6 . 5 . 5 Series networks . When sol id tantalum capaci tors are connected in

ser ies , the max imum vol tage across the series should not exceed the recommended
derated vol tage of the lowest rated capaci tor in the group , or else vol tage
d i v i der resistors should be used so that no capaci tor in the group operates at
more than i ts recommended derated vol tage .
2 . 6. 5 . 6 Paral lel network . Whenever sol id tantalum capaci tors are connected in
paral lel , the sum of the peak ripple and appl ied dc vol tage should not exceed
the recommended derated vol tage of the capaci tor wi th the lowest rat ing .
2 - 94
10
o
S>
CM
H
<
cN
I-
\ \
-i
O
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1 1
S
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1
ac
j
.01 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 Mill 1 1 1 1 I N I
10 100 1,000
C A P A C I T A N C E IN M I CR O F A R A D S
FIGURE 64 . Permissible ripple vol tage vs capaci tance

and frequency at 25°C (style CSR13) .
To obtain a higher capaci tance than that avai lable from a single capaci tor , a
number of uni ts may be connected in paral lel . However , because of the pecul iar
fai lure mechanism associated wi th sol id tantalum capaci tors , this is not always
a pract ical approach since each capaci tor requires a resistance in ser ies .
Where there is no series impedance in the paral lel legs and a minute break-
down occurs , the paral lel capaci tors at tempt to dump their charge into the low
impedance faul t . Thus , what might have been a clear ing act ion may become a
catast roph ic fai lure .
2 - 95
2 .6. 5 .7 Dielectric absorpt ion . Dielectric absorpt ion may be observed by the
reappearance of potent ial across the capaci tor after it has been shorted and
the short removed . This character ist ic is important in RC t iming ci rcu i ts ,
triggering systems , and phase-shi f t networks . The curves shown in Figure 65
were establ ished by charging capaci tors for 1 hour at rated vol tage and then
d ischarging them through a dead short for 1 minute .
T I M E - SECONOS
FIGURE 65 . Typical d ielectr ic absorpt ion of sol id -

electrolyte tantalum capaci tors at 25°C .
Vol tage recovery was measured wi th a high- impedance electrometer at the given
intervals indicated on the curves . Increasing the ambient temperature shifts
the curves to the left and decreases the ampl i tude but does not affect the
shape . Shortening charge t ime , lengthening discharge t ime , or decreasing
charging vol tage resul ts in reduct ion of the peak ampl i tude of the curve , but
has l i t t le effect on i ts shape or relat ive posi t ion .
2 . 6 . 5 . 8 The sol id tantalum capaci tor as a circui t e lemen t . The equivalent

circui t of the capaci tor may be represented Tn simpl ified form as shown in
Figure 66 .
2 - 96
FIGURE 66 . Simpl ified equivalent circui t of a capaci tor .
2 .6. 5 .9 DC 1eakage current . DCL for sol id tantalum capaci tors at 25°C range
from less than 1 uA in low capaci tance values to about 20 iiA in the larger
case sizes and capaci tance values . Leakage current general ly decreases wi th
lower temperature , but increases by an order of magni tude at high temperature .
The shunt resistance , Rs , shown in Figure 66 represents the leakage path formed
by an accumulat ion of individual faul ts in the tantalum pentox ide d i e l ect r i c .
These faul ts occur primari ly because of a f ini te residue of impuri t ies which
remain in the tantalum metal desp i te the best pract ical puri f icat ion techn i -
ques . Wherever an impuri ty is encountered , anodizat ion cannot produce a con-
t inuous Ta205 layer of uni form thickness . The resul t is a minute hole or thin
spot in the d ielectr ic layer that can be fi l led wi th the manganese d i ox i de
(Mn02) sol id electrolyte or wi th ai r . Compared wi th Ta205 , ei ther of these
materials wi l l al low relat ively heavy conduct ion under condi t ions ex ist ing
wi thin the capaci tor .
Simple probabi l i ty d ictates that the larger the capaci t ive area , the larger
the number of impuri ty si tes encountered , and the higher the leakage curren t .
Actual leakage current in a given appl icat ion is then a funct ion of capaci tance
value , vol tage rat ing , appl ied vol tage , and temperature . Typical curves of
leakage current vs appl ied vol tage are shown in Figure 67 (A, B , and C) .
2 - 97
20
10
/ 90
//
- 20
/
/ +85°C
10
- /
10
II 1 1 1 1 1 1
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+25°C>
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1 5 10 15 20 30 35
2 5 0 20 30 : 5 10 2
VOLTS DC VOLTS DC VOLTS 0C
A . Typical curves B . Typical curves C . Typical curves

for 6. 8 yF, 35 for 47 uF, 35 for 68 yF 20
vol t capaci tor vol t capaci tor vol t capaci tor
FIGURE 67. DC leakage current vs appl ied vol tage for sol id tantalum capaci tor .
2 - 98
2 . 6. 5 . 10 Effects of frequency . Capaci tance , effect ive series resistance , dis-

sipat ion factor , and impedance all vary wi th the frequency of the appl ied vol t -
age . Usual ly the main concern wi l l be the cumulat ive total effect of the equi -
valent circui t , i . e . , impedance . A brief discussion of each of these parameter
variat ions fol lows:
Capaci tance vs frequency . The rated capaci tance value of these capaci tors is
speci f ied as measured at 120 Hz. The apparent capaci ty decreases wi th frequency
as shown in Figure 68 .
H I
60yF, 6V
^ ^S^S^lOwf.'- 15V
20V
-
^ ^ ^ 1 5 0 y F . 55V
^ ^ ^ hoOvF, 20V
\ \ \ 4.7yF, 35V
\ / ^ 3 3 w F . 36V
^ 2 2 y F , 35V
i II i i i i i ii i 1 1 1 1 11 J 1
.06 .1 .12
FREQUENCY IN KHz
FIGURE 68 . Capaci tance vs frequency for typical

sol id tantalum capaci tors at 25°C .
Dissipat ion factor vs frequency . Dissipat ion factor (ESR/Xc) is direct ly por-
port ional to frequency , and would theoret ical ly be a straight l ine plot if R
and C were ideal . Actual typical curves are shown in Figure 69.
2 - 99
FIGURE 69. Dissipat ion factor vs frequency for typical

sol id tantalum capaci tors at 25°C.
Impedance vs frequency . The impedance of a solifl tantalum capaci tor at lower

frequencies consists essent ial ly of the combinat ion of capaci t ive reactance
and equivalent series resistance . As shown in Figure 70 thru 73, the ini t ial
downward slope of the curves is due primari ly to capaci t ive reactance . The
trough of the curves is almost total ly resist ive , and the sel f- inductance of
the device no longer funct ions as a capaci tor , and impedance increases wi th
increasing frequency .
It can be seen that the troughs of the curves typical ly bot tom out in the
500 kHz to 1 MHz range in the higher capaci tance values , and that in the lower
capaci tance ranges (1 uF and less) the impedance curve tends to bot tom out in
the 1 to 10 MHz range . For these lower capaci tance values , variat ion of
impedance wi th frequency closely resembles that of paper capaci tors .
It should be emphasized that the curves shown are typical . In design appl ica-
t ions where impedance over a part icular frequency range is cri t ical , special
requirements may be in order . Actual impedance values , part icularly at high
frequencies , may vary signi ficant ly from the values shown on the curves .
2 - 100
10
C
2O
1
1 1 1 Mill
X
O
/
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2: -80°C
< +125°C
Q +25°C
9= .10 \
1 1 1 Mill
+125°C
i i i inn 1 III lltl 1 I I t II I 1 1 1 1 mi

.1 10 100 1M 10M
FREQUENCY IN KHz
FIGURE 70 . Typical curves of impedance vs frequency at various temper-

atures for sol id tantalum 330-uF , 6-vol t capaci tors .
1 1 1 Mill
Y -aouc
>
/ I / -40 ° c
/ / I / - +25°C
2IJ
•E
O
j^- +85°C
o
z s\XNJ / +12 5 C
< - ^NS^ / t N / 1I — °
o
1 1 1 1 III!
I M i mi 1 1 II III 1 II 1 Mil 1 1 1 1 Mil
FREQUENCY IN Hz

atures for sol id tantalum 68-pF , 20-vol t capaci tors .
2 - 101
100
r -80°C
\ r -40°C
r- +25°C
j - +80° C
- .
\ r •12S°C
g 1.0
M
L 1 1 1 llll 1 III llll i i i IIIII i i 11m i 1 1 1 Mill

.IK IK 10K 100K 1M 10M
FREQUENCY IN Hz

atures for sol id tantalum 6. 8-yF , 35-vol t capaci tors .
10K 100K
FREQUENCY IN Hz

atures for sol id tantalum 47-uF» 35-vol t capaci tors .
2 - 102
2.6.6 Environmental cons i derat i ons .
2 . 6 . 6 . 1 Effects of t empera t ure . The capaci tance of sol id tan ta lum capaci tors
is relat ively stable wi th t empera t ure . This is also true of impedance , as
shown in Figures 74 through 77 .
T E M P E R A T U R E IN DEGREES C E N T I G R A D E
FIGURE 74 . Typical curves of i mpedance , capac i t ance , and equ iva len t series
res istance vs . temperature for 330-yF , 6-vol t capac i t ors . "
2.0
x
IMPEDAN ICE
R
m
m •
8i .o
£ ••
.8 CAPACIT- ANCE ^ E1QUIVALI E N T S E R I ESRESIS1 rANCE
L AI
-80 -50 -25 0 425 *50 *?5 4100 • 125
T E M P E R A T U R E IN OEGREES C E N T I G R A D E
FIGURE 75 . Typical curves of i mpedance , capac i t ance , and equ i va l en t series

res istance vs . temperature for 68°yF , 20-vol t capac i t ors .
2 - 103
T E M P E R A T U R E IN D E G R E E S C E N T I G R A D E
FIGURE 76. Typical curves of impedance , capaci tance , and equ iva lent series
resistance vs . temperature for 6 . 8-yF , 35-vol t capaci tors .
T E M P E R A T U R E IN DE G R E E S C E N T I G R A D E
FIGURE 77 . Typical curves of impedance , capaci t ance , and equ ivalent series
resistance vs . temperature for 47- uF, 35-vol t capaci t ors .
2 - 104
2 . 6 . 6 . 2 Operat ing temperature range . These capaci tors are sui table for opera-
t ion over a temperature range of - 5 5° to +85°C at full rated vol tage .
2 . 6 . 6 . 3 Effects of temperature on fai lure ra t e . Fai lure rate approx imately

doub l es wi th each 10°C rise in operat ing tempera ture .
2 . 6. 7 Rel iabi l i ty cons i dera t i ons .
2 . 6 . 7 . 1 Fai lure modes . A sol id tan ta lum capaci tor is subject to two primary
fai lure modes ; open or intermi t tent internal connect ions and shorted d i e l ec-
t r i c . Other possib le fai lure modes include change in capaci tance or d i ss i pa-
t ion factor wi th opera t i on , and an increase in leakage curren t beyond certain
l i m i ts .
Leakage current changes , even up to 100% , would not normal ly be sign i f icant in
app l icat ions of these capac i t ors . In fact , leakage current normal ly decreases
dur i ng ini t ial hours of opera t i on , tend ing to remain constan t or decreas i ng
sl ight ly t hereaf t er . Si mi l ar l y , changes in capaci tance and d i ss i pa t i on factor
are smal l enough to present no real prob lem in normal app l i cat i ons .
Open or intermi t tent cond i t ions are usual ly the resul t of d i scre t e manufact ur-
ing defec t s , such as loose slugs due to inadequate solder ing , poor internal
we l ds , or solder shor ts .
The primary fai lure concern in sol id tan ta l um capaci tors then , is the short
ci rcu i t , wh ich usual ly const i tutes a catast roph i c ci rcu i t fai lure as wel l as a
capaci tor fa i lure .
2 . 6 . 7 . 2 Fai lure mechan i sm . As d iscussed under leakage curren t , all sol id

tan ta lum capaci tors have faul ts in the d i e l ect r i c because of a residue o f
impur i t ies .
Each impuri ty si te in the d i e l ect r i c produces leakage current when a conduct ive
material is presen t . Leakage currents would be many t imes larger than they are ,
if it were not for a change in Mn02 st ructure that takes place oppos i te the
faul t si tes . As dc vol tage is appl ied to the capaci tor , high current dens i t i es
are produced in the fau l ts . The high curren t produces heat ing in the Mn02
oppos i te the fau l t . At elevated temperature , Mn02 undergoes spontaneous reduc-
t ion to lower ox i des . The lower ox ides coincidenta l ly d i sp l ay much higher e l ec-
trical res i st i v i t i es , effect ively reducing the leakage current that or iginal ly
produced the hea t i ng .
If a relat ively smal l faul t si te is encoun tered , the mechan i sm just descr ibed
may permanent ly reduce the leakage current associated wi th that si te to a very
low va l ue . Since this process can con t i nue indef ini tely in service , the
capaci tor tends to improve wi th age .
2-105
Fa i l ure is be l i eved t o occur because re l a t i ve l y large i mpur i t i es m i gra t e to

t he anode-d i e l ec t r i c i n t erface dur i ng opera t i on . This act ion crea tes defec t s
wh i ch are too l arge t o be se l f -hea l i ng . The amount of curren t f low may be
suf f i c i en t to produce l oca l i zed hea t i ng wh i ch des t roys a st i l l l arger area of
d i e l ec t r i c . Since t he ox i des of manganese have a nega t i ve t empera t ure coef f i -
c i en t of res i s t i v i t y , excess t empera t ure rise in t he defect zone can cause loss
of control of l eakage curren t . Th is leads to t herma l runaway and ca t as t roph i c
fa i l ure . Since t he m i gra t i on rate is t empera t ure dependen t , the fa i l ure rate
is a l so t empera t ure dependen t .
Because of t h i s i nheren t therma l runaway prob l em* sol i d Tan t a l um capac i t ors
shou l d not be used in power supp l y f i l t er app l i ca t i ons or ot her app l i ca t i ons
where t he ef fec t i ve ser i es res i s t ance is l ess t han one ohm per vo l t .
For G r a d e 1 app l i ca t i ons* add i t iona l surge curren t t es t i ng 1s requ i red as

ou t l i ned in MIL-STD-975 .
2 . 6 . 7 . 3 Screen i ng . To screen ou t manufac t ur i ng defect s and potent ial ear ly

l i fe fa i l ures , t he fo l l ow i ng screen i ng t es t s are usua l l y performed : t empera t ure
cyc l i ng , opera t i ng vo l t age cond i t i on i ng , v i bra t i on , surge curren t at -55° , +25°
and +85°C and X-ray .
2 . 6 . 7 . 4 Re l i ab i l i t y dera t i ng . The fa i l ure rate of sol id t an t a l um capac i t ors

under opera t i ng cond i t i ons is a funct i on of t i me , t empera t ure , and vo l t age .
Refer t o MIL-STD-975 (NASA) for spec i f i c dera t i ng cond i t i ons .
2 . 6 . 7 . 5 Fa i l ure rate de t erm i na t i on . For actual quan t i t a t i ve pred i c t i on pur -

poses , curren t fa i l ure rate da t a shou l d be consu l t ed for the par t as procured to
a par t i cu l ar spec i f i ca t i on , s t y l e , and re l i ab i l i t y l eve l . For fur t her i nforma-
t i on , refer to MIL-HDBK- 217 .
2-106
2.7 CAPACITORS, WET SLUG TANTALUM
^2 . 7 Wet slug t an t a l um .
2.7.1 In t roduc t i on . The l iqu id e l ec t ro l y t e s i n t ered-anode t an t a l um e l ec-

t ro l yt i c capac i t or , common l y known as the "wet s l ug , " was the f i rst
t ype of t an t a l um capac i t or to be deve l oped for l arge-sca l e produc t i on . The
ou t s t and i ng advan t age of the we t -s l ug t ype is i ts h igh vo l ume t r i c ef f i c i ency .
For capac i t ance values in the m i crofarad range , it wi l l genera l l y pro-
vide the sma l l es t case size ava i l ab l e in a given vol tage rat ing . However , it
has two ou t s t and i ng d i sadvan t ages . It cannot t o l era t e reverse vol tage of
any magn i t ude for even shor t per i ods of t i me , and its e l ec t ro l y t e , wh i ch is
a su l fur i c aci d sol u t i on in l iqu id or gel form , is h igh ly corros i ve and can
damage ne i ghbor i ng ci rcu i t ry if it leaks ou t . For t hese reasons , t hese
capac i t ors shou l d be cons i dered nonpreferred s ty l es . Fi rst cons i dera t i on
shou ld always be gi ven to sol i d or foi l t ype t an t a l um capac i t ors . We t -
s lug capac i t ors shou l d be used only when the requ i red funct i on can
be f i l l ed by no ot her ava i l ab l e s t y l e . Recen t l y , the CLR 79, MIL-C-39006 / 2?
has been added to MIL-C-39006 . Th is un i t is ident ical to t he CLR 65 except
that the case is all t an t a l um rather than s i l ver , it has a t hree-vo l t
dc reverse capab i l i t y , and a high perm i ss i b l e r ipp le curren t capab i l i t y than
other we t -s l ug capac i t ors .
Due to the a l l - t an t a l um cons t ruc t i on of the par t , there is nc s i lver

m i gra t i on . Elect r ical spec i f i ca t i ons are i nc l uded in MIL-STD-975 (NASA) .
)zm7.2 Usual app l i ca t i ons . These capac i t ors are used ma i n l y in power supp l y
f i l ter c i rcu i t s . They are ava i l ab l e as s ingle-ce l l un i ts w i t h vol tage
rat ings to about 125 Vdc , and in mu l t i un i t ser ies or ser i es-para l l e l
packages w i t h rat ings to several hundred vo l t s . They are s t r i ct l y po l ar
dev i ces and are not ava i l ab l e in a nonpo l ar conf i gura t i on because of
the i r ex t reme sens i t i v i t y to vol t age reversa l .
2 . 7 . 3 Physical cons t ruc t i on . The anode cons i s t s of a slug formed by press-

ing and s i n t er i ng t an t a l um powder into a porous cyl indr ica l s t ruc t ure .
Th is slug is then e l ec t rochem i ca l l y t rea t ed to form a coa t i ng of t an -
t a l um pen t ox i de on all t he surfaces of t he granu l es . The anod i zed f i lm
serves as the capac i t or d i e l ec t r i c , and the th i ckness of the f i l m de t er -
m i nes the vol t age ra t i ng . The s l ug , w i t h a t an t a l um w i re lead ex t end i ng , is
assemb l ed into a drawn case wh i ch serves as the ca t hode . The case is
f i l l ed , and t he s l ug i mpregna t ed w i t h a h igh ly conduc t i ve e l ec t ro l y t e , usua l l y
a d i l u t e su l fur i c acid so l u t i on in gel form .
The e l ec t ro l y t e serves as t he connec t i on be t ween the d i e l ec t r i c fi lm

and the ca t hode . The case is sea l ed at the pos i t i ve end , and a so l derab l e
lead is bu t t -we l ded to the t an t a l um l ead emana t i ng from t he end sea l .
2-107
Unt i l recent ly these capaci tors were ava i lab le only in a nonherme t i -
cal ly sealed style , the end seal cons i st i ng of a comb i nat i on of Tef lon and
e lastomer bushings and 0-r ings wh i ch were compressed and retained by cr imp ing
the case (see Figure 78) . Wh i le this type of seal is normal ly qu i te effect ive
over temperature ex t remes , ex tended temperature cycl ing wi l l of ten cause e l ec-
t rolyte l eakage .
ANOOELEAD
G R O O V E IN B U S H I N G
T E F L O N BUSHING
LIP O F C A S E C R I M P E D A N O D E A N D SEAL END OF C A P A C I T O R

INTOO-RING
ELASTOMER O-RING
G R O O V E IN B U S H I N G
ELASTOMER O-RING
' C A S E CRIMPED INTO O-RING
I ky.7- •SILVER CASE
ANODE- r.v.v.
- ACID ELECTROLYTE
[;>yi ,
INSULATOR
•CATHODE LEAD
FIGURE 78 . Typical const ruct ion of an e lastomer seal des i gn .
Hermet ical ly sealed styles , such as MIL type CLR65 , are also ava i lab le and are
shown in Figure 79 . This type of const ruct ion e l iminates the prob l em of ex ter-
nal leakage but the capaci tor is st i l l subject to fai lure by leakage of e l ec-
t rolyte past the inner seal . Disp lacement of e l ect rol yte past the Tef lon seal
into the area of the ad jacent glass seal wi l l resul t in a high leakage path
between the post ive lead and the case .
2-108
ANODE LEAD
HIGH-TEMPERATURE SOLDER EXTERNAL GLASS-TO-METAL

(WELD FOR CLR 7 9 ) WELD / HERMETIC SEAL
ELASTOMER SEAL
IL t P t I
K - J • PTFE S E A L
•GELLED ELECTROLYTE
W I R E - T O - P E L L E T WELI
m r —- — -t r
»\ i
i «\ ii _ ^
FINE SILVER CASE
( T A N T A L U M CASE
FOR CLR 7 9 )
SPACER
WELD
CATHODIC ETCH
CATHODE LEAD
FIGURE 79 . Typical const ruct i on of a hermet ical ly sealed

wet -s l ug t an t a l um capac i t or . '
2 . 7 . 4 Mi 1i tary des i gna t i on . Wet -slug t an t a l um capaci tors are covered by the
fol1 owing speci f icat ion :
MI l -C-39006 Establ ished Re l i ab i l i ty . Styles CLR 65 and CLR 79

covers the hermet ical ly sealed types , Figure 80 .
2-109
TERMINAL SOLDERED OR WELDED TO CASE
° | *)f °
£2222
CASE
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
FIGURE 80 . Out l ine drawing of a hermet ical ly sealed capaci tor .
2.7.5 Electrical charact er i s t i cs .
2 . 7 . 5 . 1 Rat ings . These capaci tors are ava i lab le as single uni ts in vol tage
rat ings up to about 125 Vdc , and in capaci tance values to about 600 uF, de -
pending on the vol tage rat ing . They are also ava i lab le in packaged un i ts ,
cons ist ing of several individual capaci tors in paral lel or ser i es . Paral lel
arrangemen ts are at rat ings to several thousand microfarads at low vol tages ,
and to about 10 pF at 600 Vdc . These ranges are also covered by the pre-
ferred sol id or foil types , though usual ly at some increase in size .
2 . 7 . 5 . 1 . 1 Derat i ng . The fai lure rate of wet -s lug tan ta l um capaci tors under
operat ing cond i t ions is a funct ion of t i me , temperature and vol tage . Refer
to MIL-STD-975 (NASA) for speci f ic dera t i ng cond i t i ons .
2 . 7 . 5 . 2 Reverse vol t age . These capaci tors , wi th the except ion of the CLR 79
wh ich has a 3 vol t reverse capabi l i ty at 85°C , cannot be operated wi th any re-
verse b i as . The capaci tor wi l l fai l in a short t ime due to si lver plat ing
act i on .
2-110
2 . 7 . 5 , 3 Ripp le vo l t age . The max i mum al l owab l e r i pp l e vol t age is a funct i on of

case s i ze , work i ng vol t age and frequency . Figure 81 shows the max i mum a l l owab l e
r ipp le vol t age at 1 kHz at amb i en t t empera t ures up to 85°C for CLR 65 case
s i zes . Mu l t i p l y i ng factors for the app l i ed frequency can be ob ta i ned from
F i gure 82 .
9.0
8.0
7.0
UJ
0
2 e.o
JU
> «
WO 5.0
*5
1£
^ 5 4.0
I
X
I 2.0
1.0
20 40 60 SO 100 120 140 160

RATED D C WORKING VOLTAGE
FIGURE 81 . Max i mum perm i ss i b l e r i pp l e vo l t age as a funct i on

of rated work i ng vol tage for typical CLR 65 .
-125C
:
\
âsc
•**2SC
\
-
;
1111 I MI 1 UJ
.OS .1 .6 <.0 $ 10 SO 100 1000
FREQUENCY IN KI10MCRT2
FIGURE 82e Correct i on factor for RMS r i pp l e vo l t age as a

funct ion of frequency at var i ous t empera t ures .
2-111
2 . 7 . 5 . 4 Ripple curren t s . Figures 83 through 86 represent a number of typical

t empera t ure rise vs . rms r ipple curren t plots for var ious capaci tance / vol tage
case sizes (CLR 79) .
/
GO
O
-
r
J
H
09 j
m <40
B
— 3.G/4F/ 125Ui IZOHx
H — lO/iF . SOU , 120Hz
B
m
3
/
— 3 . 6/iF , 12SU , 40XHz
H
€ -10/iF« SOU ! 40KHz
X
W 20
ft.
i
H -
200 400 SOO BOO lOOO 1 2 00 1400
RIPPLE CURRENT IN mAr-mi
FIGURE 83 . Case T1 temperature rise as a funct ion of ripple current ,
GO
200 400 GOO 800 lOOO 1200 1400
RIPPLE CURRENT IN mAr-mm
FIGURE 84 . Case T2 temperature rise as a funct ion of ripple curren t .
2-112
GO
2S/iF , 12SU i 120Hz

I
u 5fe/iF , 120Hz
s 25/iF ,
3 12SU , 40XHz
I
h S60/ iF , 6U , 40KHz
€
K 20
Uf t ,
400 800 1 2 00 1600 2000 2400 2800
RIPPLE CURRENT I 14 mAr>m«
60
©u
M
W 40
M
K
H
K
5
N
€
06 20
H
f ik
*00 800 1200 1SOO 2000 2400 28DO
RIPPLE CURRENT IN n i Arms
2-113
2 . 7 . 5 . 5 DC leakage curren t . Leakage curren t of wet -slug capaci tors is qui te

low , in the order of a few uA or less at room temperature and rated vol t age .
Leakage curren t increases by approx imately an order of magn i tude at max i mum
rated t empera t ure .
2 . 7 . 5 . 6 Power factor and equ i va l en t series res i s t ance . The power factor o f
wet -s lug capaci tors measured a t standard cond i t i ons (120 Hz , 25°C) ranges from
a l lowab le max imum values o f abou t 2% to 60% , depend i ng on capaci tance and
vol tage rat ing . This order of magn i tude is typical of all types of e l ect rol y-
t i c capaci tors and is usual ly of l i t t le concern in typical f i l ter ing app l i ca-
t i ons . A t low t empera t ures , however , equ i va l en t series res istance increases
rap i d l y . This effect , in comb i nat i on w i th a typical correspond i ngl y large
decrease in capaci tance at low t empera t ures , may require a capaci tor of large
nominal value to be selected for proper ci rcu i t operat ion over the temperature
range . (Figure 87) .
TEMP . IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE TEMP . IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE
FIGURE 87 . Typical curves of equ i va l en t series resistance as a funct ion

of temperature (all vol tage rat ings shown are 85°C rat i ngs) .
2-114
Figure 88 is a plot of equ iva len t ser ies res istance (ESR) vs frequency for
various case s i zes . When capaci tors are to be used in ci rcu i ts operat ing
between 10 kHz and 100 kHz , impedance measuremen ts at 40 kHz (CLR 79) should
be considered as a screen ing requ i remen t .
FIGURE 88 . Effects of frequency on ESR .
2 . 7 . 5 . 7 Effect of frequency . Figures 89 and 90 show typical curves of impedance

vs frequency and temperature for wet -s lug capaci tors . The effect of capaci tance
decrease and ESR increase at low temperature is readi ly apparen t .
2-115
0
o- ^ N v
o-
2C
J4 - \
X
o
3- -40°C
2-
m20°C
5I
i -
3- ^ E — ^
?—
I 1 I 11 Mill ... 1 I I Mill! 1 1 1 Mill I 1 1 Mil i i 11 m i

FREQUENCY IN Hz
FIGURE 89. Typical curves of impedance wi th frequency at various

temperatures for we t -s l ug capaci tors 25yr at 125°C Vdc
(all vol tage rat ings shown are 85°C rat ings
FIGURE 90. Typical curves of impedance wi th frequency at var ious

temperatures for wet -s l ug capaci tors 560 uF at 6 Vdc
(all vol tage rat ings shown are 85°C rat ings) .
2-116
" 2 . 7 . 5 . 8 Circui t impedance . There are no par t icu lar l imi tat ions on wet -slug
tan ta lum capaci tors wi th respect to inrush curren t . There is some evidence to
indicate that repeated d i scharge into a low impedance load may have a cumu lat ive
degrad ing effect . Sudden d ischarge of these devices somet imes resul ts in the
generat ion of transient reverse vol tages . Since exposure to reverse vol tage
wi l l cause these capaci tors to fai l , operat ion under condi t ions where such
d ischarges may occur should be avoi ded .
2 . 7. 6 Environmental cons i dera t i ons .
2 . 7 . 6 . 1 Effects of temperature . At low frequenci es , the capaci tance of these

devices wi l l decrease by about 15 to 65% , depend ing on rat ing . Equivalent , series
resistance also increases rapidly at low temperatures (Figures 87 and 91) .
2 . 7 . 6 . 2 Temperature cycl ing . Repeated temperature cycl ing wi l l usual ly resul t

in e lect rolyte leakage in a high percen tage of e l astomer-sea l ed wet-slug-c ' apaci-
tors . This wi l l often resu l t in no apparent decrease of capaci tance or some
other funct ional degradat ion of the capaci tor i tsel f , but the corros ive e l ect ro-
lyte may damage adjacent ci rcu i t ry . Depending on the type and qual i ty of the
seal and the severi ty of the temperature excurs i ons , leakage may occur in as few
as 5 or 6 cycles , or may not occur unt i l 100 or more cycles .
There is some evidence that e lect rolyte leakage is aggravated by exposure to low
j temperatures in test chambers cooled by CO2 .
Su l fur i c acid has an aff ini ty for carbon d iox ide , and wi l l readi ly absorb it if
negat ive internal pressure deve loped at low temperatures al lows passage of the
gas into the e lect rolyte . Then , as the temperature is raised , expansion of the
absorbed CO2 generates a posi t ive pressure inside the capaci tor case and forces
e lect rolyte out past the sea l . Thus , it is possib le that some of the fai lures
observed in temperature cycl ing are ar t i f ical ly acce l erated . In any even t , the
hermet ica l ly sealed style should always be speci f ied when wet -s lug capaci tors
are used .
2 . 7 . 6 . 3 Shock and vibrat ion . As wi th other capaci tor t ypes , component speci -
f icat ion vibrat ion tests are always conducted wi th the body of the capaci tor
securely moun t ed . For high levels of shock and v i brat i on , these capaci tors
may require supplementary moun t i ng , part icular ly in the larger case s izes .
2.7.7 Rel iabi l i ty cons iderat ions .
2 . 7 . 7 . 1 Fai lure modes and mechan isms (see Table X) . Accord i ng to most manufac-
turers 1 descr i p t i ons , the predominant fai lure mode of e l astomer-sea l ed we t -s l ug
capaci tors is gradual loss of capaci tance wi th opera t i on , and an u l t imate open
circui t cond i t ion . This is the resul t of the gradual vapor izat ion of the e l ec-
t rolyte past the seal into the surround ing atmosphere . The rate of e lect rolyte
loss is direct ly affected by the capaci tor temperature . W i t h the decrease in
capaci tance there is concurrent increase in ESR , again because of e lect rolyte
\ loss .
2-117
N
Z
1 . 5
0
N
H
OS
H
z
«
H
5
«
€
g
-SO -2S O +25 +SO +75 +100 +125
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CELSIUS
+75 +100 +125
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CELSIUS
FIGURE 91. Typical curves of capaci tance as a funct ion of temper-

ature (all vol tage rat ings shown are 85°C rat ings) .
2-118
TABLE X. Fai lure nodes and mechan isms (CLP 65 style)
Fai lure Descr ipt ion / Cause Detect ion Method Method to Min imize |
Mechan i sm or El iminate Cause
E l ec- Faul ty cr imp ing of Thymol blue or l i tmus Use of hermet ica l ly
t rolyte e lastomer sea l s , paper test . Increase in sealed capaci tor
leakage riser wi re out d iss ipat ion factor or des i gn ; use gel led
of round or has decrease in capaci tance . e lect rolyte to m i n i -
scratches and Temperature cycl i ng , m i ze mob i 1 i t y .
abras i ons . burn- in , seal test ,
insulat ion resistance .
Leakage past inner Increased leakage cur- Use of hermet ic capac-

seal causing e l ec- rent or short ci rcu i t . i tors having ful ly
t rolyte to br idge Temperature cycl i ng , anodized anode riser
anode lead to burn- i n . through the seal and
cathode . external nickel lead
a t tachmen t .
Si lver Reverse vol tage High leakage curren t , App l i cat i on must
depos i - on capac i t or . lower ESR , short c i r- ensure vol tage is
t ion on cu i t . never reversed during
anode use or tes t . Minimize
ripple curren t . Use
of designs ut i l izing
t i t an i um or tan ta lum
cases .
Mechan- Warped slugs , Rad iograph ic inspec- Improved process con-

ical slugs cocked in t i on . trol .
defects case , canted sea l s ,
bent or improper
length r isers , etc .
For a properly manufactured and screened device that has not been m i shand l ed
dur ing test inspect ion and that has never been sub jected to reverse vol tage ,
even of a t rans i en t nature , the above fai lure mode is probab ly the most l ikely .
However , fai lure analysis exper ience indicates that the main prob lem source
for th is device is app l i cat i on of reverse vol tage .
Since the tan ta l um pen tox i de d i e l ect r i c is a rect i f ier , the f i lm conducts in the
d i rect ion of the reverse vol tage and can be damaged or des t royed , depend ing on
the magn i t ude and durat ion of the reverse vol tage . In add i t i on , reverse current
causes e lect rop lat ing of si lver from the case onto and beneath the ox ide layer .
This increases the current leakage pa t hs , resul t ing in increased d iss ipat ion and
\ internal heat rise , l iberat ion of gases , and catast roph ic fa i lure . The forma-
/ t i o n of hydrogen and oxygen gases at the electrodes creates excess ive internal
pressure and can resul t in e lect rolyte leakage or burst ing of the case .
2-119
Mll-HDBK-978- B (NASA)

A l though these devices are capab le of some sel f-heal ing act i on , vol tage rever-
sals introduce an incipient fai lure mechan i sm which is largely unpred i ctab l e .
The final effect of reverse bias depends on the magn i tude of the vol tage and
t ime of app l i cat i on , since the amount of p lat ing act ion is a cou lomb ic func t i on .
The vol tage threshold is very low , and levels of less than 100 mv have caused
fa i l ure , given enough t i me . In add i t i on , there appears to be no pract ical way
of test ing these capaci tors to determi ne whe t her they have been subjected to
shor t - t i me reversals .
Reverse polar i ty can be app l ied in several ways , even from the terminals of an
ohme t er during part inspect ion , board tests , or tests at the subsystem or
sys t em level . In add i t i on , reverse polar i t ies have been appl ied at some unsus-
pected operat ional phase , such as dur ing system turn-on or stand-by pos i t i on ,
interact ions of fai lures or removal of other par ts , power l ine t rans i en t s , etc .
For these reasons , these devices must be used wi th a full knowledge of the i r
l i mi tat i ons .
2 . 7 . 7 . 2 Screen ing . Temperature cycl ing and operat ional vol tage cond i t ion ing
are the most commonly used screen ing techn iques for these capaci tors . Temper-
ature cycl ing is used to screen out uni ts wi th improper or defect i ve seals , as
ev i denced by e lect rolyte leakage . Vol tage cond i t ion ing helps to detect uni ts
w i th improperly formed or con tami nated anodes . Forward dc leakage current on
a good uni t wi l l normal ly decrease to some value and remain relat ively cons tan t ,
or cont inue to decrease at a lower rate wi th cont inued operat ion . Measurements
on a potent ial fai lure wi l l tend to show an increase in leakage curren t . These
dev i ces should be subjected to vibrat ion screening to el iminate devices that
exh ib i t vol tage spikes (5 to 20 vol ts) observed at 20 g and 80 g axial vibrat ion
and 51 g random vibrat ion .
2 . 7 . 7 . 3 Rel iab i l i ty dera t i ng . The fai lure rate of wet -slug tantalum capaci -
tors under operat ing cond i t ions is a funct ion of t i me , temperature and vol tage .
Where wide temperature var iat ions are expected on a cont inual basis throughout
t he l ife of the system , sol id or foil tan ta lum capaci tors should he speci f i ed .
If a wet -slug tan ta lum capaci tor must be used , the hermet ical ly sealed type
shou ld be speci f i ed .
Since present designs of hermet ical ly sealed depend on an e lastomer seal to pre-
vent internal e lect rolyte leakage of the capaci tor i tsel f , rel iabi l i ty derat ing
shou ld be considered from the temperature cycl ing standpoin t . When wet tan ta lum
capaci tors are connected in para l l e l , the sum of the peak ripple and the appl ied
dc vol tage should not exceed the recommended derated dc vol tage rat ing of the
capac i t or w i th the lowest rat ing . The connect ing leads of the capaci tors in
paral lel should be large enough to carry the combined currents wi thou t reducing
the effect ive capaci tance due to series lead res istance .
2 . 7 . 7 . 4 Fai lure rate . For purposes of rel iabi l i ty pred i ct i ons , MIL-HnRK-217
should be consu l ted . Since the fai lure rate of these devices depends so great ly
on the condi t ions to wh ich they have been exposed and transient cond i t ions wh i ch
they may see , publ ished fai lure rate data based on control led condi t ions of
operat ion must be t reated mainly as a base for predicted performance .
2-120
2.8 CAPACITORS, VARIABLE
^2 . 8 Var i ab l e .
2.8.1 Introduct ion . Var iab le capaci tors are not included in MIL-STD-975
(NASA) ; they are included in this handbook to provide a technical understand ing
of this type of par t .
Var i ab l e capaci tors are smal l -sized tr immers designed for use where f ine tuning
ad justments are per iod ical ly required dur i ng the l i fe of the equ i pmen t . The
three types most popular ly used are the piston tubu lar t r i mmer , ceramic d i e l ec-
t r i c , and air t r i mmer .
2 . 8 . 2 Usual app l i ca t i ons . The var iable capaci tor is normal ly used for tr imming
and coup l ing in such ci rcu i ts as intermediate frequency , radio frequency , osc i l -
lator , phase sh i f ter , and d i scr i m i na t or s tages . Because of their low mass ,
these uni ts are relat ively stable against shock and v i brat i on , which tend to
cause changes in capac i t ance .
2.8.3 Physical cons t ruct i on .
2 . 8 . 3 . 1 Piston t ype , tubu lar t r i mmer . These capaci tors are constructed of
glass or quartz d i e l ec t r i c cyl inders and metal tuning p i s t ons . A port ion of
the cyl i nder is plated w i th metal and forms the stator . The metal piston (con-
trol led by a tuning screw) acts as the rotor .
.JThe over lap of the stator and the rotor de t erm i nes the capaci tance . The sel f
contained piston w i th i n the d i e l ect r i c cyl inder funct ions as a low inductance
coax ial assemb l y . The piston type capaci tor is further classi f ied as a rotat ing
or nonrotat ing piston t ype .
2 . 8 . 3 . 2 Rotat ing p i s t on . The rotat ing piston is constructed in such a way as

to secure the piston to the tun ing screw . As the tun ing screw is rotated the
p iston rotates wi th it (Figure 92) .
2 . 8 . 3 . 3 Nonrotat ing p i s t on . The nonrotat ing piston is constructed so that the

tun ing screw is secured at each end and cannot move up and down as it is t urned .
The screw is threaded into the piston and the piston moves up and down wi thou t
rotat ing (Figure 93) .
2 . 8 . 3 . 4 Ceramic d i e l ec t r i c t r i mmer . This capaci tor cons ists of a single rotor

and stator for each sect i on , wi th each sect ion fabricated of ceramic material
impregnated w i th t ransformer or si l icone oi l . Pure si lver is fired and burn-
ished on the top of the base of the stator in a semici rcu lar pat tern . The rotor
(usual ly of t i t an i um d i ox i de) has pure si lver con tact poi n t s . The con tact
surfaces of both the rotor and stator are ground and lapped f l at , e l iminat ing
ai r space var iat ions wi th temperature . (See Figure 94) .
2-121
TUNING SCREW
( T U R N P I S T O N UP F O R
METALIZATION
BAND
FIGURE 92 . Typical const ruct ion of a rotat ing piston s t y l e .
NON R O T A T I N G PISTON OESIGN
H 0
PARTS
A METALIZED DIELECTRIC
TUBE
B BUSHING
C PISTON
0 TEFLON ANTI-BACK LASH

WASHER
E END STOP (STAINLESS

STEEL)
F NUT (BRASS NICKEL

PLATED)
G S C R E W - it 2 - 7 2
(STAINLESS STEEL)
H "O" RING
FIGURE 93 . Typical construct ion of a non-rotat ing piston des i gn
2-122
FIGURE 94 . Out l ine draw i ng of a ceramic d i e l ect r i c var iable capac i t or .
2 . 8 . 3 . 5 Air d i e l ect r i c t r i mmer . This capaci tor consists of mu l t ip le rotors

and stators , each having a hal f-moon shape . The over lap of rotors and
stators de t erm i ne the capaci tance . The rotors can be rotated cont inuously and
full capaci tance change occurs dur i ng each 360° rotat i on . (See Figure 95) .
FIGURE 95 . Out l ine draw i ng of a var iab le air d i e l ect r i c t r i mmer .
2 . 8 . 3 . 6 Moun t i ng . The t r immer capaci tors are general ly leaded dev i ces and may
be mounted close to a metal panel wi th l i t t le increase in capac i t ance . Care
should be exercised to avoid crack ing or ch i pp i ng the ceram i c mount ing base .
2 . 8 . 4 Mi l i tary des i gna t i on . Var iab le capaci tors are covered by MIL-C-81 for
var iable ceramic , MIL-C-92 for var iable air and MIL-C-14409 for piston type
t ubu l ar . The fol lowing examples show typical mi l i tary des i gna t i ons for var iable
capac i t ors .
2-123
2.8.4.1 MIL-C-81 (variable cerami c d i e l ec t r i c) .
I
CV11 A 070
Style Character ist ic Capaci tance
2.8.4.2 MIL-C-92 (variable air d i e l ec t r i c) .
I I
06 n 004
Style Vol tage Capaci i tance Rotat ional Li fe
2.8.4.3 MIL-C-14409 (variable piston type tubu lar)
I
PC51 - H 380
Style Character!st ic Capaci tance
2.8.5 Electrical cons i dera t i ons .
2 . 8 . 5 . 1 Vol t age^ra t i ngs . The MIL-C-81 , "CV" type capaci tors are avai lab le to"
500 Vdc from - 5 5°C to +85°C wi th vol tage dera t i ng to 125°C .
The MIL-C-92 , "CT" type capaci tors are ava i lab le in a range of vol tages to
700 Vdc from - 5 5°C to +85°C .
The MIL-C-14409 , "PC" types capaci tors are avai lab le in a range of vol tages to
1250 Vdc from - 5 5°C to +125°C and wi th character i st i c let ter "Q" from - 5 5°C to
+150°C .
2 . 8 . 5 . 2 Avai lable capaci tance va l ues . Var i ab l e ceramic d i e l ect r i c capaci tors
are avai lab le in a range of capaci tance values from approx imate ly 1. 5 to 60 pF
w i th a DF of 0 . 2 percen t max imum .
Var i ab l e air d i e l ect r i c capaci tors are avai lab le in a range of capaci tor values
from approx imately 1.3 to 7. 5 pF wi th a Q greater than 1500 at 1 MHz .
Var i ab l e piston type tubu lar capaci tors are avai lab le in a range of capaci tance
va lues from 0 . 5 to 120 pF wi th Q ranging from 10,000 to 250 , inversely propor-
t ional to the capaci tance value .
2-124
2 . 8 . 5 . 3 Q vs frequency . The Q of a t r immer capaci tor depends on the d ie lec-

tr ic system and the size of the uni t . The internal mechan i sm and plat ing do not
affect i t . The RF current f lows along the uni t to the base , providing a long
induct ive path wh ich decreases Q and lowers the sel f-resonant frequency . Typi -
cal sel f-resonance of glass tr immer capaci tors varies from 100 MHz to 1000 MHz
according to size and const ruct ion . A quick compar ison of the character ist ics
of a ceramic t r immer and a glass tubu lar tr immer shown in Table XI .
Table XI. Compar ison of character ist ics of ceramic and glass tr immer
Character ist ic Ceramic Glass
Tuning Resol u t i on 1/2 turn Mu l t i - turn

Temperature Range To +85°C To +125°C
Temperature Coeff i ci en t 200 to 1200 ppm / °C ±50 ppm / °C
Capaci tance Dr i f t 75% or 0 . 5 pF 0. 01 to 0.1 pF
DCWV To 500 Vdc To 1200 Vdc
Q 500 at 1 MHz 1000 at 20 MHz
Rotat ional Life 100 Turns Up to 10 , 000 Turns
\ 2 . 8 . 5 . 4 Derat ing . The fai lure rate of var iable capaci tors under operat ing con-
yd i t i on s is a funct ion of t ime , temperature and vol tage .
2 . 8 . 5 . 5 End-of- l i fe design l imi ts for var iable capaci tors . Expected capaci -
tance change is ±5 percent from set value and Insulat ion Res istance change is
-30 percent from ini t ial value .
2 . 8 .6 Rel iabi l i ty cons i derat i ons .
2 . 8 . 6 . 1 Fai lure modes and mechan i sms . The t r immer capaci tors have had a
rel iable history of electrical operat i on . Most of the prob lems associated
w i t h the parts are of a mechanical nature . Rough handl ing wi l l cause short ing
of the plates of an air t r immer . Cracking of the rotor or stator of the
ceramic t r immer dur ing improper solder ing or clean ing methods can al low solder
flux onto the wa l l s of a piston type , thereby binding the p iston or fractur ing
the screw adjust .
2 . 8 . 6 . 2 Screen ing . Early l ife fai lures are best screened out by a vol tage con-
d i t ion ing per iod of 50 hours or more under vol tage stress . Tubular t r immers
are typical ly burned- in at 100% of rated vol tage wh i l e cerami c t r immers can be
burned- in at 200% of rated vol tage . Temperature cycl ing is also speci f ied
pr ior to vol tage cond i t ion ing to acce lerate fai lure of parts w i th mechanical
weaknesses or poor internal connect ions .
2 . 8 . 6 . 3 Fai lure rate de term i nat i on . For fai lure rate informat ion refer to
MIL-HDBK-217 .
2-125
2-126
3.1 RESISTORS, GENERAL
3. RESISTORS
3.1 General .
3.1.1 Introduct ion , This sect ion contains informat ion on t he var ious types of
resistors intended for use in NASA app l i cat i ons .
The informat ion in th i s sect ion is des i gned to help the eng i neer select the
resistors he wi l l speci fy . As w i th other types of componen ts , the most impor-
tant th ing a user must decide is wh i ch of the numerous types of resistors wi l l
be best for use in the equ ipment he is des i gn i ng . Proper se lect ion is the
f i rst step in bu i ld ing rel iab le equ i pmen t . To properly select the resistors to
be used , the user must know as much as poss ib le about the types from wh ich he
can choose . He shou ld know the i r advan tages and d i sadvan tages , the i r behavior
under various environmental cond i t i ons , the i r const ruct i on , and the i r effect on
ci rcu i ts and the effect of ci rcu i ts on them . He should know what makes resis-
tors fai l . He should also have an int imate work ing knowledge of the app l icab le
mi l i tary speci f icat ion .
Al l var iab le and f i xed resistors can be grouped into one of three general basic
types . They are compos i t i on , f i lm , or w i rewound types (see Figure 1) . The
compos i t ion type is made of a mi x ture of resist ive material and a b inder wh i ch
are mol ded into the proper shape and res istance value . The f i lm type is com-
posed of a resist ive f i l m depos i ted on , o r inside of , an insu lat ing cyl inder
or f i lament . The w i rewound type is made up of resistance w i re wh i ch is wound
on an insulated form . These basic types d i ffer from each other in size , cost ,
resistance range , power rat ing , and general character i st i cs . Some are bet ter
than others for par t icu lar purposes ; no one type has all of the best character-
ist ics . The choice among them depends on the requ-irements, the envi ronment and
other factors wh i ch t he des i gner must understand . The des i gner mus t real ize
that the summar ies of the fol lowing general character ist ics and costs are re l a-
t i ve , not absolute , and that all the requ i rements of a par t i cu l ar app l icat ion
must be taken into cons iderat ion and compared wi th the advantages and drawbacks
of each of the several types before a final choice is made .
The deta i led requ i rements for standard resistor types are con ta i ned in the
app l i cab l e mi l i tary speci f icat ion and app l i cab l e subsect ion of th i s sect ion .
3. 1 . 2 App l icab le mi l i tary speci f i cat i ons .
Mi l Spec Ti t le
MIL-STD-202 Test Methods for Elect ron ic

& Electrical Componen ts Parts
MI l -HDBK-217 Re l iab i l i ty Predict ion of

Elect ron ic Equ ipment
3-1
Ml L-R-39007 MIL-R-39009 MIL-R-39005

S V M B O L RWR SYMBOL RER S Y M B O L : R8R
RESISTORS
ESTABLISHED RELIABILITY
{ADJUSTMENT TYPE)
NON
WIRE WOUND WIRE WOUND
Ml L-R-39015 Ml L-R-39035
S Y M B O L : RTR S Y M B O L : RJR
RESISTORS
SPECIAL
1
NETWORKS
THERMAL
F I X E D FILM
Ml L-R-83401 Ml L-T-23648
SYMBOL: RZ SYMBOL: RTH
FIGURE 1. Resistor categor ies .
3-2
1 3.1 RESISTORS, GENERAL
MIL-STD-790 Rel iabi l i ty Assurance Program for

Elect ron ic Parts speci f icat ions
MIL-STD-1276 Leads for Electronic Components

Parts
MIL-R-39008 Fi xed Composi t ion
MIL-R-55182 Fi xed Fi lm (High Stabi l i ty)
MIL-R-39017 Fi xed Fi lm (Insulated)
MIL-R-39005 Fi xed Wi re-wound (Accurate)
MIL-R-39007 Fi xed Wi re-wound (Power Type)
MIL-R-39009 Fi xed W i re-wound (Power Type ,

Chassis Mounted)
MIL-R-39015 Var iable Wi re-wound

(Lead Screw Actuated)
MIL-R-39032 Res i stors , Package of
MIL-R-39035 Var iable Nonwi re-wound

(Adjustment Type)
MIL-R-83401 Fi xed , Fi lm Resistor Networks
MIL-R-23648 Thermistor (Thermal ly Sensi t ive ,

Resistor) Insulated
GSFC-S-311-P18 Thermistor (Thermal ly Sensi t ive ,

Resistor) Insulated , NTC
3 . 1 . 3 General def i n i t i ons , A l ist of common terms used in rat ing and design
app l icat ion of resistors fol lows .
3.1 .3.1 Res istors , genera l .
Ambient operat ing temperature . The temperature of the air surround ing an
ob ject , neglect ing smal l local ized var iat ions .
Cri t ical value of res istance . For a given vol tage rat ing and a given power
rat ing , this is the only value of resistance that wi l l d i ss i pate ful l rated
power at rated vol tage . This value of resistance is commonly referred to as
the cri t ical value of resistance . For values of resistance below the cri t ical
value , the max imum vol tage is never reached ; and for values of resistance above
cri t ical value , the power d issipated becomes lower than rated . Figure 2 shows
this relat ionship .
3-3
D i e l ect r i c st rength . The breakdown vol tage of the d ie lect r ic or insulat ion of
the resistor when the vol tage is app l ied between the case and al l terminals
are t ied together . Die lect r ic strength is usual ly speci f ied at sea level and
at simu lated high air pressures .
Hot -spot t empera t ure . The max i mum temperature measured on the resistor due to
both internal heat ing and the amb ient operat ing temperature . Max imum hot -spot
t empera t ure is pred icted on thermal l imi ts of the mater ia ls and the des ign .
The hot -spot temperature is also usual ly estab l ished as the top temperature on
the derat ing curve at wh i ch the resistor is derated to zero power .
Insulat ion resistance . The dc resistance measured between all termina ls con-
nected together and the case , ex ter ior insu lat ion , or external hardware .
Max i mum work ing vol tage . The max i mum vol tage stress (dc or rms) t ha t may be
app l ied to the resistor is a funct ion of the mater ials used , the required per-
formance , and the physical d imens ions (see Figure 2) .
Noise . An unwanted vol tage f luctuat ion generated w i th i n the resistor . Total
noise of a resistor always includes Johnson noise wh ich is dependent on resis-
tance value and temperature of the resistance e lement . Depend ing on type of
element and const ruct i on , total noise may also include noise caused by current
flow and noise caused by cracked bodies and loose end caps or leads . For var i -
able resistors , noise may also be caused by jumping of the contact over turns of
w i re and by an imperfect electrical path between contact and resistance e lement .
Standard resistance value . The resistance value tabu lated by a decade chart
is speci f ied in the app l icab le mi l i tary speci f icat ion . Res istance values not
l isted in the chart for the appropr iate tolerance are considered as nonstandard
for that speci f icat ion .
UJ POWER-CONSTANT- V 0 LTAG E-CONSTANT-

£ RATED. P RATED, E
o
Q.
\
V«?r
\
\
\
\
RESISTANCE VALUE INCREASING
FIGURE 2 . Max imum working vol tage and cri t ical value of res i stance .
3-4
/
Resistance tol erance . The permissib le deviat ion of the manufactured resistance
value (expressed in percent ) from the speci f ied nominal resistance value at
standard (or stated) environmental cond i t ions .
Stabi1i ty . The overal l abi l i ty of a resistor to maintain i ts ini t ial res ist -
ance value over ex tended periods of t ime when subjected to any comb inat ion of
environmental cond i t ions and electrical stresses .
Temperature coeff icient (resistance temperature character i s t i es) . The magn i -

tude of change in resistance due to temperature ; Tt is usual ly expressed i n
percent per degree cent igrade or parts per mi l l ion per degree cent igrade
(ppm/°C) . If the changes are l inear over the operat ing temperature range , the
parameter is known as "temperature coeff icient (TC)"; if non l inear , the para-
meter is known as "resistance temperature character ist ic . "
Vol tage coeff icient (resistance vol tage character i s t i c) . Cer tain types of re-
sistors exh ib i t a var iat ion of resistance ent irely due to changes in vol tage
across the resistor . This character i st i c is the vol tage coeff i ci en t ; it is
general ly appl icable to resistors of 1 ,000 ohms and over .
3.1.3.2 Res istors , var i ab l e .
x End res istance . The resistance measured between the w i per terminal and an end
J terminal wi th the w i per element pos i t ioned at the correspond ing end of i ts
mechanical travel .
Noise . The effect ive contact resistance int roduced in the w i per arm wh i l e
rotat ing the w i per across the resistor e l emen t . Wi rewound potent iometers are
normal ly referred to in terms of equ iva len t noise resistance (ENR) wh i ch is
caused primari ly by var iat ions in w i per contact dur ing travel along the w i re
e lemen t . Al though nonwi rewound poten t iometers have a cont inuous resistor
e l emen t , there is usual ly a bui l t - in dc offset due to measurab le contact
resistance between the w i per and the resistor . Thei r noise is therefore nor-
mal ly referred to in terms of con tact -res istance var iat ion (CRV) wh ich is
caused primari ly by the changes in contact resistance between the w i per and
the resistor element dur ing rotat ion .
Resolut ion or ad j us tab i l i ty . The abi l i ty of an operator to predetermine ohmic

value , vol tage , or current . This is a measure of the sensi t ivi ty or degree of
accuracy to wh ich a potent iometer may be set . Wi rewound poten t i ome ters , having
noncont inuous e l emen t s , are typical ly referred to in terms of a theoret ical
resolut ion wh ich is the reciprocal of the number of turns of w i re . Ad j us ta-
bi l i ty is affected by the material and the uni formi ty of the resistor and the
w i per e l emen ts , the length of the resistor e lement , and the design of the ad-
justment mechan ism .
Rotat ional l i fe . The number of cycles of rotat ion wh i ch can be at ta ined at

certain operat ing cond i t ions wh i l e remaining wi th in speci f ied al lowab le para-
\ me t r i c cr i ter ia . A cycle compr ises the travel of the w i per along the total
y resistor element in both d i rect ions .
3-5
Mil-HDBK-978-B (NASA)
Set t ing stab i l i ty . The abi l i ty of a poten t i ome ter to ma in ta in i ts ini t ial
set t ing dur ing mechanical and environmental stresses , it is•norma l ly expressed
as a percentage change in output vol tage w i th respect to the total app l ied
vol tage .
Torque . The mechan ical momen t of force app l ied to a poten t i ome ter shaf t .
Start ing torque is the max i mum torque requ i red to ini t iate shaft rotat ion .
Stop torque is the max i mum torque wh ich can be appl ied to the ad justment shaf t
at a mechanical end-stop pos i t ion .
Total res istance . The resistance measured between the two end terminals of a
potent iometer .
Trave l . The cl ockw i se or coun tercl ockw i se rotat ion of the w i per along the
resistor e lement . Mechanical travel is the total rotat ion of the wiper between
end-stop pos i t ions . Electrical travel is the rotat ion between max i mum and
m i n i mum resistance va lues . These are not ident ical owing to d iscont inu i t ies
at the end pos i t ions .
3.1.3.3 Resistor ne twork , f i xed , f i lm .
Aspect rat io . The geomet ical relat ionship of the length and wi d th (L/W) of a
rectangular resistor e lemen t wh i ch is used in the layout of networks to es t ab-
l ish "as f ired" res istance values (e . g . , when L = W , the aspect rat io is 1:1 ,
or 1 "square . "
DIP . Dua l - i n- l i ne-package .
Formu l at i on . A speci f ic mi x of th ick-f i lm material where the conductor , glass ,

and other add i t ive ingred ients are formu l ated to provide certain proper t ies
such as a speci f ic sheet resist ivi ty or TCR .
Paste / ink . Screenab le th ick-f i lm material compr ised of me t a l s , ox ides , and

glasses in an organ ic vehicle wh ich when f ired , produces a ci rcu i t element such
as a resistor or conductor .
Power dens i ty . The power d issipat ion per uni t area of a resistor or substrate
(in wat ts per square inch) used to determi ne the op t imum layout design of a
network .
Screen . The process of pr int ing a network pat tern of th i ck-f i l m ink or paste
onto a substrate by means of a squeegee app l ied to a photoe tched w i re-mesh
"si lk screen" or metal mask .
Sheet res ist ivi ty . The nominal resistance per uni t area of a th i ck-f i l m ink or
paste wh ich is usual ly expressed in ohms per square inch (assuming a constant
thickness) where the design resistance value of the screened resistor is deter-
mined by R = p L/W .
3-6

1
Subs t rate . The base or carr ier for the th i ck-f i l m network wh i ch is usual ly a
ceramic plate .
Th ick-f i1m /cermet /metal gl aze . Res istor and conduc t or mater i a l s compr i sed of
meta ls or metal ox ides in a glass b ind ing system wh ich can be screened onto a
subst rate and f ired to provide circui t e lements or networks .
Track ing . The inherent capabi l i ty of resistors from the same formu lat ion and
screened onto the same substrate to exh ib i t simi lar performance character ist ics
(e . g. , dr i f t , TCR) .
Tr i m / abrade / ad j us t . The process of ta i lor ing a th i ck-f i Im-res i s tor element to

a speci f ic value or tol erance by the removal of resistor material (by means of
sandb last ing or laser abrad ing) wh i ch increases the ohmic value .
Vol tage grad ient / f ie ld strength . The l inear vol tage stress app l ied across a
resistor element (in vol ts per inch) used to determine the op t imum geometry of
a h igh-vol tage resistor .
3.1.3.4 Res istors , t herma l .
\ Curren t - t ime charact er i s t i c . The re lat ionsh ip , at a speci f ied amb ient tempera-
J ture , between the current through a therm i stor and t ime e lapsed from the app l i -
cat ion of a step funct ion of vol tage .
Dissipat ion constant (a) . The rat io, at a speci f ied ambient temperature , of
change in power d i ss i pat i on in a therm i stor to the resul tant body temperature
change .
Max i mum operat ing t empera t ure . The max i mum body temperature at wh i ch a ther-
m i s tor wi l l operate for an ex tended per iod of t ime wi th accep tab le stabi l i ty of
i ts character i s t i cs . This temperature is the comb inat ion of external and in-
ternal sel f heat ing .
Max i mum power rat ing . The max i mum power rat ing of a therm i stor is the max imum
power wh i ch a therm i s tor wi l l d i ss i pate for an ex tended per i od of t i me w i th
accep t ab l e stabi l i ty of i ts character ist ics .
Negat ive temperature coeff icient (NTC) . An NTC therm i s tor is one in wh ich the
zero-power resistance decreases wi th an increase in temperature .
Posi t ive temperature coeff icient (PTC) . A PTC therm i s tor is one in wh ich the
zero-power resistance increases wi th an increase in temperature .
3-7
Res i s tance rat io . The rat io of the zero-power resistances of a thermistor

measured at two speci f i ed reference temperatures .
R £ (11) = e 6 JL- JL
Ro (12) T1 T2
where :
Ro (Ti) is the resistance at absolute temperature T i .
Ro (T2) is the resistance at absolute temperature T2 .
e is 2 . 718 .
6 is a constan t wh ich depends on the material used to

make the t herm i s t or .
Stab i l i ty . The abi l i ty of a thermistor to retain speci f ied character ist ics
af ter being subjected to environmental and/or electrical test cond i t i ons .
Standard reference t empera t ure . The therm i stor body temperature at wh ich nom i -
nal zero-power resistance is speci f i ed .
Temperature-wat tage charact er i s t i c . The re lat ionsh ip , at a speci f ied ambient

tempera ture , between the thermistor temperature and the appl ied steady-state
wa t t age .
Therm i stor . A thermal ly sensi t ive resistor whose primary funct ion is to exhibi t
a change in electrical resistance wi th a change in body temperature .
Thermal t i me constant (T) . The t ime requi red for a thermistor to change 63 . 2%
of the d i fference between i ts ini t ial and final body temperature when sub jected
to a step funct ion change in temperature under zero-power cond i t i ons .
Zero-power resistance (Ro) . The resistance value of a thermistor at a speci -

f ied t empera t ure wi th zero electrical power d iss ipat ion .
Zero-power resistance t empera t ure character ist ic . The relat ionsh ip between the
zero-power resistance of a therm i s tor and i ts body temperature .
Zero-power temperature coeff icient of resistance (err). The rat io at a speci -

f ied tempera ture , T , of the rate of change of zero-power resistance w i t h t em-
perature to the zero-power res istance .
aT = KdRT)
R (dT)
3 . 1 . 4 NASA standard par ts . See the introduct ion Sect ion 1.1 for a complete
descr ipt ion of the NASA Standard Parts Program . In add i t ion to this handbook ,
the principal elements of this program include MIL-STD-975 .
3-8
b. Nominal m i n i mum resistance tol erance avai lab le is ±0.1 percent for
f i xed , f i lm resistors and ±1.0 percen t for the resistor ne tworks .
c. Max imum pract ical fu l l -power operat ing amb ient temperature should
not exceed 125°C for metal f i lm RNC types and 70°C for RLR resistors
Type RZ resistor networks are cont inuously derated from 70°C to 125°C .
d. Operat ion at rf (above 100 MHz) may produce induct ive effects on
sp i ral -cut type f i xed , f i lm res istors , and capaci t ive effects on the
resistor networks .
e. The res istance temperature character i st i c is fairly low (±200 ppm/°C)

for th i ck-f i l m types (RLR) and very low (±25 ppm/°C) for me ta l -f i l m
types . (RNC) . The resistance temperature character i st i c is fairly low
(±300 ppm / °C , ±100 ppm/°C and ±50 ppm/°C) for resistor networks (RZ) .
f. Elect rostat ic effects should be cons idered since resistors can change
value when subjected to e lect rostat ic charges . Resistors wi th a
tol erance of 0.1 percent should be packaged in accordance wi th
MIL-R-39032 .
3.1.5.3 Fi xed , w i rewound (accurate) res istors , RBR .
a. Fi xed , w i rewound , accurate resistors are physical ly the largest of all

types for a given resistance and power rat ing . They are very conser-
vat ively rated and are avai lab le in standard tol erances as low as
±0.02 percen t .
b. They are used where high cost and large size are not cri t ical and
operat ional cl imate can be con t rol led .
c. App l icat ion of vol tages in excess of vol tage rat ing may cause insu la-
t ion breakdown in the thin coat ing of insulat ion between e lement
coat ing .
d. Operat ion above 50 kHz may produce induct ive effects and intrawind ing
capaci t ive effects .
e. The res istance e lement is qu i te stab le wi th i n speci f ied temperature

1i mi ts .
f. Use of good solder ing techn iques is ex tremely impor tant since h igher
contact resistance may cause overal l resistance shi f ts far outside of
resistance tolerance on low value un i ts .
g. The presence of moisture may degrade coat ing or pot t ing compounds .
3-155
MI l -STD-975 is a standard parts l ist for NASA equ ipment wi th sect ion 10 con ta i n-
ing a summary of standard resistors .
These parts all use basic mi l i tary order ing references conforming to the type
designat ion according to the app l icab le mi l i tary speci f icat ion for the respec-
t ive part as descr ibed in the paragraphs of this sect ion .
3.1 . 5 General device character ist ies .
3. 1 . 5 . 1 Fi xed , compos i t ion res istors , RCR .
a. The nominal m i n i mum resistance tolerance avai lable for f i xed , compos i -
t ion resistors is ±5 percen t . Comb ined effects of cl imate and opera-
t ion on unsea l ed types may raise th is tolerance to ±15 percent from
the low value (i . e . , aging , pressure , temperature , hum i d i ty , vol tage
grad ient , etc . ) .
b. High-vol tage grad ients wi l l produce resistance change dur ing opera-
t ion .
c. High Johnson noise levels at resistance above 1 megohm preclude use in

cri t ical circui ts of higher sens i t ivi ty .
d. Radio frequency wi l l produce end- to-end shunted capaci t i ve effects

because of short resistor bodies and smal l internal d istances between
both ends .
e. Operat ion at VHF or h igher frequency reduces effect ive resistance due
to losses in the d ie lect r ic (the so-cal led Boel la effect ) .
f. Exposure to humidi ty may have two effects on the res istance value .
Surface moisture may resul t in leakage paths wh i ch wi l l lower the
resistance values or absorpt ion of moi s ture into the element may
increase the resistance . These phenomena are more not iceab le in
h igher values of resistance .
When exposed to a humid atmosphere wh i l e d issipat ing less than 10% of

rated power or in shel f storage , nonoperat ing equ i pmen t , and sh ipp ing
cond i t ions , resistance values may change as much as 15% . Before being
considered fa i l ures , out of tol erance resistors should be cond i t ioned
in a dry oven at 100 ±5°C for 48 hours .
Resistors wh i ch con t i nue to be out of tolerance af ter cond i t ion ing

should be considered fai lures .
3.1.5.2 Fi xed , f i lm resistors , RNC , RLR , and f i xed , f i lm ne tworks , RZ .
a. These resistors are low t ol erance , high stab i l i ty , low environmental

changes , low temperature coeff icien t , space and we i gh t saving , and low
noise .
3-156
3 . 1 . 5 . 4 Fi xed , w i rewound resistors (power type) , RER and RWR . This type resis-
tor is general ly not suppl ied in low tolerances and i ts frequency response is
poor . However , i ts temperature coeff icient is low .
3.1.5.5 General character ist ics of var iab le resistors , RJR and RTR .
a. All types of var iab le resistors should be derated for operat ion above
thei r rated amb ient temperature .
b. Wi rewound types shou ld not be used in frequency-sens i t i ve rf circui ts

due to introduct ion of induct ive and capaci t ive effects .
c. High humidi ty cond i t ions may have a de leter ious effect on unenclosed
types due to the resistance shi f t in composi t ion types and w i nd i ng- t o-
w i nd i ng shorts in w i rewound types .
d« Nonwi rewound e lements may wear away af ter ex tended use leaving par-
t icles of the e lemen ts to permeate the mechan i sm and resul t ing in
warmer opera t i on , h i gh-res i stance shor ts , etc . W i rewound types are
subject to noise because of stepping of the contact from w i re- t o-w i re .
e. Wi th ei ther w i rewound or nonwi rewound resistors , good pract ice i nd i -

cates the use of enclosed uni ts to keep out as much dust and dirt as
possib le and to protect the mechan i sm from mechanical damage . The
presence of oi l through lubr icat ion may cause dust or wear par t icles
present to concent rate wi th in the un i t .
f. Select a var iab le resistor w i th a power rat ing suff icient to handle
the higher current produced when the resistor is reduced , par t i cu-
larly if i t is being used in ser ies as a vol tage-dropp ing resistor .
g. When a var iab le w i rewound l inear resistor is being used as a vol tage
d ivider , the ou tpu t vol tage through the w i per wi l l not vary l inearly
if current is being drawn through i t . This character i st i c is usual ly
cal led the "loading error . " To reduce the loading error , the load
resistance shou ld be at least 10 to 100 t imes as great as the end- t o-
end poten t i ometer resistance .
h. No current shou ld be drawn from the w i per of a nonw i rewound resistor .
3 . 1 . 6 General parameter informat ion . Resistors must be se lected to be compa t -

ible w i t h the cond i t ions to wh i ch they are exposed . Numerous factors must be
cons i dered in this se lect ion process . The most important are noted in the
fol lowing :
3 . 1 . 6 . 1 Resistance va l ue . These are ini t ial ly determined by the ci rcu i t

requ i rements . Usual ly these values need to be ad justed to make them closely
match the standard resistance values supp l ied by the manufacturer , or l isted
in the mi l i tary speci f icat ions . If i t is impossible to adjust ci rcu i t values
to a standard value , paral lel or ser ies comb inat ion resistors can be used .
3-11
The design engi neer shou ld also remember that the resistance value of the
resistor that is put into the physical ci rcu i t wi l l d i ffer from the value he
has on his circui t schemat ic . This d i fference wi l l change as t ime passes . The
purchase tol erance of the resistor to be used wi l l al low it to d i ffer from the
nominal stated value , depend i ng on the type of resistor speci f ied . Fur ther-
more , the temperature at wh i ch the resistor works , the vol tage across i t , and
the envi ronment it encounters wi l l affect the actual value at par t icu lar t imes .
For examp le , the des i gner should al low for a possib le var iat ion of ±15 percen t
from t he nominal value of a purchased ±5 percen t compos i t ion resistor if he
expects his circui t to cont inue to operate sat isfactori ly over a very long t ime
under moderate ambient cond i t i ons . Such a f igure is a rule of thumb based on
many tests and most resistors wi l l remain much nearer thei r start ing value ; but
if many are used , chance wi l l ensure that some wi l l go near this l imi t .
3 . 1 . 6 . 2 Power rat ing . The m i n i mum requi red power rat ing of a resistor is
another factor that is ini t ial ly set by the ci rcui t usage but is markedly
affected by the other cond i t i ons of use . As men t ioned prev i ous l y , the power
rat ing is based on the hot -spot temperature the resistor wi l l w i ths tand wh i l e
st i l l meet ing i ts other requ i rements of resistance var iat ion , accuracy , and
l i fe .
Sel f-generated heat . Se l f-generated heat in a resistor is ca l cu l ated as P =

I^R. This f igure , in any ci rcu i t , must be less than the actual power rat ing of
the resistor used . It is pract ice to ca lcu late this value and to use the next
larger power rat ing ava i l ab l e in the standard . This ca lcu lat ion shou ld , how-
ever , be cons idered only as a f i rst approx imat ion of the actual rat ing to be
used .
Rat ing versus amb ient cond i t i ons . The power of a resistor is based on a cer-
tain temperature rise from an ambient t empera t ure-of a certain value . If the
ambient temperature is greater than this value , the amount of heat that the
resistor can d iss ipate is correspond ingly reduced , and therefore it must be
derated because of temperature . All mi l i tary speci f icat ions contain derat ing
curves to be used for the resistors covered .
Rat ing versus accuracy . Because of the temperature coeff icient of resistance
that all resistors possess , a resistor wh i ch is expected to remain near i ts
measured value under cond i t ions of operat ion must remain cool . For this rea-
son , all resistors des ignated as accurate are very much larger physical ly for a
cer tain power rat ing than are ordinary "nonaccurate" res istors . In general ,
any resistor , accurate or not , must be derated to remain very near i ts original
measured value when it is being operated .
Rat ing versus l i fe . If especial ly long l ife is required of a resistor , par t i c-

ularly when "l i fe" means remaining w i t h i n a certain l imi t of resistance dr i f t ,
i t is usual ly necessary to derate the resistor even if ambient cond i t ions are
moderate and if accuracy by i tsel f is not important . A good rule to fol low
when choosing a resistor size for equ ipment that must operate for many t hou-
sands of hours is to derate it to one-hal f of i ts nominal power rat ing . Thus ,
3-12
if the se l f-generated heat in the resistor is 1 /3-wat t , do not use a 1/ 2-wat t

resistor , but rather a 1-wat t resistor . This wi l l automat ical ly keep the
resistor cooler , wi l l reduce the long- term dr i f t , and wi l l reduce the effect
of the temperature coeff i ci en t . For equ ipment demand ing smal l size but wi th
a relat ively short use l i fe , this rule may be impract ical . The engineer should
ad just his dependence on rules to the ci rcumstances at hand . A "cool" resistor
wi l l general ly last longer than a "hot" one and i t can absorb over loads that
might permanent ly damage a "hot" resistor .
Rat ing under pulsed cond i t ions and under intermi t tent loads . When resistors are
used in pulse ci rcu i ts , the actual power d iss ipated during the pulses can some-
t imes be much more than the max imum rat ing of the resistor . For short pulses
the actual heat ing is determi ned by the duty factor and the peak power d i ss i -
pated . Before approving a resistor app l icat ion , the engineer should be sure
that : (1) the max i mum vol tage app l ied to the resistor dur ing the pulses is
never greater than the permiss ib le max imum vol tage for the resistor being used ,
(2) the ci rcui t cannot fai l in such a way that cont inuous excess ive power can
be drawn through the resistor and cause it to fai l , (3) t he average power being
drawn is wel l wi th in the agreed-on rat ing of the resistor , and (4) con t inuous
steep wavefron ts app l ied to the resistor do not cause any unexpected t roub l es .
3 . 1 . 6 . 3 Derat ing . Wi th the except ion of fai lures due to "random" occurrences
resu l t ing from manufact ur i ng defects or overs t ress , resistor fai lure rate is
a funct ion of t i me , t empera t ure , and app l ied power . Operat ional l ife can be
signi f icant ly lengthened by power derat ing and by l imi t ing the operat ing
amb ient temperature .
The ex tent to wh i ch electr ical stress (e . g . , vol tage , curren t , and power) is
derated depends upon temperature . The general interre lat ionsh ip between e l ec-
trical stress and t empera t ure is shown in Figure 3. The approved operat ing
cond i t ions l ie wi th in the area below the derated l imi tat ion l ine (ESdr) . Opera-
t i on at condi t ions between the derated l imi tat ion l ine and the max imum speci f i -
cat ion curves resul ts in lower rel iabi l i ty (see MIL-HDBK-217) . Operat ion in
th is reduced rel iabi l i ty area requires speci f ic approval .
Numerical values are app l ied to the curves for each part type based on a per -
cen tage of the dev i ce manufacturer ' s max i mum rated va lues . The app l icab le
derat ing curve or derat ing percentages are speci f ied in MIL-STD-975 .
3 . 1 . 6 . 4 Contact resistance var i at i on . The apparent res istance seen between

the w i per and the resistance e lement when the w i per is energi zed wi th a speci -
f ied current and moved over the ad justmen t travel in e i ther d i rect ion at a
constan t speed . The output var iat ions are measured over a speci f ied frequency
bandw i d th , exclusive of the effects due to rol l -on or rol l -off of the term i na-
t ions and are expressed in ohms or percent of total nominal res istance .
3-13
100*
PROHIBITED
t/1 USE
CO
UJ
£ ESdr
APPROVED
USE
TCI Tdr TC2

CASE TEMPERATURE
Tq = case temperature above wh i ch electrical stress must be reduced .
Tq = max imum al lowab le case temperature .
Td r = max imum case temperature for derated operat ion .
ESd r - ma x i mu m electrical stress (e . g. , vol tage , power , and current) for derated
operat ion .
100% = max imum rated value in accordance wi th the detai l speci f icat ion .
FIGURE 3. St ress- temperature derat ing
3 . 1 . 6 . 5 High frequency . For most resistors the lower the resistance value ,
the less total impedance it exh ib i ts at high frequency . Resistors are not
general ly tested for total impedance at frequencies above 120 hertz (Hz) .
Therefore , this character i st i c is not con t rol l ed . The dominat ing cond i t ions
for good high frequency resistor performance are geometr ic considerat ions and
m i n i mum d ie lect r ic losses . For the best high frequency performance the rat io
of resistor length to the cross-sect ional area should be a max imum . Die lect r ic
losses are kept low by proper choice of the resistor base material and when
d ie lect r ic binders are used , thei r total mass is kept to a min imum . The fol low-
ing is a discussion of the high-frequency mer i ts of these major resistor types .
a. Carbon compos i t i on . Carbon composi t ion resistors exh ib i t l i t t le change

in effect ive dc resistance up to frequencies of about 100 kHz . Res is-
tance values above 0 . 3 megohm start to decrease in resistance at ap-
prox imately 100 kHz . Above frequencies of 1 megaher tz all resistance
values exhibi t decreased resistance .
b. Mi rewound . Wi rewound resistors have induct ive and capaci t ive effects
and are unsui ted for use above 50 kHz , even when special ly wound to
reduce the inductance and capaci tance . Wi rewound resistors usual ly
exhibi t an increase in resistance w i t h high frequencies because of
skin effect .
3-14
c. Fi lm type . Fi lm- type resistors have the best high frequency perform-
ance . The effect ive dc resistance for most resistance values remains
fairly constant up to 100 MHz and decreases at h igher frequenci es .
In general , the higher the resistance value , the greater the effect of
frequency .
3 . 1 . 6 . 6 Insulat ion or coat i ng . Al l resistors intended for use in rel iab le

e lect ron ic equ ipment must be protected by an insulat ing coat i ng . Coat ings can
be a molded phenol ic case , epoxy coat ing , or ceramic or glass sleeves . W i re-
wound power resistors use various cement and vi treous enamel coat ings to pro-
tect the wind ings and to insulate and provide moisture barr i ers . Not all of
the coat ings and insulat ions app l ied to commercial resistors are sat isfactory
for ex treme var iat ions in amb ient cond i t ions . The var ious mi l i tary speci f i -
cat ions include tests used to qual i fy the various manufacturers ' products thus
provid ing a greater conf idence in the coat ing . Some insulat ion coat ings may
be susceptable to outgassing under vacuum cond i t ions .
3 . 1 . 6 . 7 Effects of amb ient cond i t i ons . In the estab l ishmen t of rat ings for
resistors , the design engineer has impl ici t ly cons idered the mechanical design
of the equ ipment . This is because the ambient cond i t ions in wh i ch the resistor
must operate determine the power rat ing and mechanical const ruct ion of the
resistor .
)Res i s t or heat ing . A very important quest ion in the app l icat ion of resistors
is how hot wi 11 they get in service . In a piece of equ i pmen t the heat in a
resistor comes from two sources: (1) se l f-generated heat and (2) heat that the
resistor receives from other heat -producing components in the same ne i ghborhood .
The important thing to remember is that under these cond i t ions each resistor
wi l l be heated more than I2R. When much heat is produced , as in stacked w i re-
wound resistors , the design engineer wou l d do wel l not to freeze his design
unt i l he has measured a typical assembly w i th power on to see just how hot the
resistors get . The same thing is true of the ex tra heat ing given the resistors
by convect ion .
Th is is another way of saying that high amb ient temperature wi l l reduce the
actual power rat ing of the resistor by reducing perm i ss i b l e temperature r ise .
The equ ipment designer must real ize also that the heat being produced by "hot"
resistors can damage other componen ts . Res istors usual ly do not fai l i mmed i -
ately when overheated . The effect of too much heat deter iorates the component
unt i l at a later date fai ls . It is very easy to put a u hea t bomb" in a p iece
of equ ipment that wi l l not go off in normal product ion test ing but wi l l do so
when the equ ipment gets into service and is being rel ied on to do i ts job . It
is also very easy to e l iminate such troub les by strict and thought ful at tent ion
to the prob lem of heat ing .
High al t i tude or vacuum . Wi th the except ion of the d i e l ect r i c w i t hs t and i ng

vol tage test at reduced baromet r ic pressure , all tests in mi l i tary spec i f i ca-
t ions referenced herein are performed at amb ient atmospher ic pressure . This
Nfac t should be cons idered when the use of these resistors for h i gh-a l t i tude
/ cond i t i ons is contemp lated .
3-15
F l ammab i l i t y . It should be noted that mi l i tary speci f icat ions referenced here-
in contain no requ i rements concern ing the f lammabi l i ty of the mater ia ls used
in the const ruct ion of these resistors . Users should take this into cons idera-
t i on when a par t i cu l ar app l icat ion involves this requ i rement .
Res istance t ol erance versus temperature coeff i c i en t . During the select ion of
resistor character i s t i cs choices must be made for resistance tol erance and
t empera t ure coeff icien t of resistance change . In nonwi rewound f i lm resistors
the cost of ob ta i n i ng low tol erance is of ten minimal when compared w i th the
cost of ob ta in ing a very low temperature coeff i ci en t . The low tol erance is
ob ta i ned by careful ad j us t men t of the w i d t h of the spiral in the resistance
e l emen t ; th i s can be done at a low cost . The temperature coeff i ci en t is con-
t rol l ed by process ing of the f i lm , and low temperature coeff icien ts are expen-
s ive to obtain .
In many instances , the des i gner can meet ci rcu i t requi rements through a t rade-
off of tolerance for temperature coeff i ci en t . A low tol erance select ion may
ach ieve ci rcui t performance requ i rements in l ieu of a low temperature coef-
f icient wi th a resu l t ing cost saving . This is part icu lar ly t rue when using
f i lm type resistors , MIL-R-55182 .
3 . 1 . 6 . 8 Backlash in var iab le res istors . Lead screw actuated var iab le resis-
tors can provide a high degree of accuracy in cri t ical ad j ustmen ts ; however ,
t he user shou ld cons i der the effects of back lash in the lead screw posi t ion
versus w i per pos i t i on . The resistance ob ta ined at an ini t ial set t ing may
change sl ight ly under cond i t i ons of vibrat ion and shock as the w i per set t les
into a new pos i t i on . The magn i tude of this change is al lowed t o be as high
as 1 percent when new and can increase w i th age up to about 3 percent or the
equ iva len t of one-ha l f turn of the lead screw . In ex tremely cri t ical app l i ca-
t i ons , it may be des i rab l e to decrease the resistance value of the var iab le
resistor and add a su i tab le f i xed res istance in series to obtain the same
overal l resistance , thus giving less cri t ical ad justments but w i th a decrease
in the ad justab le range .
3.1.7 General gu ides and char t s .
3 . 1 . 7 . 1 Mount ing and hand l i ng . Pract ical guides for mount ing and handl ing of
resistors are descr i bed in the fol lowing paragraphs .
Stress moun t i ng . Improper heat d issipat ion is the predominant cause of fai lure
for any resistor t ype . Consequent ly the lowest poss ib le resistor surface t em-
perature should be ma in ta ined . Figure 4 i l lust rates the manner in wh i ch heat
is d iss ipated from f i xed resistors in free ai r . The intensi ty of radiated heat
var ies inversely w i th the square of the d istance from the resistor . Ma i n t a i n-
ing max imum d istance between heat -generat ing components serves to reduce cross-
radiat ion heat ing effects and promotes bet ter convect ion by increasing air
f low . For op t imum cool ing w i thou t a heat s i nk , smal l resistors shou ld have
large d iameter leads of min imum length terminat ing in t ie points of suff icient
3-16
mass to act as heat sinks . All resistors have a max i mum surface temperature
wh ich should never be exceeded . Any temperature beyond max i mum can cause the
resistor to ma l funct i on . Res istors shou ld be moun ted so that there are no
abnormal hot spots on the resistor surface . When moun t ed , resistors should
not come in contact w i th heat - insu lat ing surfaces .
Resistor moun t i ng for vibrat ion . Resistors should be mounted so resonance

does not occur w i t h i n the frequency spectrum of the vibrat ion envi ronmen t to
wh ich the resistors may be sub jected . Some of the most common resistor packag-
ing methods resul t in large resistor noise . Res istor moun t ing for vibrat ion
should provide : (1) the least tension or compress ion between the lead and
body , (2) t he least exci tat ion of the resistor wi th any other surface , and (3)
no bending or d istort ion of the resistor body .
FIGURE 4. Heat d iss ipat ion of resistors under room cond i t i ons .
Ci rcu i t packaging . Even wel l insulated resistors that are crowded toge ther
and come into contact w i t h each other can provide leakage paths for external
current passage . This can change the resul tant resistance in the ci rcu i t .
Moi s t ure traps and d i r t t raps are easi ly formed by crowd i ng . Moi s ture and
dirt eventual ly form corros ive mater i a l s wh i ch can degrade the resistors and
other e lect ron ic par ts . Moisture can accumu l ate around dirt even in an atmos-
phere of normal hum i d i t y . Proper space u t i l izat ion of e l ect ron i c parts can
reduce the package size and st i l l provide adequate spacing of parts .
Summary . The fol lowing is a guide for resistor moun t i ng .
a. Ma inta in lead length at a min imum . The mass of the t ie point acts as
a heat sink .
Lead should be offset (bent sl ight ly) to al low for thermal con t ract ion
where low temperatures are presen t .
3-17
b. Close tol erance and low-value resistors require special precau t i ons
such as short leads and good solder ing techn i ques ; the resistance of
the leads and the w i r i ng may be as much as several percent of the
resistance of the resistor .
c. Ma inta in max imum spacing between resistors .
d. For resistors moun ted in ser ies , cons ider the heat being conducted
through the leads to the next resistor .
e. Large power uni ts should be mounted to the chass is .
f. Do not mount h igh-power uni ts direct ly on terminal boards or pr inted

ci rcu i ts .
g. To provide for the most eff icient operat ion and even heat d i s t r i bu-
t i on , power resistors should be mounted in a horizontal pos i t ion .
h. Select mount ing mater ia ls that wi l 1 not char and can w i t hs t and strain
due to expans i on .
i. Consider prox imi ty to other heat sources as wel l as se l f-heat ing .
j. Consider levels of shock and vibrat ion to be encoun tered . Where large
body mass is presen t , the body shou ld be restrained from movemen t .
3 . 1 . 7 . 2 Effects of mechanical design and ambient cond i t ions . Since the oper-
at ion of "a ci rcui t cannot 5e di vorced from tHe physical conf igurat ion it
assumes when assemb l ed , some of the points that apply herein have already been
d iscussed . It is good , however , to check this aspect of equ ipmen t design
several t i mes , so the redundancies in the fol lowing paragraphs are de l iberate
for the sake of emphas is .
Mechanical design of res istors . Much t roub le dur ing the l ife of the equ ipment
can be e l iminated if the design engineer can be sure that the resistors speci -
f ied for the ci rcu i ts are soundly const ructed and proper equ ipment assembly
techn iques are u t i l i zed . The resistor types l isted in this handbook provide
a great measure of this assurance and , in general , assure a un i form qual i ty of
workmansh i p .
End-caps or t erm i na t i ons . The connect ion between the resist ive e lement and
the leads at tached to end-caps or terminat ions must be sound so that none of
the stresses encoun tered by the device cause intermi t tent connect i ons . This
point is addressed in the referenced mi l i tary speci f icat ion . Special pre-
caut ions must be taken dur ing au tomat ic ci rcui t assembly to avoid damage to
this connect ion .
3-18
Effect of^sol der i ng . There are assembly techn iques that affect resistor rel ia-
b i l i ty . Resistors shou ld never be overheated by excess ive solder ing- i ron ap-
p l i cat i ons and the resistor leads should not be abraded by assembly tools . No
normal solder ing pract i ce , e i ther manual or dip solder ing , should damage the
resistor physical ly or change i ts resistance value appreciab ly .
Moisture resistance . Moisture is the greatest enemy of components and e l ec-

t ron i c equ ipment . Usual ly a resistor remains dry because of i ts own sel f-
generated heat ; this is true only when the equ ipment is turned on . If the
equ ipment must stand for long per iods under humid cond i t ions w i t hou t power
app l ied , one should determi ne whe ther or not the ci rcu i ts wi l l operate wi th
resistance values wh i ch have changed from the "hot" cond i t ion , and whe t her or
not the resistance value dur ing the warmup per iod wi l l al low the equ ipment to
work sat isfactori ly dur ing this per iod . If i t wi l l not , he must see that a
resistor adequately protected against moisture absorpt ion is used . It is
therefore / up to the design engineer to analyze the need and to provide a resis-
tor to meet these cond i t ions . This handbook and the app l icab le mi l i tary
speci f icat ions const i tu te a guide as to wha t the var ious kinds of resistors
wi l l do under humid cond i t ions .
Method of moun t i ng . Large resistors that are not provided w i t h some adequate
means of mount ing should not be cons i dered . Under cond i t ions of vibrat ion or
shock , lead fai lure can occur and the larger the mass suppor ted by the leads
the more probab le a fai lure wi l l be . Even when vibrat ion or shock wi l l not be
a serious prob lem , ease of assembly and replaceabi l i ty suggest that large com-
ponents be mounted ind ividua l ly .
Resistor body . The body of the res i stor must be suff icient ly strong to w i t h-
stand any handl ing i t is l ikely to get . The speci f icat ion should requi re ,
through workmansh ip and packaging requ i rements , that the manufacturer show that
his product wi l l not crack , ch ip , or break in t rans i t , on the she l f , or in the
normal assembly process .
The charts in Tab les I and II wi l l guide the select ion of resistor types by
compar ing the order of mer i t for each l isted character ist ic .
3 . 1 . 8 Predict ion mode l . To pred ict the rel iabi l i ty of e l ect ron i c equ i pmen t ,
i t is necessary to be able to pred ict the fai lure rate of individual par ts .
Fa i lure rate factors and a procedure for ca lcu lat ing part fa i l ure rate are
provided in MIL-HDBK-217 . Di fferent factors are requi red for each type of
resistor . Informat ion in this sect ion is given to demonst rate and stress con-
t rol l ab l e factors wh i ch affect re l i ab i l i ty . For addi t ional d iscuss ion of this
sub ject , see sect ion 1.4 of this standard . To perform an actual pred ict ion ,
consu l t the latest revision of MIL-HDBK-217 .
3 . 1 . 8 . 1 General rel iabi l i ty cons i dera t i ons . Rel iabi l i ty cons iderat ions for
each type of resistor are included in the detai l subsect ion for the respect ive
resistor type .
3-19
TABLE I. Select ion chart for relat ive performance of f i xed resistors
Order of Meri t
Character i st i c Best Poorest
Accuracy RBR RNC RWR RER RLR RCR
Cost /uni t RCR RLR RNC RWR RER RBR
High-frequency performance . RNC RLR RCR RER RWR RBR
Operat ing temperature range RWR RER RNC RLR RCR RBR
Resistance range RCR RNC RLR RBR RWR RER
Stabi l i ty RBR RNC RWR RER RLR RCR
Temperature coeff icient RBR RWR RER RNC RLR RCR
Wat tage range RER RWR RCR RLR RNC RBR
Wat ts / size RER RWR RCR RLR RNC RBR
TABLE II. Select ion chart for relat ive performance of

variable resistors (lead screw ad justab le)
Order of Meri t
Character ist ic Bet ter Poorer
Accuracy RTR RJR
Cost / un i t RJR RTR
High-frequency performance RJR RTR
Operat ing temperature range RTR RJR
Res istance range RJR RTR
Stabi l i ty RTR RJR
Temperature coeff icient RTR RJR
Wat tage range RTR RJR
Wat ts/si ze RTR RJR
3-20
Improved rel iabi l i ty of resistors can be obtained by the fol lowing addi t ional
effor ts .
a. Addi t ional vol tage and power derat ing of the devices to avoid insu la-
t ion fai lures and acce lerated deter iorat ion due to high t empera t ure .
(Vol tage and power are commonly derated to 80 and 50 percent of rated
values , respect ively . )
b. Detai led visual inspect ion of mater ials and assemb ly operat ions as the
resistor is manufact ured , prior to the coat ing operat ion .
c. Operat ing burn- in rel iabi l i ty screen ing tests on the resistor devices
to screen out infant mortal i ty fai lures prior to the resistors being
assemb led in ci rcu i ts .
d. Care in handl ing of resistors and inspect ion for damage to resistors
caused dur ing equ ipment manufactur i ng operat ions .
3 . 1 . 8 . 2 Radiat ion cons i derat i ons . Past experimental evidence and theory have
shown that resistors are less sensi t ive to nuclear radiat ion than other com-
ponents such as t rans istors , d iodes , integrated ci rcu i ts , e t c .
3-21
M1L-HDBK-978-B (NASA)
3.2 RESISTORS, FIXED

COMPOSITION (INSULATED)
3.2 Fi xed , compos i t ion ( insu lated) ,
3. 2 . 1 Int roduct ion . Res istors covered in this sect ion are estab l ished re l i a-
bi l i ty carbon compos i t i on resistors having a compos i t ion resistance element
and axial leads . These resistors provide l i fe fai lure rates ranging from 1.0
percen t to 0 . 001 percent per 1 , 000 hours at 50 percent of fu l l - l oad operat ion
at an amb ient tempera ture of 70°C . The fai lure rates are estab l ished at a 60-
percen t conf idence level and ma i n ta i ned at a 10-percent producer ' s risk . The
fai lure rate refers to operat i on at rated temperature and at rated vol tage .
The change in resistance between the ini t ial measuremen t and any of the suc-
ceed ing measuremen ts up to and including 2000 hours shal l not exceed ±15 per-
cent . It is expected that the resistance change wi l l not exceed ±15 percent
to 10 , 000 hours of l i fe test ing .
3 . 2 . 1 . 1 Appl icable mi 1i tary speci f i xat i on . MIL-R-39008 , General Speci f icat ion
for Estab l ished Re l i ab i l i ty , Fi xed , Composi t ion (Insulated) Resistors .
3 . 2 . 2 Usual app l i ca t i ons . Since the f i xed compos i t ion resistor is relat ively
inexpens ive , highly re l iab le , and readi ly procurab le in all standard values ,
i t should be the f irst resistor cons idered for all app l icat ions . However , i t
is subject to resistance change w i th humid i ty , temperature , solder ing , and
shel f l i fe and consequen t l y , should normal ly be used in ci rcu i ts wh i ch do not
demand the stabi l i ty of f i lm or w i rewound types .
The f i xed composi t ion resistor is l imi ted in i ts app l icat ions because it is too
noisy for many high gain ci rcu i ts and i ts resistance fal ls off as frequency
rises . The composi t ion res i s tor has low resistance into the megaher tz region .
3 . 2 . 3 Physical const ruct i on . In these resistors , the resistance element con-

sists of a mi x ture of carbon , insulat ing mater ial , and su i tab le binders ei ther
mol ded together or app l ied as a thin layer of conduct ing material on an insu-
lated form . These resistors are covered by a molded jacket wh i ch is primari ly
intended to provide an adequate moisture barr ier for the resistance element as
wel l as mechanical protect ion and strength (see Figure 5) . Due to the rel ia-
bi l i ty requi rements of MIL-R-39008 , processes and controls ut i l ized in manu-
factur ing are str ingent .
Physical d i mens i ons . An out l ine drawing for RCR42 is shown in Figure 6. Refer
to MIL-R-39008 for other styles .
Max i mum we i gh t . Max imum we i gh t for the largest resistor (RCR42) is 3 grams .
Refer to MIL-R-34008 for other styles .
3-22

SOLDER-COATED LEADS
PERMANENT COLOR
COOING SOLID RESISTANCE
ELEMENT
FIGURE 5 . Typical const ruct ion of a carbon compos i t ion resistor ,
FIGURE 6. Ou t l ine drawing of a carbon compos i t ion resistor ,
3. 2 . 4 Mi l i tary des i gnat i on . An example of the mi l i tary type designat ion is

shown be 1ow. '
RCR07 470
Style Characteri st ic Resistance Res istance Fai lure

tolerance rate
3. 2 . 5 Electrical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Electrical character ist ics for estab l i shed

re l i ab i l i ty , carbon compos i t ion resistors are tabu l ated in MIL-R-39008 . A des-
cr ip t ion of environmental tests wi th the a l lowab le resistance changes are also
t abu l a t ed in mi l i tary speci f icat ion MIL-R-39008 .
Other electrical character ist ics which must be cons i dered in select ion of the
correct resistor for a par t icu lar app l icat ion are as fol l ows .
3 . 2 . 5 . 1 Derat ing . The fai lure rate of f i xed composi t ion resistors under
operat ing cond i t ions is a funct ion of t i me , temperature , and appl ied power .
Refer to MIL-STD-975 for speci f ic derat ing cond i t ions .
3 . 2 . 5 . 2 Peak vol tages and pu lsed operat i on . When carbon compos i t ion resistors
x are used under low-duty-cycle pulse cond i t ions , the max i mum permissib le opera t -
] ing vol tage is l imi ted by breakdown rather than by heat ing . In such app l i ca-
t i ons , the peak value of the pulse should not exceed 2 t imes the rated rms
con t inuous working vol tage for the type used . If the pulses are of suff icient
3-23

durat ion to raise the resistor ' s temperature excess i ve l y , the resistor must be
derated even though the interval between pulses may be long enough to make the
average heat ing smal l . In general , the above procedure must be used w i t h
caut ion if it permi ts the peak power to be more than approx imate ly 30 to 40
t i mes the normal power rat ing .
3 . 2 . 5 . 3 Noise . Thermal agi tat ion or Johnson noise and resistance f luctuat ions
or carbon noise are character i s t i c of carbon compos i t ion res istors . Use of
t hese resistors in low level h i gh-res i stance (1 megohm or more) ci rcu i ts should
be avoided . Noise wh i ch can be expected is approx imate ly 3 to 10 m i crovol ts
per vol t . A f i lm or w i rewound resistor wi l l usual ly y i e l d more sat isfactory
resul ts .
3 . 2 . 5 . 4 Vol tage l i m i tat i ons . Vol tage l imi ts in the app l icat ion of f i xed com-
posi t ion resistors is of ten over l ooked . These max i mum permiss ib le vol tages ,
wh i ch are imposed because of insulat ion breakdown prob lems , must be taken into
considerat ion in add i t i on to the l imi tat ions of power d i ss i pa t i on . Figure 7
i l lustrates these boundary vol tages for var ious size (wat tage rat ings) of com-
posi t ion resistors .
3 . 2 . 5 . 5 Vol tage coeff i c i en t . When vol tage is app l ied to Ipw resistance value
carbon composi t ion res istors , resistance values may change by 2 percen t , or by
0 . 05 percent per vol t for resistors above 1 , 000 ohms for style RCR05 , 0 . 035
percent per vol t for resistors above 1,000 ohms for styles RCR07 and RCR20 , and
0 . 02 percent per vol t above 1 , 000 ohms for styles RCR32 and RCR42 . The vol tage
coeff icient for resistors below 1,000 ohms is not con t rol led by speci f icat ions
and these resistors should not be used in ci rcu i ts wh i ch are sensi t ive to this
parameter .
3 . 2 . 5 . 6 Temperature-res i s tance . The resi stance-t-emperature var iat ion of car-

bon composi t ion resistors cannot be def ined by a temperature coeff icient since
the variat ion is non l inear and has a d i fferent shape for d i fferent resistance
values . (See Table III. )
TABLE III. Resi stance- temperature characteri st ic
Max imum ambient operat ing Max i mum al lowab le change

temperature (100-percent Nominal resistance in resistance from
rated wa t t age and 50- res istance at 25°C
percent rated wa t t age ambient temperature
for FR de term i nat i on) At - 5 5 C At +105°C
(ambient) (ambient)
70°C 1,000ft and under ±6. 5% ±5%

I , 100n to 10 , 000 M n incl ±10% ±6%
II , 000n to 0 . 10 Mfl incl ±13% ±7. 5%
0 . 11 Mn to 1.0 M n incl ±15% ±10%
I.1 Ma to 10 MQ incl ±20% ±15%
II .0 MQ and over ±25% ±15%
3-24
1000
o<
H
-J
O
> 100
Q
III
3
X
<L
C 0
<L CO
0
CO
CO (A
(/) ^sl
I
ro 00
1
en 1
a
Uc
J DO
o. z
>
D c/>
>
s
<
o
o
s
"0
O w
</> b
H33
O m
100 1000 10.000 1 MEG 1 MEG zJ2
_ 0)
Ii
RESISTANCE-OHMS
S
FIGURE 7. Vol tage l imi tat ions by style .
m5 mV
w o

3 . 2 . 5 . 7 High-frequency app l i cat i ons . When used in high-frequency ci rcu i ts

(1 megaher tz and above) , the effect ive resistance wi l l decrease as a resul t of
d i e l ect r i c losses and shunt capaci tance (both end- to-end and d ist r ibu ted to
moun t ing surface) . High frequency character ist ics of carbon composi t ion re-
sistors are not con t rol l ed by speci f icat ion and hence are subject to change
w i thou t not ice . Typical examp les of changes in effect ive resistance are as
fol l ows .
a. At 1 megaher tz a 1/ 2-wat t 100-k i lohm resistor measures 90 percent

of dc value .
b. At 10 megaher tz a 1/ 2-wat t 100-ki lohm resistor measures 55 percent

of dc value .
c. At 10 megaher tz a 2-wat t 1-megohm resistor measures 15 percent of

dc value .
3 . 2 . 6 . Environmental cons i dera t i ons . Estab l ished re l iab i l i ty , f i xed , compo-

si t ion resistors are qua l i f ied to w i ths tand environmental tests in accordance
w i t h Tab le IV of MXL-R-39008B .
Addi t ional environmental considerat ions fol l ow .
Shel f l i fe . In general , these resistors exhibi t resistance var iat ions in shel f
l ife as high as ±15 percent due to moi s ture and temperature effects . It is
recommended that af ter a storage per iod of approx imately six months or more ,
these resistors be baked for 48 hours at 100°C (wi th no power appl ied) prior to
usage . When closer l i fe tolerance or h igher accuracy is needed , resistors in
accordance wi th MIL-R-55182 or MIL-R-39017 should be used .
Sol der i ng . Care should be taken in solder ing resistors because all propert ies
of a composi t ion resistor may be seriously affected when solder ing irons are
app l i ed too closely to a resistor body or for too long a period . The length of
lead left between the resistor body and the soldering point should not be less
than 1/4 inch . Heat -d i ss i pat i ng clamps should be used , if necessary , when
solder ing resistors in close quar ters . In general , if it is necessary to
unsol der a resistor to make a ci rcui t change or in ma in tenance , the resistor
should be d iscarded and a new one used .
Moisture res istance . When exposed to humid atmosphere wh i l e d iss ipat ing less
than 10 percent of rated power (including shel f storage , equipment nonoperat i ng ,
and shipping cond i t i ons) , resistance values may change up to 15 percen t .
3 . 2 . 7 . Rel iabi l i ty cons iderat ions . Fi xed carbon composi t ion resistors repre-
sent a wel 1 deve loped and stable technology w i th an inherent ly low fai lure
rate . The fol lowing factors should be cons idered to determine the rel iabi l i ty
of these resistors .
3-26

3. 2 . 7. 1 Derat ing . Considerat ion must be given to the resistor ' s wat tage
rat ing . This is based on the mater ials used and is control led by speci fying a
max i mum hot -spot temperature . The amount of d issipat ion that can be developed
in a resistor body at the max imum hot -spot temperature depends upon how effec-
t ively the d iss ipated energy is carr ied away and is a direct funct ion of the
ambient temperature . For operat ion cont inuously at full rat ing , the resistor
must be connected to an adequate heat sink ; th is means approx imately 1/ 2- inch
leads connected to average size solder terminals wi th no other d iss ipat ive
parts connected to the same terminals or moun ted closer than one d iameter .
Appropr iate derat ing must be imposed at elevated temperatures . Power d i ss i pa-
t ion capab i l i t ies of a resistor are usual ly lower when moun ted in equ ipment
than under test cond i t ions . Most of the generated heat is carr ied away by the
resistor leads . Therefore , when two resistors are connected to the same ter-
m i na l , wat tage rat ings wou ld be decreased approx imately 25 percent . Close
prox imi ty of one resistor to another or to any other heat -generat ing part
further reduces the wat tage rat ing . Conformal coat ings and encapsu lat ing
mater ials are poor heat conductors . When resistors are packaged in this manner ,
exercise caut ion in select ion of the power rat ing . Refer to MIL-STD-975 for
speci f ic derat ing cond i t ions .
Derat ing for op t imum performance . For opt imum performance , the fol lowing two
"rules of thumb have been T7T pract ice in industry for these resistors .
a. Af ter the ant icipated max imum ambient temperature has been determined ,
a safety factor of 2 is appl ied to the wat tage .
b. Wat tage is ad justed so that the hot -spot temperature does not exceed
the fol lowing for the par t icu lar style .
RCR05 - 120°C
RCR07 - 120°C
RCR20 - 100°C
RCR32 - 100°C
RCR42 - 100°C
NOTE: It is recommended that ei ther of the above techn iques be cons idered
in the app l icat ion of these resistors .
3 . 2 . 7 . 2 Fai lure rate factors . Fai lures are considered to be opens , shor ts ,
or radical depar tures from des i red character ist ies . Fai lure rate factors
app l icab le to this speci f icat ion are stated and d iscussed in MIL-HDBK-217 . The
fai lure rate factors stated in MIL-HDBK-217 are based on "catastrophic fai lures"
and wi l l d i ffer from the fai lure rates estab l ished in the speci f icat ion since
this estab l ished fai lure rate is based on a "parametr ic fai lure" of ±15 percent
change in resistance from the ini t ial measurement and any succeeding measure-
ments taken up to and including 10, 000 hours of l ife tests .
3-27
3.3 RESISTORS, FIXED, FILM

(HIGH STABILITY)
3.3 Fi xed , f i lm (high stab i l i ty) .
3.3.1. Introduct ion . Res istors"covered in th is sect ion are estab l ished re l i a-
b i l i t y , f i xed metal f i lm resistors , including both hermet ical ly and nonherme t -
ical ly sealed types . These resistors possess a high degree of stab i l i ty , w i th
respect to t i me , under severe environmental cond i t i ons w i t h an es tab l i shed
re l iab i l i ty . These resistors provide l i fe fai lure rates ranging from 1.0 per-
cen t to 0 . 001 percent per 1 , 000 hours . The fai lure rates are estab l i shed at a
60-percent conf idence level (ini t ial qua l i f i cat i on) and ma i n ta i ned at a 10-per-
cen t producer ' s r isk . The fai lure rate is referred to operat ion at ful l -rated
wa t t age and temperature w i th a max i mum change in resistance of ±2 .0 percent
from the ini t ial measuremen t to any succeed ing measuremen t up to and including
10 , 000 hours of l i fe t es t .
3 . 3 . 1 . 1 App l icab le mi l i tary speci f i cat i on . MIL-R-55182 , General Speci f icat ion
for Estab l ished Re l i ab i l i t y , Fi xed , F i l m , Resistors .
3 . 3 . 2 . Usual app l i ca t i ons . These resistors are des igned for use in cri t ical
ci rcui try where high s tab i l i ty , long l i fe , rel iable operat i on , and accuracy
are of prime impor tance . They are part icular ly des i rab le for use in ci rcui ts
where high frequenci es preclude the use of other types of resistors . Some of
t he app l icat ions for wh i ch these f i lm- type resistors are especial ly sui ted are
h i gh-frequency , t uned ci rcu i t loaders , te levision side-band f i l ters , rhombic
antenna terminators , radar pu l se equ i pmen t , and meter ing ci rcu i ts such as
impedance bridges and stand ing-wave-rat io meters .
3 . 3 . 3 . Physical cons t ruct i on . In these resistors the resistance element con-

sists of a metal f i lm e lement on a ceramic substrate wi th the except ion of the
RNC90 . The element is formed by the evaporat ion of a heated metal under vacuum
cond i t ions . The RNC90 consists of a metal foil on a f lat substrate . Fol lowing
sp i ra l i ng or t r i mmi ng to increase the ava i l ab l e resistance values and the
at tachment of leads , the element is protected from environmental condi t ions
by an encl osure (see Figures 8 , 9, 10 and 11, and Tab le IV) . Due to the
rel iabi l i ty requ i rements of MIL-R-55182 , processes and cont rols ut i l ized in
manufactur i ng are necessari ly str ingent .
TABLE IV. Terminal types
Speci f icat ion Speci f icat ion

Character ist ic Terminal Des ignator Indicates Indicates
(See MIL-R-55182) Weldab le Solderab le
C N, R N-Yes R-No N-No R-Yes

H C Yes Yes
E N, R N-Yes R-No N-No R-Yes
J C Yes Yes
K
1/ C Yes Yes
Y - C Yes Yes
1/ App l icab le to style RNC90 on ly .
3-28

(HIGH STABILITY)
ALLOY COATED CAP

WELDED CONSTRUCTION
GOLD BAND
TERMINATION
HIGH PURITY
CONTROLLED CERAMIC
EVAPORATED
METAL ALLOY
UNIFORM, AUTOMATIC
DIAMOND HELIX
HIGH TEMPERATURE
PHROCLAD COATING
ALLOY COATED
COPPER LEAD
FIGURE 8 . Typical const ruct ion of an axial lead type,
ETCHED BULK METAL'

PADDLE LEADS RESISTIVE ELEMENT
SILICONE RUBBER WELDED

ENCAPSULATION TERMINATIONS
CERAMIC
SUBSTRATE
MOLDED
STANDOFFS
ONE-PIECE
COMPRESSION-MOLDED
CASE
FIGURE 9. Typical const ruct ion of an RNC90 resistor .
3-29

(HIGH STABILITY)
FIGURE 10. Out l ine drawing of styles RNR50 through RNR75 f i lm resistors ,
77
FIGURE 11. Out l ine drawing of a style RNC90 f i lm resistor .
3 . 3 . 4 Mi l i tary des i gnat i on . Examples of the mi l i tary type designat ion are
shown be l ow .
I T
RNR60 1003 M
r
Style and Character i s t i c Resistance Resi stance Li fe ail ure
terminal type tolerance rate
RNC90 Y 162R00 B M
T T T
I I I I
Style and Character i st i c Resi stance Resistance Li fe fai lure
terminal type tolerance rate
3 . 3 . 5 . Electrical character ist ics . Electrical character ist ics for estab l ished
Re l iab i l i ty , metal f i lm resistors are tabu lated in mi l i tary speci f icat ion
MIL-R-55182 .
3-30

(HIGH STABILITY)
3 . 3 . 5 . 1 Derat ing . The fai lure rate of metal f i lm resistors under operat ing
cond i t ions is a funct ion of t i me , t empera t ure , and app l ied power . Refer to
MIL-STD-975 for speci f ic derat ing cond i t ions .
3 . 3 . 5 . 2 High frequency app l icat ions . When used in high frequency ci rcu i ts
(400 megaher tz and above) , the effect ive resistance wi l l decrease as a resul t
of shunt capaci tance (both end- to-end and d i st r i bu ted capaci tance to moun t ing
surface) . High frequency character ist ics of metal f i lm resistors are not
cont rol led by speci f icat ion and hence are subject to change .
3 . 3 . 5 . 3 Pulse app l i ca t i ons . When metal f i lm resistors are used in low duty
cycle pulse ci rcu i ts , peak vol tage should not exceed 1.4 t imes the rated con-
t inuous work ing vol tage (RCWV) . However , if the duty cycle is high or the
pulse width is appreci ab l e , even though average power is w i th i n rat ings , the
instantaneous temperature rise may be excess ive , requiring a resistor of higher
wat tage r a t i n g / P e a k power d issipat ion should not exceed four t imes the max i mum
rat ing of the resistor under any cond i t ions .
3 . 3 . 5 . 4 Vol tage coeff i ci en t . The vol tage coeff icien t for resistors of 1 ,000
ohms and above shal l not exceed ±0. 005 percen t per vol t .
3 . 3 . 5 . 5 Noise . Noise output is control led by the speci f icat ion but , for metal -
, f i lm resistors , noise is a negl igib le factor . In app l icat ions where noise is
J an important factor , f i xed f i lm resistors are perferab le to compos i t ion types .
Where noise test screen ing is ind icated , it is recommended that the noise test
procedure of MIL-STD-202 , Method 308 , be used for resistor screening .
3 . 3 . 6 . Environmental cons i derat i ons . Estab l ished re l iab i l i ty , metal f i lm re-

sistors are qua l i f i ed to w i thstand environmental tests in accordance wi th Tab le
VII of MIL-R-55182 . The environmental tests are tabu lated wi th the max i mum
a l lowab le percent change in resistance value for each exposure .
Addi t ional environmental considerat ions are as fol lows .
a. Moisture res i stance . Metal f i lm resistors are not essent ial ly affected
by moi s ture except by corrosion or con tam i nat i on . Coated metal f i lm
resistors may be affected if the coat ing is scratched or damaged and
moisture is al lowed to penet rate the coat ing .
b. Moun t i ng . Under cond i t ions of severe shock or vibrat ion (or a comb ina-
t ion of both) , resistors should be moun ted in such a fashion that the
body of the resistor is restrained from movement w i th respect to the
mount ing base . It should be noted that if clamps are used , certain
electrical character ist ics of the resistor wi l l be al tered . The heat -
d iss ipat ing qual i t ies of the resistor wi l l be enhanced or retarded
depending on whe t her the clamp ing material is a good or poor heat
conductor .
3-31

(HIGH STABILITY)
c. Hand l ing . Substrates are fragi le and subject to damage during molding
processes or dur ing assembly of the resistors into ci rcu i ts . Broken
substrates break the f i lm and cause open ci rcui ts .
d. Elect rostat ic sensi t ivi ty . All styles , except the RNC90 , a r e e l e c t r o -

stat ical ly sensi t ive . For tolerance B , packaging shou ld be in accor-
dance w i th MIL-R-39032 .
3 . 3 . 7 Rel iabi l i ty cons i derat i ons . Fi xed metal f i lm resistors are intended for
app l icat ions requir ing high stabi l i ty of the resistance value dur ing l ife of
the circui t in wh i ch they are used . The fol lowing are addi t ional factors in
the rel iabi l i ty of these resistors .
3 . 3 . 7 . 1 Derat ing for opt imum performance . Because all of the electrical energy
d iss ipated by th is resistor is conver ted into heat energy , the temperature of
t he surrounding air is an inf luencing factor when select ing a par t icu lar resis-
tor for a speci f ic app l icat ion . The power rat ing of these resistors is based
on operat ion at speci f ic temperatures ; however , in actual use , the resistor may
not be operat ing at t hese temperatures . When the des i red character i st i c and
the ant icipated max imum ambient temperatures have been determined , a sui table
safety factor app l ied to the wat tage is recommended to insure the select ion of
a resistor having an adequate wat tage-d i ss i pat i on potent ial .
3. 3. 7. 2 Design tol erance . Comb ined effects of use and envi ronment may resul t
in a ±2 percen t change from the "as - received resistance" value . Ci rcu i ts ,
therefore , should be designed to accept t h i s ±2 percent var iat ion in resistance
wh i l e cont inu ing to operate proper ly .
3 . 3 . 7 . 3 Screen ing . Al l resistors furn ished under MIL-R-55182 are sub jected
to cond i t ion ing through temperature cycl ing and over load test ing .
3 . 3 . 7 . 4 Fai lure rate factors . Fai lures are cons idered to be opens , shorts ,
or radical departures from desired character ist ics . Fai lure rate factors
app l icab le to this speci f icat ion are stated and d iscussed in MIL-HD8K-217 . The
fai lure rate factors stated in MIL-HDBK-217 are based on catast roph ic fai lures
and wi l l d i ffer from the fai lure rates estab l ished in the speci f icat ion since
th is estab l ished fai lure rate is based on a paramet r ic fai lure of ±2.0 percent
change in resistance from the ini t ial measurement and any succeed ing measure-
ments up to and including 10, 000 hours of l ife tests .
3-32

(INSULATED)
3.4 Fi xed , f i lm ( insulated) .
3.4.1 Introduct ion . Resistors covered in this sect ion are estab l i shed rel ia-
b i l i ty , insulated f i lm resistors having a f i lm- type resistance element and
axial leads . These resistors have resistance tolerances of ±1.0 and ±2.0 per-
cent . These resistors provide l i fe fai lure rates ranging from 1.0 percent
to 0.001 percent per 1,000 hours . The fai lure rates are estab l i shed at a
60-percent conf idence level (ini t ial qua l i f i cat i on) and ma i n ta i ned at a 10-
percent producer ' s risk . The fai lure rate is referred to operat ion at ful l
rated wa t t age and temperature (70°C) w i t h a max i mum change in resistance of
±4.0 percent from the ini t ial measuremen t and any succeed ing measuremen t up
to and including 10 , 000 hours of l ife test .
3.4.1.1 App l icab le mi 1i tary speci f icat ion . MIL-R-39017 , General Speci f icat ion
for Estab l ished Re l i ab i l i ty , Fi xed , hi Im (Insulated) Res i stors .
3.4. 2 Usual app l icat ions . These resistor styles are used in app l icat ions
requiring bet ter stab i l i ty , tolerance , and temperature coeff icien t requi rements
than carbon composi t ion types . For app l icat ions requiring greater precision and
t ighter tolerances , the use of metal f i lm or w i rewound resistors is indicated .
3.4.3 Physical const ruct i on . In these resistors , the resistance e lement con-
sists of a f i lm- type resistance element (t in ox ide , metal glaze , etc . ) . The
deposi t ion process depends- on the manufact urer . The e lement is sp i raled to
achieve ranges in resistance value and , af ter lead at tachmen t , the element is
coated to protect it from moisture or other detrimental environmental cond i t ions
(see Figure 12) . Due to the rel iabi l i ty requirements of MIL-R-39017 , processes
and controls ut i l ized in manufactur ing are necessar i ly st r ingen t . Resistors
furn ished under MIL-R-39017 have leads conforming to type C of MIL-STD-1276 .
These leads are cons idered both solderab le and we l dab l e .
Physical d i mens i ons . An out l ine drawing for RLR32 is shown in Figure 13. Refer
to MIL-R-39017 for other styles .
Max imum we i gh t . The max imum we i gh t is 1. 5 grams for the RLR32 . Refer to
MIL-R-39017 for other styles .
3.4.4 Mi l i tary des i gna t i on . An examp le of the mi l i tary t ype des ignat ion is
shown below .
RL *07 1002 M
Style Terminal Resi stance Res istance Li fe 'ai lure

tolerance rate
3-33

(INSULATED)
DIAMOND SPIRALLED
FIGURE 12 . Typical const ruct i on of a metal glaze resistor .
FIGURE 13. Ou t l i ne drawing of a style RLR32 resistor ,
3 . 4 . 5 Electrical charact er i s t i cs . Electrical character ist ics for estab l ished

re l i ab i l i ty , f i lm resistors are t abu l a t ed in mi l i tary speci f icat ion MIL-R-39017 .
Addi t ional important electrical character ist ics which must be considered in
se lect ion of the correct resistor for a par t icu lar app l icat ion are as fol lows .
3 . 4 . 5 . 1 Derat ing . The fai lure rate of f i lm resistors under operat ing con-
d i t ions is a funct ion of t i me , temperature , and appl ied power . Refer to
MIL-STD-975 for speci f ic derat ing cond i t i ons .
3 . 4 . 5 . 2 Max imum vol tage . The max imum cont inuous work ing vol tage speci f ied
for each style should in no case be exceeded regardless of the theoret ica l ly
ca lcu lated rated vol tage .
3 . 4 . 5 . 3 Noise . Noise output is uncont rol led by t he speci f icat ion and is
cons i dered a negl igib le quan t i t y .
3 . 4 . 5 . 4 Frequency charact er i s t i cs . These resistors are vi rtual ly non i nduct i ve .

A typical response curve is i l lustrated in Figure 14.
3-34

(INSULATED)
uu
o 150
Z
<
</3
100 100
U
Q
1k
50
Z
UJ 10 k
CJ
cr RLR 07,20
UJ
0.
10 50 100 250
F R E Q U E N C Y IN M H z
FIGURE 14. Response curve .
3.4.6 Environmental consi derat i ons . Establ ished rel iabi l i ty f i lm resistors
are qual i f ied to w i ths tand environmental tests in accordance wi th Tab le IV of
MIL-R-39017 .
Addi t ional environmental considerat ions are as fol lows ,
Shel f l i fe . MIL-R-39017 est imates a change of resistance of ±.2 percent (aver-

x age) per year under normal storage condi t ions (25° ±10°C) w i th relat ive humidi ty
) not exceeding 90 percen t .
3. 4. 7 Rel iabi l i ty cons i derat i ons . Fi lm resistors are des igned for full power
rat ing at ambient temperatures to +70°C and zero power rat ing at an ambient
temperature of +150°C . These resistors cost less than the f i xed metal f i lm
(high stabi l i ty) resistors that are in accordance wi th MIL-R-55182 . Rel iabi l i ty
of these resistors is exce l lent at ambient temperatures to +70°C when sui tably
derated , but they should not be considered equal to the rel iabi l i ty of resistors
that are in accordance w i th MIL-R-55182 at amb ient temperatures above +70°C .
The fol lowing are addi t ional factors in the rel iabi l i ty of these resistors .
3. 4. 7. 1 Derat ing for op t imum performance . Af ter the max imum amb ient tempera-
ture has been de term i ned , a su i tab le safety factor app l ied to the wat tage is
recommended to insure t he select ion of a resistor w i t h an adequate wa t tage
d issipat ion potent ia l .
3 . 4 . 7 . 2 Resistance t ol erance . Designers shou ld bear in m i nd that operat ion

of these resistors under the amb ient cond i t ions for wh i ch mi l i tary equ ipment
is designed may cause permanent or temporary changes in resistance suff icient
to exceed thei r ini t ial tol erance . In par t i cu l ar , operat ion at ex t reme t em-
peratures may cause relat ively large temporary changes in resistance .
3 . 4 . 7 . 3 Screen ing . Al l resistors furn ished under MIL-R-39017 are subjected

to a cond i t ion ing of 1. 5 x rated power for a durat ion of 24 hours at a test
ambient temperature of 20°C to 45°C . The cond i t ion ing is fol lowed by a total
\ resistance check and a visual examinat ion for evidence of arcing , burning , or
J charr ing .
3-35

(INSULATED)
3 . 4 . 7 , 4 Fai lure rate factors . Fai lures are cons idered to be opens , shor ts ,
or radical departures from desired character i st i cs . Fai lure rate factors
app l i cab l e to this speci f icat ion are stated in MIL-HDBK-217 . The fai lure rate
factors stated in MIL-HDBK-217 are based on "catastroph ic ' fai lures" and wi l l
d i ffer from the fai lure rates estab l ished in the speci f icat ion since the estab-
l ished fai lure rate is based on a "parametr ic fai lure" of ±4.0 percent change
in resistance from the ini t ial measurement to any succeeding measurement up to
and including 10, 000 hours of l i fe test .
3-36
3.5 RESISTORS, FIXED,

WIREWOUND (ACCURATE)
3. 5 Fi xed , wi rewound (accurate) .
3. 5 .1 Introduct ion . Resistors covered in this sect ion are estab l ished rel ia-
b i l i ty , accurate w i rewound resistors that have a max i mum ini t ial resistance
tol erance of 1.0 percen t and a high degree of stabi l i ty w i t h respect to t ime
under speci f ied environmental cond i t ions . These resistors provide l ife fai lure
rates ranging from 1.0 percent to 0 . 001 percent per 1 , 000 hours . The fai lure
rates are estab l ished at a 60-percent conf idence level (ini t ial quan t i f i cat i on)
and ma i n ta i ned at a 10-percent producer ' s risk . The fai lure rate is referred
to operat ion at ful l rated wat tage and temperature w i th a max i mum change in
resistance of ±0. 2 percen t from the ini t ial measuremen t and any succeed ing
measurement to and including 10 , 000 hours of l i fe test .
3. 5 . 1 . 1 App l icab le mi l i tary speci f icat ion . MIL-R-39005 , General Speci f icat ion
for Estab l ished Re l i ab i l i t y , Fi xed , Wi rewound (accurate) resistors .
3. 5 . 2 Usual app l icat ions . These resistors are especial ly sui ted for use in dc
amp l i f iers , vol tmeter mu l t ip l iers , e lect ron ic computers , me t ers , and laboratory
test equ ipment . The resistors are not des igned for h igh-frequency app l icat ions
where ac performance is of cri t ical performance .
3. 5 .3 Physical cons t ruct i on . In these res istors , the resistance e lement con-
sists of a precisely measured (by ohmic value) length of resistance w i re wound
on a bobb in . The resistance wi re is an al loy metal wi thou t join ts , we l ds ,
or bonds (except for sp l icing at m i dpoi n t of a b i f i lar w i nd i ng and at end
termina ls) . In order to min imize i nductance , resistors are wound by e i ther
reverse p i -wind ing or bi f i lar wind ing . The e lement assembly is then protected
by a coat ing or encl osure of moi sture-res i stan t insulat ing material wh i ch com-
pletely covers the ex ter i or of the resistance element including connect ions and
terminat ions (see Figure 15) . Use of w i re size of less than 0.001 inch in
d i ame t er is not recommended .
Physical d i mens i ons . An out l ine drawing for RBR52 is shown in Figure 16A and
RBR71 in Figure 16B . Refer to MIL-R-39005 for other styles .
Term i na l s . We ldab le terminals ("U" termi na l s only) shal l be type N-l of

MIL-STD-1276 . Solderab le terminals ("L" termina ls on ly) shal l meet the cr i -
ter i a for w i re lead terminal evaluat ion in test me thod 208 of MIL-STD-202 .
Max i mum we i gh t . The max imum weight for the RBR52 is 6 grams . Refer to
3 . 5 . 4 Mi l i tary des i gna t i on . An examp le of the mi l i tary type des ignat ion is
shown below .
RBR52 12601 M
r
Style Terminal Resistance Resistance Li fe ai lure
tolerance rate
3-37

FIGURE 16. Out l ine drawing .
3-38

3 . 5 . 5 Electrical charac t er i s t i cs . For es t ab l i shed re l i ab i l i ty accura t e w i re-

wound res i stors are t abu l a t ed in m i l i t ary spec i f i ca t i on MIL-R-39005 .
Add i t i ona l e lect r ical charac t er i s t i cs wh i ch must be cons i dered in se l ect i on of

the correct res i s t or for a par t i cu l ar app l i ca t i on are :
3 . 5 . 5 . 1 Dera t i ng . The fa i l ure rate of accura t e w i rewound res i s t ors under

opera t i ng cond i t i ons is a funct i on of t i me , t empera t ure , and app l i ed power .
Refer to MIL-STD-975 for spec i f i c dera t i ng cond i t i ons .
3 . 5 . 5 . 2 Res i s t ance t o l erance and wa t t age i npu t . When using res i stors w i t h
low res i s t ance va l ues and a t o l erance of 0.1 percen t or l ess , the des i gn
eng i neer must cons i der the fact that the res i s t ance of the leads and ot her
w i res connect ed to the res i s tor may exceed the t o l erance . Where a res istor is
used in a cri t ical app l i ca t i on that requ i res the ini t ial t o l erance to be 0.1
percen t or less , i t is a lso des i rab l e to hold res i s t ance changes w i t h i n th is
t o l erance dur i ng opera t i on . Since the t empera t ure charac t er i s t i c can cause
the res i s tance to change by more than 0. 1 percen t , the t empera t ure rise in the
res i s tor must be kept to a m i n i mum if the res i s t or is expec t ed to remain w i t h i n
t he ini t ial t o l erance dur i ng use . It is to be not ed t ha t ini t ial nominal
res i s tance is measured at 25°C wh i l e fu l l - l oad opera t i ng t empera t ure is 125 ° C,
Therefore , if th is c l ose t o l erance of 0.1 percen t or less is to be he ld , the
power rat ing of the res istors shal l be reduced as i nd i ca t ed in Tab le V .
TABLE V. Res i s t ance t o l erance and wa t t age input
Resi stance Permi ss i b l e Percen t

Symbol To l erance of Normal Wa t t age 1/
Percen t (±)
Q 0 . 02 50
A 0 . 05 50
B 0.1 50
F 1.0 100
1/ These va l ues represen t the max i mum wa t t age at wh i ch

res i s t ors shou l d be opera t ed at an amb i en t t empera-
t ure up to 125°C .
3 . 5 . 6 Envi ronmental cons i dera t i ons . Es t ab l i shed re l i ab i l i t y accura t e w i re-

wound res i s tors are qua l i f i ed to w i t hs t and env i ronmen t a l t es t s in accordance
w i t h Tab l e VII of MIL-R-39005C .
Add i t iona l env i ronmen ta l cons i dera t i ons are as fo l l ows .
Coat i ng ma t er i a l s . These res i s tors are encased in nonme t a l l i c ma t er i a l s . The

poss i b i l i t y of ôu t gass i ng" at low pressures shou l d be cons i dered in t he i r
app l i ca t i on .
3-39

Supp lementary i nsu l a t i on . Where high vol tages (250 vol ts and higher) are pre-
sent between the resistor ci rcui t and the grounded surface on wh ich the res is-
t or is moun ted , or where resistance is so high that the insu lat ion resistance
t o ground is an important factor , secondary insulat ion between the resistor
and i ts moun t ing , or between mount ing and ground , should be provided .
Sol der i ng . Care must be exercised in solder ing these res i stors , part icu lar ly
in the lower res istance values and t i gh t er t ol erances , since high contact
resistance migh t cause resistance changes greater than the tol erance .
Moun t i ng . It is suggested that resistors be moun ted by restrain ing the i r

bod ies from movemen t when shock or h i gh-frequency-v i brat i on forces are to be
encoun tered .
Recommended max i mum amb ient t empera t ure . The max imum amb ient temperature should
not exceed for alI styles .
3.5.7 Rel iabi l i ty cons i dera t i ons .
3 . 5 . 7 . 1 Derat ing for op t i mum performance . Because all of the electrical energy
d i ss i pated by a resistor is conver ted into heat energy , the temperature of the
surround ing air becomes an inf luencing factor in the select ion of a par t icu lar
resistor for use in a speci f ic app l i cat i on . Af ter the desi red resistance
t ol erance and the an t i ci pated max imum ambient temperature have been determined ,
a sui table safety factor app l ied to the wa t tage is recommended to insure the
select ion of a resistor having an adequate wa t t age-d i ss i pa t i on potent ial , and
one wh i ch wi l l remain w i th i n speci f ied tol erance l imi ts .
3 . 5 . 7 . 2 Screening requ i remen ts . Al l resistors furn ished under MIL-R-39005

are subjected to a 100-hour cond i t ion ing l ife test by cycl ing at rated wa t t age
at 125°C fol lowed by a total resistance measurement check and a visual exami na-
t ion for evidence of mechanical damage .
3 . 5 . 7 . 3 Fai lure rate fact ors . Fai lures are considered to be opens , shorts , or
radical depar tures from des i red character i s t i cs . Fai lure rate factors app l i c-
able to th is speci f icat ion are stated and d iscussed in MIL-HDBK-217 . The
fai lure rate factors stated in MIL-HDBK-217 are based on "catastroph ic fai lures"
and wi l l d i ffer from the fai lure rates estab l ished in the speci f icat ion , since
the estab l ished fai lure rate is based on a "parametr ic fa i lure" of ±0.2 percent
change in resistance from the ini t ial measuremen t to any succeeding measuremen t
to and including 10, 000 hours of l i fe t es t .
3-40

WIREWOUND (POWER TYPE)
3.6 Fi xed , wi rewound (power t ype) .
3.6.1 Introduct ion . Resistors covered in this sect ion are estab l ished rel ia-
bi l i ty power wi rewound f i xed resistors having axial leads . These resistors
have a max imum ini t ial resistance tolerance of ±1.0 percen t . These resistors
provide fai lure rates ranging from 1.0 percent to 0 . 001 percent per 1 , 000 hours .
The fai lure rates are estab l ished at a 60-percent conf idence level (ini t ial
qual i f icat ion) and ma i n ta i ned at a 10-percent manufacturer ' s risk . The fai lure
rate is referred to operat ion at ful l rated wat tage and temperature wi th a
max i mum change in resistance of ±1.0 percent from the ini t ial measurement to any
succeeding measurement up to and including 10 , 000 hours of l ife test .
3.6.1 .1 App l icab le mi l i tary speci f icat ion . MIL-R-39007 , General Speci f icat ion
for Estab l ished Re l i ab i l i t y , Fi xed , Wi rewound (Power-Type) Res i s tors .
3.6. 2 Usual app l i cat i ons . Power w i rewound resistors are used where power
d iss ipat ion values range from 1 to 10 wa t ts and good permanent stabi l i ty is
required . They may be used in power at tenuators , br i dges , vol tage d i v i ders ,
b leeders in dc power suppl ies and f i l ter networks where the i r poor ac charac-
ter ist ics wi l l not adversely affect the ci rcu i t performance . They have the
added advantage of low resistance range .
\ The d ist r ibuted inductance and capaci tance of the power w i rewound resistor
J become increasingly important at h igher frequencies . As the frequency is
increased , the induct ive reactance wi l l increase and the capaci t ive reactance
wi l l decrease .
3 . 6 . 3 Physical cons t ruct i on . These resistors are const ructed of a measured

length of resistance wi re or ribbon (of a known ohmic value) wound in a precise
manner (pi tch , effect i ve w i re coverage , and w i re d i ameter are speci f icat ion
con t rol led) . The cont inuous length of w i re (wire is requ i red to be free of
joints and bonds and of un i form cross-sect ion) is wound on a ceramic core or
tube and at tached to end terminat ions . The element is then coated or enclosed
by inorgan ic vi treous or a si l icon coat ing to protect it from moisture or other
detrimental environmental cond i t ions (see Figure 17) . Due to the rel iabi l i ty
requ i rements of MIL-R-39007 , processes and controls u t i l i zed in manufactur i ng
are necessar i ly st r ingent . Resistors may have an added requi rement for non-
induct ive wind ing . Resistors wh ich are ident i f ied by the terminal and w i nd i ng
des ignator "N" are noninduct ively wound using the Ayrton-Perry method .
Physical d i mens i ons . An out l ine drawing for RWR78 is shown in Figure 18.
Max i mum weight of each style is shown in Table VI .
)
3-41

FIGURE 17. Typical construct ion of a power w i rewound resistor .
FIGURE 18. Ou t l i ne drawing of a style RWR78 power wi rewound resistor .
TABLE VI . Max imum we ight of each style
S and W Terminal N Terminal

and w i nd i ng and w i nd i ng
RWR74 5 grams 6 grams

RWR80 1 gram 1 gram
RWR81 0.35 gram 0. 70 gram
3-42

3. 6, 4 Mi l i tary des i gnat i on . An examp le of the mi l i tary type designat ion is

shown below .
T
RWR74 49R9
Style Terminal wi re Resistance Resistance Fai lure

and w i nd i ng tolerance rate
3.6. 5 Electrical character ist ics . Electrical character ist ics for estab l ished
rel iabi l i ty power w i rewound resistors are tabu lated in mi l i tary speci f icat ion
MIL-R-39007 .
Addi t ional electrical character ist ics wh i ch must be cons idered in select ion of
the correct resistor for a part icular app l icat ion are as fol lows .
3. 6, 5 . 1 Derat ing . The fai lure rate of power w i rewound resistors under operat -
ing cond i t ions is a funct ion of t ime , t empera t ure , and appl ied power . Refer to
MIL-STD-975 for speci f ic derat ing cond i t ions .
3.6.6 En vironmenta1 cons i de rat ions . Estab l ished rel iabi l i ty power w i rewound
resistors are qua l i f i ed to w i thstand envi ronmental tests in accordance w i t h
Table IX of MIL-R-39007 . The environmental tests are tabu lated wi th the max i mum
al lowab le percent change in resistance value for each exposure .
Coat ing ma t er i a l s . Certain coat ing mater i a l s used in fabr icat ing resistors
furn ished under MIL-R-39007 may be subject to "outgassing" of volat i le material
when operated at surface temperatures over 200°C or at low pressures . This
phenomena should be taken into considerat ion for equ ipment des ign .
Spacing . When resistors are mounted in rows or banks , they should be spaced so
that restr icted vent i lat ion and heat d iss ipat ion by nearby resistors do not
cause temperatures in excess of the max imum permi ss i b l e hot -spot temperature .
An appropr iate comb inat ion of resistor spacing and resistor power rat ing must
be chosen if this is to be insured .
Solder ing . A solder w i th a min imum me l t ing temperature of 350°C should be used
for solder ing . Care must be exercised in solder ing low value and t ight t o l er-
ance resistors since high contact resistance may cause resistance changes
exceed ing the tol erance .
Moun t i ng . Under cond i t ions of severe shock or vibrat ion , or a comb inat ion of
both , resistors of all sizes descr ibed in this sect ion shou ld be moun ted in
such a fashion that the body of the resistor is restrained from movement wi th
respect to the mount ing base . It shou ld be noted that if clamps are used ,
3-43

cer ta in electrical character ist ies of the resistor wi l l be al tered . The heat -
d iss ipat ing qual i t ies of the resistor wi l l be enhanced or retarded depending on
whe t her the clamp ing material is a good or poor heat conductor . Under less
severe vibrat ion cond i t i ons , axial lead styles may be supported by their leads
on l y . The lead lengths should be kept as short as possib le , 1/4 inch or less
is preferred , but shou ld be no longer than 5 / 8 inch . The longer the lead , the
more l ikely that a mechanical fai lure wi l l occur .
Secondary insulat ion . Where high vol tages are present between resistor ci rcu i ts
and grounded surfaces on wh i ch resistors are moun ted , secondary insulat ion
capab le of wi thstand ing the vol tage condi t ions should be provided between
resistors and mount ings or between mount ings and ground .
3. 6. 7 Rel iabi l i ty cons iderat ions .
3 . 6 . 7 . 1 Derat ing . Because all of the electrical energy d iss ipated by a resis-
t or is conver ted into heat energy , the temperature of the surrounding air
becomes an inf luencing factor in the select ion of a part icu lar resistor for use
in a speci f ic app l i cat i on . The power rat ing for these resistors is based on
operat ion at an ambient temperature of 25°C . However , in actual use , the resis-
tors may not be operat ing at that temperature . Af ter the des i red resistance
tolerance and the ant icipated max imum ambient temperature have been determined a
sui table safety factor appl ied to the wat tage is recommended in order to insure
the select ion of a resistor . This resistor has an adequate wat tage-d iss ipat ion
potent ial and one wh i ch wi l l remain wi th i n speci f ied tolerance l imi ts . Refer
to MIL-STD-975 for speci f ic derat ing cond i t ions .
3 . 6 . 7 . 2 Screen ing . All resistors furn ished under MIL-R-39Q07 are subjected
to a cond i t ion ing 100-hour l i fe test by cycl ing at rated con t inuous work ing
vol tage at 25°C and d issipat ing a wat tage equal to the power rat ing (free air)
of the resistor . The cond i t ion ing is fol lowed by a total resistance measurement
and a visual examinat ion for evidence of mechanical damage .
3 . 6 . 7 . 3 Fai lure rate factors . Fai lures are cons idered to be opens , shorts ,
or radical departures from desired character ist ics . Fai lure rate factors
app l icab le to this speci f icat ion are stated and d iscussed in MIL-HDBK-217 . The
fai lure rate factors stated in MIL-HDBK-217 are based on "catastrophic fai lures"
and wi l l di ffer from the fai lure rat ls estab l ished in the speci f icat ion , since
the estab l ished fai lure rate is based on a "parametr ic fai lure" of ±1.0 percent
change in resistance from the ini t ial measurement to any succeeding measurement
up to including 10, 000 hours of l ife test .
3-44
3.7 RESISTORS, FIXED, WIREWOUND

(POWER TYPE, CHASSIS MOUNTED)
3.7 Fi xed , wi rewound (power type , chassis moun t ed) .
3. 7. 1 . Introduct ion . Resistors covered in this sect ion are estab l ished re l ia-
bi l i ty chass is-mounted power w i rewound res istors , having a wi rewound resistance
element and axial lug- type leads . These resistors ut i l ize the pr incip le of
heat d issipat ion through a metal moun t ing surface w i th ful l rated wat tage at
25°C . The ini t ial resistance tolerance is ±1.0 percent . These resistors
provide l ife fai lure rates ranging from 1.0 percen t to 0 . 001 percent per 1 , 000
hours . The fai lure rates are estab l ished at a 60-percent conf idence level
(ini t ial qual i f icat ion) and ma i n ta i ned at a 10-percent producer 1 s r isk . The
fai lure rate is referred to operat ion at ful l rated wa t tage and temperature
wi th a max imum change in resistance of ±2 .0 percent from the ini t ial measure-
ment to any succeed ing measurement up to and including 10 , 000 hours of l ife
test .
3.7.1 .1 Appl icable mi l i tary speci f icat ion . MIL-R-39009 , General Speci f icat ion
for Establ ished Re l iab i1i ty , Fi xed , Wi rewound (Power Type , Chassis Mounted)
Resistors .
3. 7. 2 . Usual app l i cat i ons . Chassis moun ted power resistors are used in the
same type of electrical appl icat ions as the axial lead , w i rewound power resis-
tors . The metal case serves as a heat sink and when sui tably mounted on a
metal chassis wi l l d issipate from 5 to 30 wat ts for the standard sizes .
J These resistors should not be used in ci rcui ts where their ac performance is of

cri t ical impor tance . However , provisions have been made in part icu lar styles
to min imize inductance .
3 . 7 . 3 Physical cons t ruct i on . These resistors are const ructed of a measured

length of resistance wi re or ribbon (of a known ohmic value) wound in a precise
manner (pi tch , effect i ve w i re coverage , and w i re d i ameter are speci f icat ion
cont rol led) . Ser ies RER45 , 50, and 55 have Ayr ton-Perry , or b i f i lar wind ings
to reduce induct ive effect . The cont inuous length of wi re (wire required to be
free of joints or bonds , and of un i form cross-sect ion) is wound on a ceramic
core or tube and at tached to end term i nat i ons . The f inished resistor element
and terminat ion caps are sealed by a coat ing mater ial . The coated element is
then inserted in a f inned aluminum al loy housing wh i ch comp letes the seal ing of
the element from detrimental env i ronmen ts , and provides a radiator and a heat
sink for heat d iss ipat ion (see Figure 19) . Due to rel iabi l i ty requi rements of
MIL-R-39009 , processes and controls u t i l ized in manufactur i ng are st r i ngen t .
Dimens ions . An ou t l i ne drawing of RER75 is shown in Figure 20. Refer to

Max imum we i gh t . The max i mum we i gh t for the RER75 is 32 grams . Refer to
3-45

FIGURE 19. Typical const ruct ion of a w i rewound (chassis mounted) resistor .
R® ]
FIGURE 20. Out l ine drawing of a Style RER75 resistor .
3-46

3 . 7 . 4 Mi l i tary des i gnat i on . An examp le of the mi l i tary type des ignat ion is
shown be l ow .
RER65 F 1001
T
I
Style Resistance Resistance Fa i lure rate
tol erance level
3 . 7 . 5 Electrical character i s t i cs . Electrical character ist ics for estab l ished

re l i ab i l i ty , f i xed , wi rewound power t ype , chassis moun ted resistors are t abu-
lated in mi l i tary speci f icat ion MIL-R-39009 .
Addi t ional electrical character ist ics wh ich must be cons idered in select ion of
the correct resistor for a par t i cu l ar app l icat ion are as fol lows .
3 . 7 . 5 . 1 Derat ing . The fa i lure rate of chassis moun ted power wi rewound res is-
tors under operat ing cond i t ions is a funct ion of t ime , temperature , and app l ied
power . Refer to MIL-STD-975 for speci f ic derat ing cond i t i ons .
/ 3.7.6 Environmental cons i dera t i ons . Estab l ished rel iabi l i ty chassis moun t ed
power wi rewound resistors are qual i f ied to wi thstand environmental tests in
accordance w i t h Table IV of MIL-R-39009 . The environmental tests are tabu l a ted
along wi th the max imum al lowab le percent change in resistance value for each
exposure .
Spaci ng . When resistors are moun ted in rows or banks , they shou ld be spaced so
that the restr icted vent i lat ion and heat d i ss i pat i on by nearby resistors do not
cause temperatures in excess of the max i mum permiss ib le cont inuous operat ing
t empera t ure . An appropr iate comb inat ion of resistor spacing and resistor power
rat ing must be chosen if this is to be assumed . In view of the chassis heat
d i ss i pat i on pr incip le of these resistors , part icular care must be exerci sed in
order that the chassis temperature rise does not damage nearby componen ts .
Solder ing . A solder w i th a m i n i mum me l t i ng temperature of 300°C shou ld be used

in sol der i ng .
3. 7 . 7 Rel iab i l i ty cons i dera t i ons .
3 . 7 . 7 . 1 Derat i ng . When the chassis area and the an t icipated max i mum amb ient
tempera ture have been de term i ned , a su i tab le factor app l ied to the wa t t age is
recommended in order to insure the se lect ion of a resistor having an adequate
wat tage-d i ss i pat i on poten t i a l . Refer to MIL-STD-975 for speci f ic derat ing
cond i t i ons .
3-47

3 . 7 . 7 . 2 Screen ing . Al l resistors furn ished under MIL-R-39009 are sub jected
to a cond i t ion ing 100-hour l ife test by cycl ing at rated cont inuous work i ng
vol tage at 25°C and d iss ipat ing a wa t tage equal to the power rat ing (free air)
of the resistor . The cond i t ion ing is fol lowed by a total resistance measurement
and a visual examinat ion for evidence of mechanical damage .
3 . 7 . 7 . 3 Fai lure rate factors . Fai lures are cons idered to be opens , shorts , or
radical depar tures from ini t ial character ist ies occurr ing in an unpred ictab le
manner and in too short a per iod of t ime to permi t de tect i on through normal
preven t i ve ma i n tenance . Fai lure rate factors app l icab le to this speci f icat ion
are stated and d i scussed in MIL-HDBK-217 . The fa i l ure t ra t e factors stated in
MIL-HDBK-217 are based on "catast roph ic fai lures" and wi l l d i ffer from the
fai lure rates estab l i shed in the speci f i cat i on , since the estab l ished fai lure
rate is based on a "paramet r ic fai lure" of ±2.0 percent change in resistance
from the ini t ial measuremen t to any succeed ing measuremen t up to and including
10, 000 hours of l ife test .
3-48
3.8 RESISTORS, VARIABLE, NONWIREWOUND

(ADJUSTMENT TYPE)
3. 8 Var iab le , nonwi rewound (adjustment type) .
3. 8 .1 Introduct ion . Resistors covered in this sect ion are estab l ished re l ia-
bi l i ty nonwi rewound var iab le resistors w i th a contact wh i ch bears uni formly
over the surface of a nonwi rewound resist ive element when pos i t ioned by a mu l t i -
turn lead-screw actuator . These resistors are capab le of fu l l - load operat ion
(when max i mum res istance is engaged) at a max i mum amb ient temperature of 85°C
and are sui table for con t inuous operat ion , when properly derated , at a max imum
temperature of 150°C . The resistance tol erance of these resistors is ±10 per-
cent . These resistors possess l i fe fa i lure rate levels ranging from 1.0 to
0.001 percent per 1 , 000 hours . The fai lure rates are estab l i shed at a 60-per-
cent conf idence level and ma i n ta i ned at 10-percent producer ' s risk on the basis
of l ife tests . The fai lure rate level refers to operat ion at ful l rated vol tage
at 85°C , wi th a permi ss i b l e change in resistance of ±10 percen t as cr i ter ia for
fai lure .
3. 8 . 1 . 1 Appl icable mi 1i tary speci f i cat i on . MIL-R-39035 , General Speci f icat ion
for Estab l ished Re l i ab i l i ty , Var iable , Nonwi rewound (Adjustment Type) Res istors .
3. 8 . 2 Usual app l i ca t i ons . Nonwi rewound var iab le resistors are primari ly used
as t r immers for set t ing biases and do not d iss ipate much power . Because of the
me t hod by wh i ch t hese resistors are made , they are used in pr inted ci rcu i t
boards and logic ci rcu i ts to set vol tage levels for t rans i stors and adjust t ime
constants of RC networks . Nonwi rewound t r immers are used in app l icat ions re-
qu i r ing higher resistance values than avai lable from wi rewound t r immers .
3 . 8 . 3 Physical cons t ruct i on . These resistors have an e l emen t of cont inuous

resist ive mater ials (cermet , metal f i l m , etc . ) on a rectangu lar or arc-shaped
core , depend ing upon the style . The sl iding contact t raverses the element in a
ci rcu lar or straight l ine . The e lement is protected from detrimental env i ron-
mental cond i t ions by a housing or enclosure . The lead screw head is insulated
from the electrical por t ion of the res istor . Due to the rel iabi l i ty requ i re-
men t s of MIL-R-39035 , processes and cont rols u t i l i zed in manufactur i ng are
st r ingen t .
Physical d i mens i ons , Out l ine drawings for each style are shown in Figures 21
through 26.
Term i na l s . Terminal types D , P, W , X and Y are solderab le not we l dab l e . If

we l dah l e leads are requ i red , they must be separately speci f ied in the contract
or order .
3. 8 . 4 Mi l i tary designat ion , An examp l e of the mi l i tary type des ignat ion is
shown be low .
I
RJR24 V* 102
Style Characteri st ic Termi nal Resi stance Fai lure

rate
3-49

(ADJUSTMENT TYPE)
A. Flex ible lead terminal type L
at
i i
B. Pr inted-ci rcu i t pin type Y
FIGURE 21 . Out l ine drawing of a style RJR12 nonwi rewound

var iab le resistor .
3-50

(ADJUSTMENT TYPE)
A. Terminal type P
B. Terminal type W
35?
FIGURE 22 . Out l ine drawing of a style RJR24 nonwi rewound

var iab le resistor .
3-51

(ADJUSTMENT TYPE)
A. Terminal type P
B. Terminal type W
C. Terminal type X
FIGURE 23. Out l ine drawing of a style RJR26 nonwi rewound var iab le resistor .
3-52
MIL -HDBK-978-B (NASA)

(ADJUSTMENT TYPE)
FIGURE 24 . Out l ine drawing of a style RJR 28 nonwi rewound var iab le res istor .
& a ,
V V
FIGURE 25 . Out l ine drawing of a style RJR32 nonwi rewound var iab le res istor .
3-53

(ADJUSTMENT TYPE)
"-x \ ( 1 •n
# I
N
V ^ L I
A i
t-
vt 1/
v
V >| S )
FIGURE 26. Out l ine drawing of a style RJR50 nonwirewound var iable resistor .
3 . 8 . 5 Electrical characteristics. Electrical characterist ics for establ ished

rel iabi l i ty , nonwirewound variable resistors are tabulated in mi 1i tary speci f i -
cat ion MIL-R-39035 .
Other electrical characterist ics wh ich must be considered in select ion of the
correct resistor for a part icular appl icat ion are as fol lows .
3. 8 . 5 . 1 Resistance- temperature character ist ic . Considerat ion should be given

to resistor temperature during operat ion to al low for the change in resistance
due to the resistance- temperature character ist ic . The resistor- temperature
character ist ic is measured between the two end terminals . When the resistance-
temperature characterist ic is cr i t ical , variat ion due to the resistance of the
movable contact should be considered .
3 . 8 . 5 . 2 Contact -resistance var iat ion . The contact resistance variat ion should
not exceed ±3 percent or 20 ohms whichever is greater for characterist ic C , and
±3 percent or 3 ohms whichever is greater for characterist ies F and H.
3. 8 .6 Environmental considerat ion . Establ ished rel iabi l i ty nonwirewound var i -

able resistors ari qual i f ied to wi thstand environmental tests in accordance
wi th Table IV of MIL-R-39035 .
Addi t ional environmental considerat ions are :
Mount ing of resistors . Resistors wi th terminal type L should not be mounted by

their f lex ible wi re leads . Mount ing hardware should be used . Printed-circui t
types are frequent ly terminal mounted al though brackets may be necessary for a
high-shock and vibrat ion envi ronment .
Stacking of resistors . When stacking resistors , care should be taken to com-

pensate for the rise in temperature by derat ing the power rat ing accord ingly .
Select ion of a safe resistor style . The wat tage rat ings of these resistors are
based on operat ion at when mounted on a 1/16-inch thick , glass base , epoxy
laminate . Therefore , the heat sink effect as provided by steel test plates in
other speci f icat ions is not present . The wat tage rat ing is appl icable when the
ent ire resistance element is engaged in the circui t . When only a port ion is
engaged , the wat tage is reduced in the same proport ion as the resistance .
3-54

(ADJUSTMENT TYPE)
3.8.7 Rel iabi l i ty cons i derat i ons .
3 . 8 . 7 . 1 Derat i ng . Af ter the ant icipated max imum ambient temperature has been
de t erm i ned , an appropr i ate safety factor app l ied to the wa t tage is recommended
to insure the select ion of a resistor style having an adequate wa t t age rat ing
w i th op t i mum performance . Refer to MIL-STD-975 for speci f ic derat ing cond i t i ons .
3 . 8 . 7 . 2 High resistances and vol tages . Where vol tages h igher than 250 vol ts
rms are present between the resistor ci rcu i t and grounded surface on wh i ch the
resistor is moun ted , or where the dc resistance is so high that the insulat ion
resistance to ground is an important factor , secondary insu lat ion t o w i ths tand
the cond i t ions shou ld be provided between the resistor and moun t i ng or between
the moun t ing and ground .
3 . 8 . 7 . 3 Screen ing . All resistors furn ished under MIL-R-39035 are subjected to
a 50-hour cond i t ion ing l i fe test by cycl ing at 3/4 wat t at 25°C fol lowed by
contact resistance var iat ion and total resistance measuremen ts and a seal test
for detect ion of leaks .
3 . 8 . 7 . 4 Fai lure rate factors . Fai lures are cons i dered to be opens , shor ts ,
or radical depar tures from desired character i s t i es . Fai lure rate factors
app l i caab l e to this speci f icat ion are stated and d iscussed in MIL-HDBK-217 (see
MIL-R-22097 data) . The fai lure rate factors stated in MIL-HDBK-217 are based
on "catast roph ic fai lures" and wi l l d i ffer from the fai lure rates estab l ished
in the speci f i cat i on , since the estab l i shed fai lure rate is based on a para-
me t r i c fai lure of ±5 percen t change in resistance encoun tered dur ing the 10 , 000
hours l i fe test .
3-55
3.9 RESISTORS, VARIABLE WIREWOUND

(LEAD SCREW ACTUATED)
3. 9 Var iable , wi rewound (lead screw actua ted) .
3 . 9 . 1 Introduct ion . Res i stors covered in this sect ion are estab l ished re l ia-
bi l i ty w i rewound var iab le resistors having a contact wh ich can be posi t ioned by
a mu l t i turn lead-screw actuator over the surface of a l inear ly-wound resist ive
e l emen t . These resistors are capable of fu l1- load operat ion (when max imum
resistance is engaged) at a max i mum amb ien t temperature of 85°C and are su i tab le
for cont inuous operat i on , when proper ly derated , at a max i mum temperature of
150°C . The resistance tolerance of these resistors is ±5 . 0 percen t . These
resistors possess l ife fai lure rate levels ranging from 1.0 to 0.001 percent
per 1,000 hours . The fai lure rates are estab l ished at a 60-percent conf idence
level and ma i n ta i ned at 10-percent producer ' s risk on the basis of l i fe t es t s .
The fai lure rate level refers to operat ion at ful l rated vol tage at 85°C wi th a
permiss ib le change in resistance of ±3.0 percent plus the speci f ied resolut ion
as the cr i ter ia for fa i l ure .
3 . 9 . 1 . 1 Appl icable mi l i tary speci f icat ion . MIL-R-39015 , General Speci f icat ion
for Establ ished Re l i ab i l i ty , Var iab le , Wi rewound (Lead Screw Actuated) Res i s-
t ors .
3 . 9 . 2 Usual app l i ca t i ons . W i rewound var iable resistors are pr imar i ly used as
tr immers for set t ing biases and have low power d iss ipat ion character i st i cs . Be-
cause of the me thod by wh i ch these resistors are made , they are used in pr inted
circu. it boards and logic circui ts to set vol tage levels for transistors and
ad just t ime constants of RC ne tworks .
3 . 9 . 3 Physical const ruct ion . These resistors have an e lement of con t inuous-
length wi re , wound l inearly on a rectangu lar or arc-shaped core , depending upon
the style . The sl iding contact traverses the element in a ci rcu lar or straight
l ine . The element is protected from detrimental environmental condi t ions by a
housing or encl osure . The lead screw head is insulated from the electrical
port ion of the resistor . Due to the rel iabi l i ty requirements of MIL-R-39015 ,
processes and controls ut i l ized in manufactur ing are necessar i ly st r ingent .
Physical Dimensions . Out l ine drawings for each style are shown in Figures 27
through 29 .
Res ist ive element wi re size . Use of wire sizes of less than 0.001 inch d i a-
me t er is not recommended for new des i gns .
Term i na l s . Terminal types P, W, X, and Y are solderable not we l dab l e . If

we l dab l e leads are requ i red , they must be separately speci f i ed .
3-56

-0-
m
B. Pr inted Ci rcu i t pin type Y
FIGURE 27 . Out l ine drawing of a style RTR12 w i rewound var iab le res istor .
3-57

8 n
1
E - a
B. Terminal type P
K -5 i
S
— • —
W, t
__ a
1 _—>
—
1
- e—
1
C. Terminal type W
D. Terminal type X
FIGURE 28 . Out l ine drawing of a style RTR22 w i rewound var iab le resistor .
3-58

<
7 § 1
m eT
A. Terminal type L
rm 9
e
i
LLLLu LLLU
Z
B. Terminal type P
(
— ©
1
// f / 1
uZxl
. L,.,
C. Terminal type W
VF U I
1
« — ® —
A1
l
n
Do Terminal type X
FIGURE 29 . Out l ine drawing of a style RTR24 wi rewound var iable resistor ,
3-59

3. 9. 4 Mi l i tary des i gna t i on . An examp le of the mi l i tary type designat ion is

shown below .
T
RTR12 102 M
Style Character ist ics Term nal Resistance Fa i lure-rate

level
The ordering reference for these resistors is a part number as descr ibed in
MIL-R-39015 . The preferred nominal total resistances values are speci f ied in
MIL-R-39015 .
The part number consists of the number on this speci f icat ion sheet and a dash
number wi th let ters wh i ch signify terminal and fai lure rate level .
Example:
M39015 /1 001 P M
T T
I I
Document Dash number Terminal type Fai lure rate
number from table level
3.9. 5 Electrical character ist ies . Electrical character ist ics for estab l ished
rel iabi l i ty w i rewound var iab le resistors are tabu lated in mi l i tary speci f ica-
t ion MIL-R-39015 .
Addi t ional electrical character ist ies wh i ch must be considered in select ion of
the correct resistor for a part icu lar app l icat ion are as fol lows .
3. 9. 5 . 1 Res istance- temperature character i st i c . Cons iderat ion shou ld be given

to resistor temperature dur ing operat ion to al low for the change in resistance
due to the res istance- temperature character ist ic . The res istance temperature
character ist ic is measured between the two end termina ls . When the res istance-
temperature character i st i c is cr i t ical , var iat ion due to the resistance of the
movab le contact should be considered .
3 . 9 . 5 . 2 Noise . The noise level is low compared to nonwi rewound types . Peak
noise is speci f icat ion-cont rol led at an ini t ial value of 100 ohms max i mum .
However , af ter exposure to environmental tests a degradat ion to 500 ohms is
al lowed by speci f icat ion .
3. 9. 6 Environmental cons i derat i ons . Estab l ished rel iabi l i ty w i rewound var i -
able resistors aFe qual i f ied to w i t hs t and environmental tests in accordance
w i t h Tab le IV of MIL-R-39015 .
3-60

Mount ing of resistors . Resistors wi th terminal type L should not be mounted by

the i r f lex ible w i re leads . Mount ing hardware should be used . Pr inted-ci rcu i t
types are frequent ly termina l -mounted a l though brackets may be necessary for a
high-shock and vibrat ion envi ronment .
Stacking of res istors . When stacking res istors , care should be taken to com-
pensate for the added rise in temperature by derat ing the wat tage rat ing ac-
cord i ngl y .
Select ion of a safe resistor style . The wat tage rat ings of these resistors are
based on operat ion at 85°C when mounted on a 1/16- inch th i ck , glass base , epoxy
laminate . Therefore the heat sink effect as provided by steel test plates in
other speci f icat ions is not present . The wat tage rat ing is app l icab le when the
ent i re resistance e lement is engaged in the ci rcu i t . When only a port ion is
engaged , the wat tage is reduced in the same proport ion as the resistance .
High resistances and vol tages . Where vol tages h igher than 250 vol ts rms are
present between the resistor circui t and grounded surface on wh ich the resistor
is moun ted or where the dc resistance is so high t ha t . t he insu lat ion resis-
tance to ground is an important factor , secondary insulat ion to w i ths tand the
\ cond i t ions should be provided between the resistor and mount ing or between the
J mount ing and ground .
3. 9. 7 Rel iabi l i ty cons i derat i ons .
3 . 9 . 7 . 1 Derat ing . Af ter the ant icipated max imum amb ient temperature has been
de term i ned , an appropr i ate safety factor appl ied .to the wat tage is recommended
to insure the se lect ion of a resistor style having an adequate wa t tage rat ing
wi th op t imum performance . Refer to MIL-STD-975 for speci f ic derat ing cond i -
t i ons .
3 . 9 . 7 . 2 Screen ing . Al l resistors furn ished under MIL-R-39Q15 are subjected to

a 50-hour cond i t ion ing l i fe test by cycl ing at 1 wat t at 25°C , fol lowed by peak
noise and total resistance measuremen ts , and a seal test for detect ion of leaks .
3 . 9 . 7 . 3 Fai lure rate factors . Fai lures are cons idered to be opens , shor ts ,
or radical depar tures from des i red character i st i cs . Fai lure rate factors
app l icab le to th is speci f icat ion are stated and d i scussed in sect ion 1.4 of
MIL-HDBK-217 . The fa i lure rate factors stated in MIL-HDBK-217 are based on
"catastroph ic fa i l ures" and wi l l d i ffer from the fai lure rates estab l ished in
the speci f icat ion , since the estab l ished fai lure rate is based on a "parametr ic
fa i lure" of ±3 percent change in resistance encoun tered dur ing the 10 , 000 hours
l i fe test .
3 . 9 . 7 . 4 Fai lure Mechan i sms . Al though var iab le w i rewound resistors are con-
\ structed in basical ly the same way as the f i xed wi rewound wi th respect to the
) resistance e lements , they are not as rel iable because of potent ial mechanical
3-61

problems associated wi th the w i per arm assemb l ies . These weaknesses fall
into two categor ies : (1) the w i rewound resistance e l emen t , and (2) the wiper
assembly and enclosure .
Imperfect ions in the resistance w i re such as reduced cross sect ional area wi l l
cause hot spots to develop wh ich may u l t imately burn open . The same reduced
cross sect ion wi l l mechanical ly weaken the w i re wh i ch may resul t in a w i re
break . Defects also occur in the terminat ion of the resistance e lement , where
t he resistance wi res are at tached to the terminal leads .
Many imperfect ions are inherent in a var iab le resistor . Aga in , cross sect ional
area is an important considerat ion . As the sl ider contact traverses the resis-
tance e l emen t , i t wi l l cause some wear and as the cross sect ion of the wi re
decreases , the resistance of the e lement increases . For instance , if the
w i per brushes against these w i res , and causes a nick of 0. 00001 inch , it is
more signi f icant on a w i re wi th a d iameter of 0 . 00005 inch than a wi re of 0 . 001
inch diameter . Therefore , wi re diameters of less than 0. 001 inch are considered
rel iabi l i ty hazards .
There are many mechanical defects associated w i th the sl ider and screw assem-
bl ies . The defects general ly resul t in jamming of the lead screw assemb ly ,
str ipp ing of the threads , or improper contact of the w i per wi th the resistance
element .
Clean l iness is important since foreign material on the resistance element may
cause an open when the wiper rides over them . Faul ty end stops and clutch
mechanisms resul t in opens at the end of the travel or fai lure to adjust
resistance value .
3-62
3.10 RESISTORS, FIXED, FILM, NETWORKS
3 . 10 Fi xed , f i lm , networks .
3 . 10 . 1 . Introduct ion . This sect ion covers f i xed resistors in a resistor net -
work conf igurat ion having a f i lm resistance element in a dual - in- l ine or flat
pack packages . These resistors are stab le w i th respect to t ime , temperature ,
and humidi ty and are capable of ful l load operat ion at an ambient temperature
of 70°C .
3.10.1 .1 App l icab le mi 1i tary speci f icat ion . MIL-R-83401 , General Speci f icat ion
for Fi xed , hi lm , Resistor Networks . "
3. 10. 2 . Usual app l i cat i ons . These resistor networks are des igned for use in
cri t ical circui try where stab i l i ty , long l i fe , rel iable operat ion , and accuracy
are of prime importance . They are part icular ly desi rab le for use where min ia-
tur izat ion is important and where ease of assembly is desi red . They are useful
where a number of resistors of the same resistance values are requi red in the
ci rcui t .
3 . 10 . 3 . Physical const ruct i on . In these resistors the resistance element

consists of a fi lm element on a ceramic subst rate . The element is formed
ei ther by deposi t ion of a vapor ized metal or the print ing of a metal and glass
combinat ion paste wh ich has then been f ired at a high temperature . .Resistance
elements are general ly rectangular in shape and cal ibrated to the proper resis-
tance value by tr imming the element by abrasion or a laser beam . Af ter ca l i -
brat ion , the resistance element is protected by an enclosure or coat ing of
insu lat ing , moi sture-res i stan t material (usual ly epoxy or a si l icon compound)
(see Fi gure 30) .
Physical d i mens i ons . Out l ine drawings for each style are shown in Figures 31
through 35 .
FIGURE 30. Typical construct ion of a typical f i lm resistor network .
3-63
^ 3.10 RESISTORS, FIXED, FILM, NETWORKS

14 PIN
DUAL-IN-LINE (DIP) PACKAGE
FIGURE 31 . Out l ine drawing of a style RZ010 package conf igurat ion .
16 PIN
DUAL-IN-LINE ( D I P ) PACKAGE
rn irwwwr
FIGURE 32 . Out l ine drawing of a style RZ020 package conf igurat ion ,
FLATPACK
DOT INDICATES
PIN 1
FIGURE 33. Out l ine drawing of a style RZ030 package conf i gura t i on .
3-64
6 PIN
SINGLE-IN-LINE (SIP) PACKAGE
urn f
FIGURE 34. Out l ine drawing of a style RZ040 package conf igurat ion ,
8 PIN
SINGLE-IN-LINE (SIP) PACKAGE
- T
H1
FIGURE 35 . Ou t l i ne drawing of a style RZ050 package conf i gura t i on .
3 . 10 . 4 Mi l i tary des i gna t i on . An examp le of mi l i tary part number des i gnat i ons
is shown be low .
r
M83 0101 1002
Detai speci Character ist ic Resistance Res i stance Schemat ic

f icat ion number tolerance
3 . 10 . 5 Electrical character i st i cs . Electrical character i st i cs for f i xed , f i lm ,

resistor networks are tabu l a ted in mi l i tary speci f icat ion MIL-R-83401 .
Other electrical character ist ies which mus t be considered in the app l i cat i on of
f i xed , f i lm , resistor networks are as fol lows .
3-65
3 . 10 . 5 . 1 High frequency app l i cat i on . When used in high frequency ci rcu i ts

(200 megaher tz and above) , the effect ive resistance w i l l be reduced as a resul t
of shunt capaci tance between resistance elements and connect ing ci rcu i ts . The
high frequency character ist ies of these networks are not con t rol l ed .
3 . 10 . 5 . 2 Resistance t ol erance . One should bear in mind that operat ion of these
resistor networks under the amb ient cond i t ions for wh i ch equ ipment is des igned
may cause permanent or temporary changes in resistance suff icient to exceed
thei r ini t ial tol erances . In par t i cu l ar , operat ion at ex tremely high or low
ambient temperatures may cause s ign i f icant temporary changes in resistance .
3 . 10 . 5 . 3 Vol tage l imi tat ions . Because of the very smal l spacing between the
resistance elements and the connect ing ci rcu i ts , max i mum permi ss i b l e vol tages
are imposed . The max i mum vol tage permissib le for each network type is speci f ied
in MIL-R-83401 .
3 . 10 . 5 . 4 Noise . Noise output is not control led by speci f icat ion but for these
resistors noise is a negl igib le quan t i ty . In an app l icat ion where noise is an
important factor , resistors in these networks are superior to composi t ion types .
Where noise test screen ing is ind icated , it is recommended that MIL-STD-202 ,
method 308 be used .
3 . 10 . 6 . Envi ronmental cons i derat i ons . Fi lm resistor networks are qual i f ied to
wi thstand environmental tests in accordance wi th Table V of MIL-R-83401 .
3 . 10 . 6 . 1 Coat ing . Only hermet ical ly sealed uni ts (as def ined in paragraph 3. 10
of MIL-R-83401) should be used for space f l ight app l icat ions . The ceramic sand-
w i ch type const ruct ion should not be used for space f l ight app l icat ion .
3 . 10 . 6 . 2 Mount ing . Under severe shock or vibrat ion cond i t ions (or a comb i na-
t ion of both) , Fesistors should be moun ted so that the body of the resistor
network is restrained from movement w i th respect to the mount ing base . If
clamps are used , certain electrical character ist ies may be al tered . The heat
d issipat ing qual i t ies wi l l be enhanced or retarded depend ing on whe t her the
clamp ing material is a good or poor heat conductor .
3 . 10 . 6 . 3 Moisture resistance . The resistors wi th in the networks are essen-

t ial ly unaffected by moi sture . The speci f icat ion al lows only a 0 . 5-percent
change in resistance value as a resul t of exposure to a standard 10-day moisture
resistance test .
The environmental tests are tabu lated in Tab le V of MIL-R-83401 a long w i t h the
max i mum al lowable percent change in resistance value for each exposure .
3 . 10 . 7 Rel iabi l i ty cons i derat i ons .
3 . 10 . 7 . 1 Derat ing . Because all the electrical energy d issipated by a resistor

is converted into heat energy , temperature of the surrounding area is an inf lu-
encing factor when select ing a part icular resistor network for a speci f ic app l i -
cat ion . The power rat ing of these resistor networks is based on operat ing at
3-66

speci f ic temperatures . However , a resistor network may not be operated at these
temperatures . When a desi red character ist ic and an ant icipated max imum ambient
tempera ture have been determined , an appropr iate safety factor app l ied to the
wa t t age is recommended to insure the se lect ion of a resistor network wi th an
adequate wat tage-d i ss i pat i on potent ial . Refer to MIL-STD-975 for speci f ic
derat ing cond i t ions .
3 . 10 . 7 . 2 Screen ing . Al l resistor networks furn ished under MIL-R-83401 are

subject to 100-percent screening through a 100-hour over load test plus a thermal
shock test . These tests are fol lowed by a total resistance check and a visual
examinat ion for evidence of arcing , burn i ng , or charr ing .
3 . 10 . 7 . 3 Fai lure rate factors . Fai lures are cons idered to be opens , shor ts ,
or radical departures from des i reab le character i s t i cs . Fai lure rate factors
app l icab le to this speci f icat ion are stated and d i scussed in MIL-HDBK-217 .
The fai lure rate factors stated in MIL-HDBK-217 are based on "catastroph ic
fai lures . " Life test fa i lures , as def i ned in MIL-R-83401 , are based on "para-
met r ic dri f t" dur ing an operat ing per iod of 1000 hours at rated cond i t i ons .
3-67
3.11 THERMISTORS (THERMALLY

SENSITIVE RESISTORS)
3.11 Thermistors (thermal ly sensi t ive resistors) .
3.11.1 Introduct ion . The word therm i stor is a contract ion of thermal resis-
tor . It is a device whose resistance var ies in a sign i f icant and predictable
manner wi th t empera t ure . The typical thermistor is a stab le , compact , and
rugged two- terminal ceram i c- l i ke semiconductor manufactured by sinter ing m i x-
tures of me ta l l i c ox ides such as manganese , n icke l , coba l t , copper , iron and
uran ium . In this type of non l inear resistor , the electrical resistance varies
over a wi de range of temperature . In cont rast w i th meta ls wh ich have smal l
posi t ive temperature coeff icien ts of resistance , thermistors are made from a
class of mater ials known as sem i conductors , most of which have relat ively large
negat ive temperature coeff icients of resistance ; that is , the resistance
decreases markedly as the temperature increases . In posi t ive temperature
coeff icient therm i stors , the resistance increases wi th increasing temperature .
3. 11 . 1 . 1 App l icab le speci f icat ion .
Mi l i tary . MIL-T-23648 , General Speci f i cat i ons for Thermistor (Thermal ly Sensi -
t ive Resistor) , Insulated .
NASA . GSFC-S-311-P-18 , speci f icat ion for thermistor (thermal ly sensi t ive resis-
tor) , insu lated , negat ive temperature coeff icient .
3 . 11 . 2 Usual app l i cat i ons . Thermistors are versat i le ci rcu i t elements and
have many app l icat ions such as measuremen ts and cont rol . Some typical app l i -
cat ions are l isted in the fol lowing paragraphs .
3.11 . 2 .1 Temperature measuremen ts . The thermistor ' s large temperature coeff i c-

ient of resistance is ideal for temperature measurements . In this app l icat ion ,
the power d iss ipat ion must be so smal l that it does not heat the device . Pre-
cise temperature measuremen t is made w i th h igh-res istance therm i stors in a
resistance br idge . In this app l icat ion sensi t ivi ty of 0 . 0005°C is readi ly
at tained . Lead resistance has no effect . Compensat ing leads and cold junct ions
are unnecessary . Bead thermistors are bui l t into equipment at locat ions where
temperature is to be measured (gear housings , bear ings , cyl inder heads , trans-
former cores) and a resistance br idge measures the temperature at a remote
stat ion .
3 . 11 . 2 . 2 Temperature compensat i on . Many electrical components have temperature

coeff icients wh ich are detrimental to the temperature stabi l i ty of the ci rcu i t .
A properly selected thermistor in the ci rcu i t containing such a component wi l l
provide temperature compensat ion .
3 . 11 . 2 . 3 Flow-meter , vacuum gauge , and anemometer . A smal l vol tage is appl ied
and the current through the thermistor is measured . The amount of heat d i ss i -
pated is a funct ion of the degree of vacuum surround ing the device or the
veloci ty of gas passing over the device . The measured current is cal ibrated in
terms of vacuum or gas f low .
3-68

3 . 11 . 2 . 4 Time de lay . When a thermistor is sel f-heated as a resul t of current

passing through i t , i ts resistance varies . Due to the thermal mass , the t ime
rate of change is f i xed . The delayed bui ldup of circui t current can be used to
introduce a f i xed t ime delay between relay operat ions or to protect equ i p-
ment dur ing startup .
3 . 11 . 2 . 5 Power measuremen ts , bol ometer . The thermistor ' s resistance versus

power character ist ic makes it a useful power measur ing device . Microwave power
is measured by a bead thermistor mounted in the wavegu i de and biased so that
bead impedance matches the cavi ty . When radio frequency power is app l ied , the
bead is heated by the absorbed power . The bias current is adjusted so that the
thermistor remains at the same operat ing temperature . The change in bias, power
is just equal to the radio frequency power absorbed . The thermistor also can
be used to measure radiant power such as infrared or visible l ight .
3 . 11 . 2 . 6 Other app l icat ions . Thermistors are used as vol tage regulators and
volume l imi ters in commun icat ion ci rcu i ts . A shunt vol tage regulator is pro-
vided by shunt ing the ci rcu i t wi th a sui tably chosen value of resistance in
series wi th a thermistor . Networks of resistors and thermistors are used as
compressors , expanders , and l imi ters in t ransmission ci rcui ts .
3.11.3 Physical const ruct ion . Thermistors are made by sinter ing mi x tures of
ox ides of such metaIs as manganese , n ickel , cobal t , copper , uran ium , iron ,
zinc , t i tan i um , and magnes ium ; Various mi x tures of meta l l ic ox ides"are formed
into useful shapes . Thei r electrical character ist ies may be control led by
varying the type of ox ide used and the phys i ca l . s i ze and conf igurat ion of the
thermistor . Standard forms now avai lable are d iscs , beads , and probes .
Discs are made by pressing an ox ide-b inder mi x ture under several tons of pres-
sure in a round die to produce flat p ieces . These pieces are sintered , then
the two flat surfaces are coated wi th a conduct ing material and leads are at -
tached . The th in , large d iameter discs have low resistance , short t ime con-
stant and high power d issipat ion . (See Figure 36) .
Beads are made by forming smal l el l ipsoids (viscous drop lets) of a meta l l ic
ox ide mi x ture on two fine wi res held t ight and para l le l . The material is
sintered at high temperature . Upon f ir ing , the ceramic bead cements the wi res
wh ich become the leads as they become embedded t ight ly in the bead , making good
electrical contact inside the thermistor . Bead thermistors may be coated w i th
glass for protect ion or may be mounted in evacuated or gas-f i l led bulbs . Bead
thermi stors have l i t t le mass and a short t ime constant . (See Figures 37 and 39) .
Rods are ex t ruded through dies to make long cyl indrical uni ts of ox ide-b inder
m i x ture and are then sintered . The ends are coated wi th conduct ing paste and
leads are at tached to the coated area . The rod type has high resistance , long
t ime constant and moderate power d issipat ion . (See Figure 38) .
3-69

DISC
©
FIGURE 36 . Out l ine drawing of a d isc style thermistor ,
LEAD BREAKOUT IN
BEAD EITHER CONFIGURATION
FIGURE 37. Out l ine drawing of a bead style thermistor ,
4 > - 4 >
FIGURE 38 . Out l ine drawing of a rod style thermistor ,
3-70

BEAD
INSULATED LEADS
CONFORMAL GLASS COATING

BEAD
FIGURE 39 . Out l ine drawing of a 311-P-18 style thermistor ,
3. 11 . 4 Mi l i tary des i gnat i on . The mi l i tary type des ignat ion used for ident i fy-
ing and descr ib ing therm i stors is shown be l ow .
RTH06 102
Style Resi stance Lead Zero Power Resi stance

Rat io Type Resistance Tolerance
311-P-18 03 761
Dash lumber Lead Style Lead Length
GSFC control speci f icat ion
3-71

3 . 11 . 5 Electrical characteri st ies . Electrical character ist ics for thermistors

are tabulated in mi l i tary speci f icat ion MIL-T-23648 and Goddard Space Fl ight
Center Speci f icat ion GSFC-S-311-P-18 .
3 . 11 . 6 Environmental cons i dera t i ons . The therm i stor has been tested for many
envi ronments and test cond i t ions . Most test i ng has been done to procedures
of MIL-STD-202 . Curren t l y , test i ng is accord ing to procedure and format in
MIL-T-23648 .
3 . 11 . 7 Rel iabi l i ty cons i dera t i ons . In general , the therm i s tor is a highly
rel iable device and af ter instal led and tested successfu l ly , there is rarely a
fai lure .
3 . 11 . 7 . 1 General rel iabi l i ty cons i derat i ons . When using negat ive temperature
coeff icient dev i ces , a point can fJe reached where the se l f-heat ing current
causes a resistance drop resul t ing in more se l f-heat ing that increases to the
dest ruct ion of the dev i ces . This is thermal runaway . This is not a prob lem
w i t h posi t ive t empera t ure coeff icient devices . Thermistor rel iabi l i ty is
largely related to therm i stor stab i l i ty , wh i ch is def ined as the abi l i ty of the
thermistor to ma i n ta i n constant resistance and resistance rat io when the ther-
mistor is sub jected to mechanical and /or thermal stress .
Another factor that may cause instabi l i ty in thermistors is the change in elec-
trical contact resistance between the thermistor material and the leads or
terminal to wh i ch the therm i stor is connected .
Genera l ly , the effects of mechanical stresses such as shock , acce lerat ion , and
vibrat ion may be a l l evi ated by select ion of the correct mount ing or encapsu la-
t ion for the thermistor . However , changes in contact resistance wh ich are due
to stresses that may be set up in the therm i stor due to the changes in the
thermistor ' s body temperature can affect the degree of electrical contact wi th
a consequent ial shi f t in t he thermistor ' s res istance character i st i es . Pre-
cond i t ion ing w i th special ly deve loped external or internal thermal aging tech-
n iques min imizes the probab i l i ty of change in contact resistance due to thermal
stress .
Examples of mechanical defects wh i ch cou ld be detected by proper visual and

mechanical examinat ion are as fol lows .
a. Cracks or holes in, or chipping of , the thermistor body
b. Wi re leads broken , n icked or crushed ; protect ive coat i ng , if needed

is m i ss i ng ; ev i dence of nonadherent areas or bare spots , ch ipp ing ,
f laking or peel ing
c. Terminals not sui tably t reated to faci l i tate solder ing (when app l i -
cable) .
3-72

d. Body and lead d i mens i ons exceed the speci f i ed tol erances
e. Ident i f icat ion mark ings m i ss i ng , i l l eg i b l e , incomp lete or incorrect
f. Poor solder ing : ev i dence of cold solder , j oi n ts w i t h excess ive solder ,

spat ter i ng , or excess i ve rosin residue
g. End ch i pp i ng (rod type only) exceed i ng 1/3 of the d istance from the
outs ide d i ame t er to the lead .
The effect of nucl ear rad iat ion on the stab i l i ty of therm i s tors is an i mpor-
tant ques t i on . Tests have been made on these effects w i t h rather encouragi ng
resu l ts . Thermistors were exposed to gamma rad iat ion at 1.3 x 10® roentgens /
hour , f ission spect rum , for more than 400 hours w i th no measureab l e damage . In
another ser ies of t es t s , they were exposed to neut ron rad iat ion for 2172 hours
6 2 3
w i t h a flux densi ty of 4 . 5 x 10 N / cm / sec for a total dose of 3 . 5 x l O* N/cm2
w i t h no damage resu l t ing . Anot her test prov i ded exposure to 2 mev (mi l l ion
e lect ron vol ts) e l ect rons for 20 m i nu tes in a Van de Graff generator giving a
total dose of 10 9 rads and ind icated no damage .
3 . 11 . 7 . 2 Screen ing . To improve therm i s tor re l i ab i l i ty , it is recommended that

therm i stors be sub jected to the fol lowing screen i ng .
a. Thermal shock s imi lar to MIL-STD-202 , Me thod 107D , Test Cond i t ion B
b. High t empera t ure exposure for 100 hours at 125°C per MIL-T-23648 .
3 . 11 . 7 . 3 Fai lure rate factors . The pred i cted fai lure rates app l i cab l e to
parts made in accordance w i th this speci f i cat i on are given and d i scussed in
MIL-HDBK-217 .
3-73

3-74
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MIL-HDBK-978-B (NASA)

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

NASA Parts Appl icat ion Handbook

Beneficial comments (recommendat ions , addi t ions* delet ions) and

For user convenience this handbook was structured so that it could

This handbook provides a technological basel ine

This handbook (Revision B) succeeds the ini t ial

T H I S PA G E I N T E N T I O N ALLY LEF T BLA NK

Paragraph 1. INTRODUCTION - - 1-1

1. 2 NASA Standard parts program - - - - - - - - - 1-3

1.3 Cost - 1-4

1.4 Rel iabi l i ty - - - 1-6

2.2 Ceramic 2-31

2 .3 Mica and glass 2-49

2 .4 Paper and plast ic - — - — - — - - 2-63

2.5 Tantalum foil - 2-76

2 .6 Sol id tantalum - - 2-90

Paragraph 2 .7 Wet slug tantalum - 2-107

2.8 Variable 2-121

3. 2 Fi xed , composi t ion ( insulated)- - - - 3-22

3. 3 Fi xed , f i lm (high stabi l i ty) 3-28

Paragraph 3.4 Fi xed , f i lm (insulated) - - 3-33

3. 5 Fi xed , wirewound (accurate) 3-37

3.6 Fi xed , wirewound (power type) — - - - - - - 3-41

3.7 Fi xed , wi rewound (power type , chassis mounted) 3-45

3. 8 Var iable , non-wirewound (adjustment type) — 3-49

Paragraph 3.9 Variable , wirewound (lead screw actuated) — 3-56

3.10 Fi xed , f i lm , networks 3-63

3.11 Thermistors (thermal ly sensi t ive resistors) - 3-68

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

This handbook summarizes current technical knowledge over a broad spectrum of

This handbook is an integral part of the NASA Standard Parts Program wi th

a. Improved product rel iabi l i ty and qual i ty

c. Improved understanding of component trade-offs

e. Reduced product cost through increased standardizat ion

f. Simpl i f ied parts procurement system

g. Simpl i f ied logist ics and planning

h. Smal ler parts inventory

i. Uni form incoming inspect ion rout ines

j. Improved understanding and use of the NASA Standard Parts Program .

Volume 1 Introduct ion

Volume 5 Connectors , Power

1.1.4 Special features . This handbook discusses a full range of electrical ,

Cost factors Screening techniques

. b. Def ini t ions , abbreviat ions , conversion factors

c- NASA standard parts

d. General device characterist ies

e. General parameter informat ion

f. General guides and charts

g. Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions .

b. Usual appl icat ions

c. Physical construct ion

d. Mi l i tary designat ion

e. Electrical characterist ics

f. Environmental considerat ions

g. Rel iabi l i ty considerat ions .

1. 2 NASA Standard Parts Program .

1. 2 . 2 MIL-STD-975 . MIL-STD-975 is the standard that is the foundat ion of the

a. To provide the designer wi th a l ist of acceptable parts and the speci -

b. To reduce the quant i ty of part numbers used in space fl ight missions

NONSTANDARD PART APPROVAL

PERCENT OF TOTAL COST

FIGURE 1. Typical new part act ivi ty costs .