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 contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
About the Author xvii

1 Sit Down and Write 1

What Is Good Writing? 1
Getting Ready to Write 2
Basic Techniques 3
Writing for the Mass Media 6
And Finally . . . 8
Points for Consideration and Discussion 8
Websites 8
Exercises 9

2 Basic Tools of Writing 13

Words, Words, Words 13
Grammar 15
■ Sidebar 2.1: Glossary of Grammar Terms 16
Common Grammar Problems 18
Punctuation 20
Spelling 22
■ Sidebar 2.2: Spelling Rules 23
■ Sidebar 2.3: < 3 ur txt: Texting and Grammar 24
Writing with Clarity 24
Points for Consideration and Discussion 24
Websites 25
Exercises 25

3 Style and the Stylebook 30

Accuracy 30
Clarity 31
Brevity 33
Journalistic Conventions 34
Journalistic Style 37
■ Sidebar 3.1: Tips on AP Style: Abbreviations 38
Stylebooks 38
■ Sidebar 3.2: Tips on AP Style: Capitalization 39
The Associated Press Stylebook 40
■ Sidebar 3.3: Tips on AP Style: Numbers 41

vii
viii Contents

■ Sidebar 3.4: Tips on AP Style: Punctuation 41

■ Sidebar 3.5: Tips on AP Style: Names and Titles 42
Language Sensitivity 42
■ Sidebar 3.6: Tips on AP Style: Time 44
The Changing Language 44
Points for Consideration and Discussion 45
Websites 45
Exercises 45

4 Writing in the Media Environment 54

Audience 54
The News Culture 55
Accuracy 55
Verification and Attribution 57
Information, Not Opinion 57
Simplicity 58
Clarity, Coherence, and Context 58
Deadlines 58
Elements of News 58
Reporting 60
■ Sidebar 4.1: Interviewing Tips 66
Skepticism 67
Ethical Behavior 68
■ Sidebar 4.2: Writing by Example 69
Hardware and Software 69
Conclusion 69
Points for Consideration and Discussion 69
Websites 70
Exercises 70

5 Basic News Writing 75

The Inverted Pyramid 75
Developing the Story 80
Transitions 82
Using Quotations 83
Characteristics of News Stories 85
Headlines 85
Summaries 87
News Writing in the Near Future 88
Points for Consideration and Discussion 89
Websites 89
Exercises 89
 Contents ix

6 Writing for Print Journalism 97

Newspapers and Magazines Today 97
Types of News Stories 98
Writing Feature Stories 101
Long-Form and Literary Journalism 104
Editing and Rewriting 106
Books 107
The Challenge of Writing 108
Points for Consideration and Discussion 108
Websites 109
Exercises 109

7 Writing for the Web 124

Characteristics of the Web 124
Journalism Expanded and Accelerated 127
News Websites 127
Blogging (Web Logs) 128
Social Media 129
Mobile Journalism 130
Demands of the Audience 131
Reporting for the Web 132
Writing for the Web 138
The Future 140
Points for Consideration and Discussion 140
Websites 141
Exercises 141

8 Writing for Broadcast Journalism 145

Sound as a Reporting Tool 146
Writing to Be Heard 147
Writing the Audio/Video News Story 152
Recording Audio 153
Editing Audio 153
Ethics of Editing Audio 154
Television News 155
Selection of News 155
Telling the Story with Video 156
Shooting the Video 157
Editing Video 158
x Contents

Broadcast Copy Preparation 160

Putting Together a Newscast 161
The Extended Interview, the Documentary, and the Web 163
Broadcasting in Transition 164
Points for Consideration and Discussion 164
Websites 165
Exercises 165

9 Writing and Images 173

Basic Concepts of Photojournalism 174
The Threes of Photojournalism 175
Writing Cutlines 177
A Word About Accuracy 178
Photojournalism Ethics 178
The Audio Slide Show 179
■ Sidebar 9.1: Seven Steps to the Audio Slide Show 180
Using Graphics 180
Numerical Data in Charts 182
What a Good Graphic Contains 183
Building a Chart 184
■ Sidebar 9.2: A Primer on Math 185
Points for Consideration and Discussion 186
Websites 186
Exercises 186

10 Writing Advertising Copy 196

A Love–Hate Relationship 196
The Field of Advertising 197
Beginning the Process: Needs and Appeals 198
The Product 201
The Audience 203
The Advertising Situation 205
Copy Platforms 205
Writing the Ad 207
Elements of a Print Ad 209
Writing Advertising for Broadcast 212
The Tools of Broadcast Advertising 212
Commercial Formats 214
Storyboards 216
Online Advertising 216
Other Media 218
 Contents xi

Points for Consideration and Discussion 219

Websites 219
Exercises 220

11 Writing for Public Relations 227

The Public Relations Process 228
An Organization’s “Publics” 229
The Work of the PR Practitioner 229
■ Sidebar 11.1: A News Release Checklist 231
Writing News Releases 233
Video News Releases 236
Letters 237
E-mails 241
Company Publications 241
Websites and an Organization’s Online Presence 244
Oral Presentations 245
Points for Consideration and Discussion 248
Websites 248
Exercises 248

12 The Writer and the Law 254

by Matthew Bunker
The First Amendment 254
Defamation 256
The Plaintiff’s Case 256
Affirmative Defenses 258
Privacy 260
Copyright and Trademarks 261
Fair Use 263
Advertising 265
Broadcast Regulation 266
Conclusion 267
Websites 267

13 Getting a Job in the Mass Media 268

Personal Attributes 269
Building an Audience 270
Networking and Landing the First Job 272
Get Started 273
■ Sidebar 13.1: Join Up 273
Points for Consideration and Discussion 274
Websites 274
xii Contents

APPENDIX A: Copy-Editing Symbols 275

APPENDIX B: Grammar and Diagnostic Exams 276
APPENDIX C: Problem Words and Phrases 292
APPENDIX D: Advertising Copy Sheets 300
Glossary 305
Credits 308
Index 310
 Preface
Writing is one thing; writing about writing is another. Like most people, I cannot remember the
first word or the first sentence that I wrote. (I am reasonably sure they were not momentous.)
I can remember always being encouraged to write, however, by parents and teachers who knew
the importance of writing.
I have always enjoyed and admired good writing, and I continue to be in awe of it. How
Mark Twain could have created such a wonderful and timeless story as The Adventures of Tom
Sawyer, how Henry David Thoreau could have distilled his thoughts into the crisp and biting
prose of Walden, or how Red Smith could have turned out high-quality material for his sports
column day after day—all of this is continually amazing to me. I frankly admit that I don’t
know how they did it.
Yet here I am writing about writing. Why should I be doing this? At least three reasons
occur to me immediately. First, I am fascinated by the process of writing. I write about it so
that I can understand it better. For me, it is a process of self-education. I hope that some of the
insights I have discovered will rub off on those who read this book. Second, I am convinced
that while great writing might be a gift to a chosen few, good writing is well within the reach of
the rest of us. There are things we can do to improve our writing.
Finally, I care about the language and the way it is used. Those of us who are fortunate
enough to have English as a native language have been given a mighty tool with which to work.
It is powerful and dynamic. An underlying purpose of this book is to encourage the intelligent
and respectful use of this tool.

New to This Edition

• A revised and reorganized Chapter 7, Writing for the Web, that contains discussions about
the new responsibilities of the Web journalist and the considerations of the Web journalist
in using that medium for disseminating news.
• A new section in Chapter 6, Writing for Print Journalism, lays out some of the expectations
of the journalist in writing long-form journalism.
• A new exercise in Chapter 5, Basic News Writing, that helps students distinguish between
fact and opinion.
• A new section in Chapter 6, Writing for Print Journalism, lays out some of the techniques
of the journalist in writing literary journalism.
• Expanded discussions of why and how students should be developing a professional
website and building their audience long before graduation.
• A discussion of modern texting language and how it may or may not satisfy traditional
journalistic forms and conventions.

xiii
This page intentionally left blank
 acknowledgments
This book is the product of many people, some of whom were listed in earlier editions. I par-
ticularly want to thank David R. Davies, who generously contributed many of his exercises
and ideas, and Matt Bunker, who wrote the chapter on media and the law despite a very short
deadline.
Two colleagues at the University of Tennessee, where I have taught since 2006, made major
contributions. One is Lisa Gary, whose work and ideas pervade this edition. She is credited
with some specific items but deserves much more than that. The other is Mark Harmon. Mark
co-authored the broadcast writing chapter in the seventh edition of this book, and I still depend
on his expertise and ideas. Dwight Teeter, Ed Caudill, and Melanie Faiser have been particu-
larly good friends and constant sources of ideas and support.
In addition, many of the instructors who have used this book have contacted me through
the life of the previous edition. Most have had constructive suggestions about the book, and
I thank them all.
My colleagues at Emory and Henry College—Teresa Keller, Tracy Lauder, Herb Thompson,
and Paul Blaney—continue to support my efforts with this book.
My colleagues on the faculty of the department of journalism at the University of Alabama,
especially Ed Mullins, Cully Clark, Kim Bissell, the late Bailey Thomson, George Daniels, and
David Sloan, have always supported me in the efforts that I have put into this book. George
Rable, Guy Hubbs, and John Hall—scholars and gentlemen all—gave me more support than
they know. Pam Doyle and Mark Arnold made substantial contributions to earlier editions,
and their influence on the book continues.
Ashley Dodge and all the crew at Pearson provided their help and support through yet an-
other manuscript and revision. I also have many friends and former students now in the com-
munication professions who have been kind and generous with their support and ideas.
My wife, Sally, remains my chief critic and always a source of encouragement. My son,
Jefferson, as I write this, is working as a Web marketing professional in Washington, D.C., and
continues to hone his excellent writing skills.
This book, like the previous editions, is dedicated to my mother, Martha Elizabeth Stovall,
who was my first editor.

xv
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 about the author
James Glen Stovall is Edward J. Meeman Distinguished Professor of Journalism at the
University of Tennessee. Before coming to Tennessee, he was a visiting professor of mass
communication at Emory and Henry College in Emory, Virginia. From 1978 to 2003 he
taught journalism at the University of Alabama. He received his Ph.D. from the University of
Tennessee and is a former reporter and editor for several newspapers, including the Chicago
Tribune. Stovall has more than five years of public relations experience. He is the author of
a number of textbooks, including Web Journalism: Practice and Promise of a New Medium
(2004); Journalism: Who, What, When, Where, Why and How (2005) and Infographics: A
Journalist’s Guide (1997), all published by Pearson. He is also the author of Seeing Suffrage:
The Washington Suffrage Parade of 1913, Its Pictures and Its Effect on the American Political
Landscape, (2013) published by the University of Tennessee Press. His website, www.jprof.
com, contains a wide variety of material for teaching journalism. Stovall is also the author of
the mystery novel Kill the Quarterback.

xvii
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Writing for the Mass Media
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1
Sit Down and Write

I have sworn upon the altar of God, eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the
mind of man. (1800)
Equal and exact justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or political; peace,
commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliance with none . . . Freedom of
religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of person under the protection of the habeas corpus,
and trial by juries impartially selected. These principles form the bright constellation which
has gone before us and guided our steps through an age of revolution and reformation. (1801)
Enlighten the people generally and tyranny and oppressions of the body and mind will vanish
like evil spirits at the dawn of day. (1816)
Thomas Jefferson

In the beginning was the Word.

Gospel of John 1:1

Ideas drive people and society. Great ideas such as freedom, independence, individualism, religion,
and social order exist in our minds, but they have little power until they are written down.
The written word energizes the powerful force of ideas and can change individuals and
nations. It can carry ideas and information as well as entertain and distract. The power of
writing is available to those who have the information and ideas and who are clever and hard-
working enough to learn to write well.
How do you write well? That question defies an easy, quick or simple answer. Yet all of
us have had to consider it. We began that consideration early in life when teachers made us
write in paragraphs. A short time later, we learned the rules of grammar and punctuation and
wondered what in the world these things had to do with good writing. (A lot, as it turns out,
although we still may be reluctant to admit it.) Outside the classroom, we wrote in our diaries
or wrote thank-you letters to relatives and e-mails and text messages to friends.
At some point, we learned that whatever else writing is—fun, exciting, rewarding—it is not
easy. Writing is hard work. It is complex and frustrating. Red Smith, the great sportswriter for
the New York Times, once said, “There’s nothing to writing. All you do is sit down at a type-
writer and open a vein.” Smith’s point is not just that writing is hard but also that it requires us
to give of ourselves in ways that other activities, such as reading, do not. Writing demands total
commitment, even if it is just for a short time. We can think of nothing else and do nothing else
when we are writing. The first step to good writing is recognizing this essential point.
But the question remains: How do you gather together the words that will convey the
information, ideas, or feelings you want to give to the reader? How do you write well?

What Is Good Writing?

Good writing, especially good writing for the mass media, is clear, concise, simple, and to the
point. It conveys information, ideas, and feelings to the reader clearly but without overstate-
ment. Good writing creates a world that readers can step into.

1
2 Chap t e r 1 ▸ Sit Down and Write

Good writing is also:

• Efficient. It uses the minimum number of words to make its point. It doesn’t
waste the reader’s time.
• Precise. It uses words for their exact meanings; it does not throw words around
carelessly.
• Clear. It leaves no doubt about its meaning.
• Modest. It does not draw attention to itself. Good writing does not try to show
off the writer’s intelligence. It emphasizes content over style.

Getting ready to Write

Writers for the mass media must understand the implications of what they do. Part
of the writing process is developing a sense of what it means to communicate with
a mass audience. Writers should understand that they are no longer writing for an
individual (an essay for an English teacher, a text message to a friend) but for a
larger audience.
Nor are they writing for themselves. Much of the writing done in K–12 educa-
tion is justified as a means of self-expression for students. This writing is a valuable
exercise for all individuals, but in the mass-media environment, self-expression
ranks second to information. Audiences are interested in the writer’s informa-
tion and ideas, not in how the writer feels or thinks. This fact drives the spare,
unadorned style of writing that the media demand.
Self-expression is less important partly because in most media environments
writing is a collaborative effort. Several writers may work together to produce
a single piece of writing. Editors—people whose job it is to read the writing of
others—are employed at every level to improve the writing wherever possible. The
editing process is inseparable from the writing process. Writers for the mass media
must possess an active sense of integrity about what they do. This integrity serves
as a regulator for their behavior, making them unwilling to accept inaccuracies or
imprecision in the writing process and unable to live with less than a very high stan-
dard of personal and intellectual honesty. They must understand and assimilate the
ethical standards of their profession.
Writers for the mass media also understand enough about the process of writ-
ing to know that they can always improve. They view their craft with a generous
humility. Every writer, no matter how experienced or talented, begins with a blank
page or an empty computer screen. The writer puts the words there, and no amount
of experience or talent guarantees success. A good writer is always willing to do
whatever it takes to improve in the craft.
Finally, the would-be writer must do the following four things.

Know the Language

Just as good carpenters know how to use hammers and nails, good writers
must know and understand their tools. For writers, knowledge of the rules of
grammar, punctuation, and spelling is mandatory. Writers must know the pre-
cise meanings of words and how to use words precisely; although they do not
have to use every word they know, having a variety available gives them extra
tools to use if needed. (Most of us have a vocabulary of about 5,000 to 6,000
words; scholars have estimated that William Shakespeare knew about 30,000
words.)
Writers must understand and be genuinely interested in the language.
English is a marvelous tool for writers. Its rules may be static to a great degree,
but its uses are dynamic. New words are coined, and old ones change meanings.
Writers for the mass media should take seriously their natural role as caretak-
ers of the language, and they should be unwilling to see English misused and
abused.
 Basic Techniques 3

Know the Subject

Clarity of thought and information must guide writers. They must thoroughly
understand what they are writing about or readers will not understand what
they have written. Beginning writers frequently have trouble with this most basic
requirement of good writing. Even experienced media professionals occasionally
fail to understand their topics. For example, some journalists try to write about
events without properly researching the background or checking enough sources.
Advertising copywriters may try to compose ads without understanding the product
or the audience the ad is targeting. In both cases, the writing is likely to miss the
mark and may be confusing and inefficient.

Write It Down
This may be the most basic point of all: You cannot be a writer unless you put the
words together. People can think, talk, and agonize all night about what they would
like to write. They can read and discuss; they can do research and even make notes.
But no one is a writer until ideas become words and sentences become paragraphs.
At some point, the writer must sit down and write.
Anthony Trollope, a 19th-century English novelist, would begin writing at
5:30 a.m. He would write for two and a half hours, producing at least 250 words
every 15 minutes. Trollope responded to the demands of writing with a strict routine.
So did Isaac Asimov, who wrote books on subjects ranging from Shakespeare to
the Bible to science fiction. Asimov would wake up every morning at 6:00 a.m. and
be at his typewriter by 7:30 a.m. He would then work until 10:00 p.m. Asimov
wrote more than 500 books in his lifetime. Writing is hard work, and few people
have the tenacity to stick with it.
Beyond the physical and intellectual challenges of writing lies emotional risk.
Writers can never be certain that they will be successful. Something happens to our
beautiful thoughts when we try to confine them to complete sentences, and what
happens is not always good. Writers always face the chance of failure.
Writers for the mass media have some advantage in overcoming this chance of
failure. Their job is to write, and their circumstances force them to write. They must
meet deadlines, often on a daily basis. They can sometimes use forms and structures
that will help them to produce the writing necessary for their medium. Still, they
must produce. They cannot fall victim to what is commonly called writer’s block.

edit and rewrite

Writing is such hard work that even the best writers want to get it done once and
forget about it. That’s natural, but good writers don’t give in to this tendency. Good
writers have the discipline to reread, edit, and rewrite.
Rewriting requires that writers read their work critically. Writers must con-
stantly ask themselves if the writing can be clearer, more precise, or more readable.
They should have the courage to say, “This isn’t what I wanted to say” or even
“This isn’t very good.”
Writers for the mass media often work in circumstances in which someone else
will read and make judgments about their work. Having another person read what
you have written and then give you an honest evaluation usually makes for better
writing, but writers for the mass media are also at a disadvantage because their
deadline pressures often prevent thorough rereading and rewriting.

Basic techniques
The suggestions in this section are commonly accepted techniques for improving
your writing. Many of them are useful at the rewriting stage of your work, but you
should try to keep them in mind as your words are going down on paper or on
the computer screen for the first time. Not all of these suggestions fit every piece
4 Chap t e r 1 ▸ Sit Down and Write

of writing you will do, so they need not be considered a strict set of rules. They do
constitute a good set of habits for a writer to develop, however.

Write Simply
This concept arises repeatedly in this book. The key to clarity is simplicity. A clear,
simple writing style is not the exclusive possession of a few gifted writers. Such a
style can be achieved by students who are just beginning a writing career. The power
of simple writing is immense. The following quotations are famous because they
convey powerful messages in a clear and simple language:
These are the times that try men’s souls. (Thomas Paine, 1776)
We have nothing to fear but fear itself. (Franklin Roosevelt, 1932)
Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country.
(John F. Kennedy, 1961)

Use Simple Words

“It is a general truth,” Henry Fowler wrote in Modern English Usage, “that short
words are not only handier to use but more powerful in effect; extra syllables reduce,
not increase, vigor.” Fowler was talking about the modern tendency to use facilitate
instead of ease, numerous instead of many, utilize instead of use and the like. Many
people try to use big or complicated words, thinking that these will impress the
reader. They don’t; they have the opposite effect. Benjamin Franklin once wrote, “To
write clearly, not only the most expressive, but the plainest words should be chosen.”

Use Simple Sentences

Not every sentence you write should be in the simple sentence format (subject-
predicate or subject-verb-object), but the simple sentence is a good tool for clean-
ing up muddy writing. For example, take the following sentence, which appeared
in a large daily newspaper: “She was shot through the right lung after confronting
a woman married to her ex-husband inside the Food World store on Bankhead
Highway shortly before 1 p.m.” The confusion could be lessened by breaking this
one sentence into three simple sentences: “She was in the Food World store on
Bankhead Highway. Shortly before 1 p.m., she confronted the woman married to
her ex-husband. That woman shot her through the right lung.”
Simple, straightforward prose is mandatory for writing for the mass media. It
has no substitute, and readers or listeners will not excuse its absence.

practice Brevity
A first cousin to simplicity is brevity. Almost every writer uses too many words on occa-
sion. Even the best writers need to be edited. Go back a couple of paragraphs and look
at the Fowler quote; it has at least two unnecessary words: in effect. If we eliminated
those words, the sentence would not lose any information and would increase in power.
Writers should watch for words, phrases, and sentences that do not add sub-
stantially to the content of what they are writing. They should also guard against
fancy phrases that draw attention to the writing and take away from the content.

eliminate Jargon, Clichés, and Bureaucratese

Jargon is the technical language used in specialized fields or among people with a
common interest. Scientists, lawyers, sportswriters, government officials, and even
students have their own jargon. Good writers, especially those who write for the
mass media, use words and phrases that are commonly understood by their audiences
rather than the jargon that only a few can understand. It makes no sense to cut read-
ers off from receiving your ideas by using language that they cannot comprehend.
Another random document with
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Gryllacrides, 329
Gryllidae, 201, 330-340, 340
Gryllides, 340
Gryllotalpa, 332;
dorsal vessel, 134;
Malpighian tubes, 127;
tracheal system, 132
Gryllotalpides, 340
Gryllus, head, 93;
G. campestris, 332, 339;
G. domesticus, 330, 338
Guilding on Ulula, 461
Gula, 88, 93
Gyri cerebrales, 119
Gyropus, 350

Haase on abdominal appendages, 189, 192

Haemocoele, 22, 23
Hagen, on segments, 88;
on wing-rudiments, 395;
on respiration of immature dragon-fly, 423 f.;
on larvae of Ascalaphides, 460;
on amber Psocidae, 397;
on Platephemera, 428;
on Perlidae, 401;
on Psocidae, 393 f.;
on Termites, 360 f.
Haldmanella, 308
Halesus guttatipennis, 473
Haliday on Bethylus, 535
Halobates, 83
Halteres, 108
Hansen on Hemimerus, 217
Haplogenius, 461
Haplophlebium, 345
Haplopus grayi, egg, 265
Harpagides, 259
Harpalus caliginosus, head, 92
Harpax ocellata, 253;
H. variegatus, 244
Harrington on Oryssus, 507
Harris on Katydids' music, 320
Hart on forms of Atta, 501
Hartig on gall-flies, 530
Harvesting Termites, 383
Harvey on metamorphosis, 168
Hatchett Jackson on ecdysis, 162;
on oviduct of Lepidoptera, 139
Haustellata, 94
Haustellum, 476
Haviland on Termites, 368, 373, 384
Hawaiian Islands, 354, 395, 425, 471
Head, 92-94
Heart, 133
Heat, 131
Helicomitus insimulans, 460, 461
Helicopsyche shuttleworthi, cases of, 482
Hellgrammites, 447
Helorus anomalipes, 534
Hemerobiidae, 453 f.
Hemerobiides, 465 f.
Hemerobiina, 467, 472
Hemerobius larva, 467
Hemichroa rufa, 498
Hemimeridae, 201, 217
Hemimerus hanseni, 217;
foetus of, 218;
H. talpoides, 218
Hemimetabola, 158
Hemiptera, 173
Hemiteles, 556
Henking on embryology, 146
Henneguy on egg-capsule of Phyllium, 271;
on embryology of Smicra, 545
Heptagenia, 440;
H. longicauda, 437
Hessian-fly, parasites, 537
Heterogamia, 222;
H. aegyptiaca, 220;
egg-capsule, 229
Heterometabola, 158
Heteromorpha, 158
Heterophlebia dislocata, 427
Heteropteryx grayi, 262
Hetrodides, 329
Hexapoda, 86
Heymons on earwig embryology, 216
Hind body, 109
Hind wings absent, 429
Histoblasts, 167
Histogenesis, 165
Histolysis, 165, 166
Hodotermes japonicus, 383;
H. havilandi, 384;
H. mossambicus, 356;
H. brunneicornis, 359;
H. quadricollis, 371
Hoffbauer on elytra, 108
Holocampsa, misprint—see Holocompsa
Holocompsa, 226, 235
Holometabola, 158
Holophthalmi, 459
Homomorpha, 158
Hooks for wings, 494
Hoplolopha, 303
Hose, 393
Howard, on pupation of Chalcididae, 550;
on Hydropsyche, 483
Hubbard and Hagen on Termites, 388
Humboldt, 31
Humpback, 445
Huxley, on head, 87;
on cervical sclerites, 99
Hydropsyche, 479
Hydropsychides, 482;
larva, 483
Hydroptila angustella, 474;
H. maclachlani, larva, 484
Hydroptilides, 484
Hylotoma rosae, 513
Hymenoptera, 173, 487-565
Hymenoptera phytophaga, 503 f.
Hymenopus bicornis, 253
Hyperetes, 395, 397
Hypermetamorphosis, 158, 159, 465, 540, 552, 557
Hyperparasitism, 521
Hypertely, 323
Hypnorna amoena, 234
Hypoblast, 65, 149
Hypocephalus, 99
Hypochrysa, 470
Hypodermis, 162, 480
Hypoglottis, 96
Hyponomeuta cognatella, parasite of, 545
Hypopharynx, 96
—see also Lingua

Ichneumones adsciti, 559

Ichneumon-flies, 265, 551;
uninjurious, 264;
supplementary, 558
Ichneumonidae, 551-558
Ichneumonides, 557
Ictinus, 419
Imaginal, discs, 165, 166;
folds, 165
Imago, 157
Imbrications, 493
Imhof on Perla, 403 f.
Inaequipalpia, 480
Indusial limestone, 485
Infra-oesophageal ganglion, 117
Inner margin of wing, 108
Inocellia, 447
Inquilines, 373, 524, 531, 533
Insecta, definition, 86
Instar, 155, 158
Instinct of Leucospis, 541
Integument, 162
Internal anatomy, 186 f.;
of Acridiidae, 282 f.;
of earwigs, 210;
of Gryllotalpa, 335;
of Hymenoptera, 494;
of Libellula, 414;
of Mantidae, 246;
of Myrmeleon larva, 457, 458;
of Odonata, 414;
of Stilopyga orientalis, 228;
of Phasmidae, 262;
of Raphidia, 448;
of Sialis larva, 446;
of Thysanura, 187 f.
Intestine, 114, 124
Involucrum alarum, 206
Iris oratoria, 248
Isogenus nubecula, 405, 406
Isopteryx, 400
Isosoma, 546
Isotoma, 190

Jamaica, 388
Japygidae, 184
Japyx, abdomen of, 109;
J. solifugus, 184, 196
Jhering, Von, on Termites, 387
Joint, 105
Joint-worms, 546
Joly, on Ephemeridae, 431;
on anatomy of Phyllium, 262
Julidae, 34, 43, 71, 73, 77
Julopsis, 74
Julus, 36-39, 52;
J. nemorensis, 43;
J. terrestris, 37, 70, 77;
breeding, 37;
development, 66-69;
heart, 50;
ovum, 63, 64;
eye, 69
Jurassic, 216, 259, 407, 442
Jurine on pieces at base of wing, 102

Kampecaris, 76
Karabidion, 274
Katydids, 319, 320
King, 361, 378
Klapálek, on Trichopterous larvae, 484 f.;
on Agriotypus, 557
Knee, 104
Koch, 42
Koestler on stomatogastric nerves, 120
Kolbe, on entothorax, 103;
on wings of Psocidae, 394
Kollar on Sirex, 509
Korotneff on embryology of Gryllotalpa, 336
Korschelt on egg-tubes, 138
Korschelt and Heider on regenerative tissue, 167
Kowalevsky, on phagocytes, 166;
on regenerative tissue, 167;
on bee embryo, 496
Kradibia cowani, 549
Krancher on stigmata, 111
Krawkow on chitin, 162
Kulagin, on embryology, 537;
of Encyrtus, 545
Künckel d'Herculais, on histoblasts, 167;
on emergence of Stauronotus, 290
Labia minor, 214
Labidura riparia, 210, 211, 214, 215
Labium, 95;
of Odonata, 410, 411;
of O. larva, 420
Laboulbène, on Anurida maritima, 194;
on Perla, 399
Labrum, 93, 93
Lacewing flies, 453, 469
Lachesilla, 395
Lacinia, 95
Laemobothrium, 347
Lamarck, 77
Lamina, subgenitalis, 224;
supra-analis, 224
Landois on stigmata, 111
Languette, 96
Lankester, 40
Larva, 157;
(resting-larva), 164;
oldest, 449
Larvule, 431, 432
Latreille, 30
Latreille's segment, 491
Latzel, 42, 77
Leach, 30, 77
Lead, eating, 510
Leaf-Insects, 260
Legs, 104;
internal, 496;
four only, 549;
of larvae, 106, 110
Lendenfeld, on dragon-flies, 416, 417;
on muscles of dragon-fly, 115
Lens, 98
Lepidoptera, 173
Lepisma, 185, 196;
 L. saccharina, 186;
L. niveo-fasciata, 195
Lepismidae, 185
Leptocerides, 482
Leptophlebia cupida, 430
Lespès on Calotermes, 364
Leuckart on micropyle apparatus, 145
Leucocytes, 137
Leucospis gigas, 540;
larva, egg, 542;
habits, 540 f.
Lewis, Geo., on luminous may-fly, 442
Lewis on Perga, 518
Leydig, on brain, 119, 120;
on Malpighian tubes of Gryllotalpa, 335;
on ovaries, 137, 142;
on glands, 142
Lias, 216, 239, 340, 427, 428, 453, 485, 503
Libellago caligata, 413
Libellula quadrimaculata, 411, 425
Libellulidae, 409
Libellulinae, 416, 426
Lichens, resemblance to, 253
Liénard on oesophageal ring, 118
Light, attraction of, 441
Ligula, 96
Lilies and dragon-flies, 426
Limacodes egg, 153
Limnophilides, 481
Lingua, 95, 96, 391, 411, 420, 437
Linnaeus quoted, 84
Liotheides, 346, 350
Lipeurus heterographus, 346;
L. bacillus, 347;
L. ternatus, 349
Lipura burmeisteri, 190;
L. maritima, 194
Lipuridae, 190
Liquid emitted, 264, 324, 399, 515
Lissonota setosa, 551
Lithobiidae, 45, 70, 75
Lithobius, 32, 36-39, 41, 45, 58;
breeding, 38;
structure, 48, 49, 57
Lithomantis, 259;
L. carbonaria, 344
Locusta, ovipositor, development and structure, 315;
L. viridissima, 318, 319, 321, 324, 327
Locustidae, 201, 311-329, 328
Locustides, 329
Locusts, 291 f.;
of the Bible, 298;
in England, 299;
swarms, 292-299;
eggs, 292
Loew on anatomy of Panorpa, 450;
of Raphidia, 448
Lonchodes duivenbodi, egg, 265;
L. nematodes, 260, 261
Lonchodides, 277
Longevity, 377, 429, 438;
of cockroach, 229
Lopaphus cocophagus, 264
Lophyrus pini, 511
Löw on Coniopteryx, 471, 472
Löw, F., on snow Insects, 194
Lowne, on embryonic segments, 151;
on integument, 162;
on stigmata, 111;
on respiration, 130
Lubbock, Sir John, on Pauropus, 62;
on aquatic Hymenoptera, 538;
on auditory organs, 121;
on sense organs, 123;
 on respiration, 130;
on stadia, 165;
on Cloëon, 432, 437;
on Collembola, 192;
on Insect intelligence, 487
Lucas on mouth-parts of Trichoptera, 475
Luminous may-flies, 412
Lycaenidae, eggs, 144
Lyonnet on muscles, 115
Lysiopetalidae, 76

Machilidae, 184
Machilis maritima, 185;
M. polypoda, 184
Macronema, 478
Malacopoda, 77
Mallophaga, 342, 345-350
Malpighi on galls, 525
Malpighian tubes, 114, 124, 127, 187, 353, 360, 392, 403, 414,
421, 448, 457, 458;
of Gryllotalpa, 335;
of Ephippigera, 335;
of Mantis, 246;
of Myriapods, 48
Malta, Myriapods at, 35
Mandibles, 94, 95;
absent, 474, 475
Mandibulata, 94
Manticora, 304
Mantidae, 201, 242-259, 259
Mantides, 259
Mantis, immature tegmina, 248;
parasite, 546;
M. religiosa, 246, 247, 258
Mantispa areolaris, 463;
M. styriaca larva, 464
Mantispides, 463 f.
Mantoida luteola, 251
Marchal on Malpighian tubes, 127
Marine Myriapods, 30
Marshall, on Apanteles cocoons, 560;
on Braconidae, 561
Mask, 420
Mastacides, 301, 309
Mastax guttatus, 301
Maternal care, 214, 336, 517
Maxilla, 95, 96;
of Odonata, 411;
absent, 190
May-flies, 429;
number of, 442
Mayer, on Apterygogenea, 196;
on caprification, 547, 548
Mazon Creek, Myriapods at, 75
M‘Coy on variation of ocelli, 267
M‘Lachlan, on Ascalaphides, 459;
on Oligotoma, 354;
on Psocidae, 395;
on Trichoptera, 480 f.
Mecaptera, 174, 453
Mechanism of flight, 416
Mecistogaster, 412
Meconema varium, 321
Meconemides, 328
Mecopoda, 319
Mecopodides, 328
Mecostethus grossus, 285, 299, 308
Median plate, 504, 506, 507, 512
Median segment, 109, 490, 491
Megachile, nervous system, 496
Megaloblatta rufipes, 235
Megalomus hirtus, 468
Megalyra, 562
Megalyridae, 562
Meganeura monyi, 428
Megasecopterides, 344
Megastigmus, 547
Meinert, on earwigs, 210, 211, 212;
on Myrmeleon larva, 457;
on stink-glands, 210
Melittobia, 545
Melliss on Termite of St. Helena, 389
Melnikow on eggs of Mallophaga, 348
Membranule, 413
Menognatha, 161
Menopon leucostomum, 348;
M. pallidum, 350
Menorhyncha, 161
Mentum, 95, 96, 96
Mesoblast, 20, 65, 149
Mesoderm, 20, 149
Mesonotum, 88
Mesopsocus unipunctatus, 394
Mesothoracic spiracle, 491
Mesothorax, 101
Mesozoic, 309, 449, 485
Metabola, 158, 174
Metagnatha, 161
Metamorphosis, 153-170;
of Hymenoptera, 497;
of nervous system, 495 f.
Metanotum, 88
Metapodeon, 491
Methone, 200;
M. anderssoni, 305, 306
Miall, on imaginal discs, 165, 167;
on unicellular glands, 142
Miall and Denny, on pericardial tissue, 135;
on epithelium of stomach, 126;
on spermatheca of cockroach, 228;
on stigmata, 111;
 on stomato-gastric nerves, 120
Miamia bronsoni, 449
Microcentrum retinerve, 313, 314, 320
Microgaster, 559;
M. fulvipes, 560;
M. globatus, 560
Micropterism, 339, 394, 405 f., 484
Micropyle, 145;
apparatus, 404
Migration, 293, 425
Migratory locusts, 292, 297
Millepieds, 41
Millipedes, 30, 40, 41
Miocene, 216, 258, 407
Molanna angustata, mandibles of pupa, 477
Mole-cricket, 333;
leg, 333
Moniez on Anurida maritima, 194
Monodontomerus, 532;
M. cupreus, 543;
M. nitidus, 544
Monomachus, 563
Monomorphic ant, 498
Monotrochous trochanters, 494, 520, 564, 565
Mordella eye, 98
Mormolucoides articulatus, 449
Morton, on gills of Trichoptera, 483;
on Perlidae, 406
Moult, 156
Moulting, 437;
of external parasite, 556
Mouth-parts, of dragon-fly, 411;
of dragon-fly nymph, 420;
atrophied, 430
Müller, Fritz, on caddis-flies, 482 f.;
on fig-Insects, 549;
on Termites, 358, 360, 374, 381, 382
Müller, J., on anatomy of Phasmidae, 262
Murray, on Phyllium scythe, 263; on
post-embryonic development of Orthoptera, 265
Musca, metamorphosis, 163, 167
Muscles, 115
Music, of Locusta, 318;
of Tananá, 319;
of Katydids, 319
—see also Phonation
Mylacridae, 239
Mymarides, 537, 538
Myoblast, 149
Myriapoda, 27, 42, 74;
definition, 29;
as food, 31;
habits, distribution, and breeding, 29-40;
locomotion, 40;
names for, 41;
classification, 42-47;
structure, 47-63;
embryology, 63-72;
fossil, 72-77;
affinities, 78
Myrmecoleon, 456
Myrmecophana fallax, 323
Myrmecophilides, 340
Myrmeleo, 456
Myrmeleon, 456;
M. europaeus, 457;
M. formicarius, 455, 457;
M. nostras, 457;
M. pallidipennis, 456
Myrmeleonides, 454 f.

Nasuti, 370
Necrophilus arenarius, 462
Necroscides, 278
Needham on locusts at sea, 297
Nematus, 514;
N. curtispina, 498
Nemobius sylvestris, 339
Nemoptera ledereri, 462;
N. larva, 462
Nemopterides, 462
Nemoura, 401;
N. glacialis, 405
Neoteinic Termites, 362, 380
Nervous system, 116
Nervures, 107, 108, 206;
of Psocidae, 393;
of Embiidae, 352;
of Termitidae, 359
Neuroptera, 172, 341-485;
N. amphibiotica, 342;
N. planipennia, 342
Neuropteroidea, 486
Neuroterus lenticularis, 523
Neuters, 137
Newman on abdomen, 491
Newport on Anthophorabia, 545;
on Monodontomerus, 544;
on Paniscus, 555;
on Pteronarcys, 399 f.;
on turnip sawfly, 515
Nicolet on Smynthuridae, 191
Nietner on Psocidae, 395
Nirmus, 346 f.
Nitzsch, on Mallophaga, 346 f.;
on Psocidae, 392
Nocticola simoni, 232
Nodes, 493
Nodus, 413
Nomadina, 565
Notophilidae, 45
Notophilus, 45
Notum, 91, 100
Number of species, of Insects, 83, 171, 178;
of Cephidae, 506;
of Chalcididae, 539;
of gall-flies, 533;
of Hymenoptera, 503;
of Parasitica, 520;
of Ichneumonidae, 551;
of Odonata, 424;
of Orthoptera, 201;
of earwigs, 215;
of cockroaches, 236;
of Mantidae, 258;
of Phasmidae, 272;
of migratory locusts, 297;
of Perlidae, 407;
of Psocidae, 395;
of sawflies, 518
Nurseries of Termites, 387
Nusbaum on embryology, 149, 152
Nyctiborides, 240
Nymph, 157;
of dragon-fly, 418, 419, 420, 422, 426;
of Ephemeridae, 432 f., 432, 433, 434, 435, 436
Nymphidina, 465, 472
Nyssonides, 565

Oak-galls, 527
Occiput, 94
Ocelli, 97, 282, 313, 400, 409, 430;
variation in, 267, 536
Odonata, 409 f.
Odontocerum albicorne, case of, 480
Odontura serricauda, 316
Oecanthides, 340
Oecanthus, 339
Oecodoma—see Atta
Oedipodides, 304, 309
Oenocytes, 137
Oesophageal "bone," 391
Oesophageal nervous ring, 118, 121
Oesophagus, 114, 124, 403
Oestropsides, 482
Oligonephria, 175
Oligoneuria garumnica, nymph, 434
Oligotoma michaeli, 351, 354;
O. saundersi, 352;
O. insularis, 354
Ommatidium, 98
Oniscigaster wakefieldi, 442
Ontogeny, 153
Oolemm, 144
Oolitic, 239
Ootheca of Mantis, 246, 247
Ophionellus, 563
Ophionides, 557
Opisthocosmia cervipyga, 215
Orders, 172
Orientation, 112
Origin of wings, 206
Orl-fly, 445
Ormerod, Miss, on importation of locusts, 299
Ornament, 200, 215, 233 f., 243, 244, 282, 302, 313, 339
Orphania denticauda, 321
Orthodera ministralis, 249
Orthoderides, 251, 259
Orthophlebia, 453
Orthoptera, 172, 198-340, 407
Oryssidae, 506
Oryssus abietinus, 506;
O. sayi, 506
Osborn on Menopon, 350
Osmylides, 466
Osmylina, 466
Osmylus chrysops, 341;
larva, 466;
O. maculatus, 466
Osten Sacken on similar gall-flies, 532
Ostia, 48 f., 133, 435
Oudemans on Thysanura, 182
Oustalet on Odonata, 422, 423
Outer margin of wing, 108
Ovaries, 137, 138;
of earwigs, 211;
of Oedipoda, 283, 284;
of Perla, 404;
of Thysanura, 188
Oviduct, 139, 392
Oviposition, 229, 246, 265, 290, 291, 440;
of Agriotypus, 557;
of Cynipidae, 527 f., Adler on, 529;
of Encyrtus, 545;
of Ichneumon, 555;
of inquiline gall-flies, 532;
of Meconema, 321;
of Pelecinus, 564;
of Pimpla, 553;
of Podagrion, 546;
of sawflies, 513;
of Sirex, 509;
of Xiphidium, 321
Ovipositor, 110, 552, 554;
Cynipid, 524;
of Locusta, development, 314, 315
Owen, Ch., 40, 78
Oxyethira, 484;
O. costalis, larva, 485
Oxyhaloides, 234, 241
Oxyura, 533, 534
Pachycrepis, 550
Pachytylus cinerascens, 293, 297, 298, 299, 308;
P. marmoratus, 298;
P. migratorioides, 298;
P. migratorius, 298, 299, 308;
P. nigrofasciatus, 285, 298
Packard, on cave-Myriapods, 34;
on air sacs of locusts, 283, 294;
on classification, 173;
on development of Diplax, 419;
on may-flies, 430;
on metamorphosis of Bombus, 497;
on scales, 397;
on spiral fibre, 129
Pad, 105
Paedogenesis, 142
Pagenstecher on development of Mantis, 247
Palaeacrididae, 309
Palaeoblattariae, 239
Palaeoblattina douvillei, 238 f.
Palaeocampa, 73
Palaeodictyoptera, 486
Palaeomantidae, 259
Palaeontology, 178
Palaeophlebia superstes, 427
Palaeozoic, Myriapods, 76;
Insects, 343, 486
Palingenia bilineata, 430;
P. feistmantelii, 443;
P. papuana, 441;
P. virgo, 431
Palmén, on dragon-fly nymphs, 423;
on Ephemeridae inflation, 439;
on gills of Perlidae, 402;
on rectal gills, 422;
on tracheal system of immature Ephemeridae, 436
Palmon, 546