Journal of Cleaner Production 357 (2022) 131971

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Reuse and stabilization of sulphide mine tailings as fine aggregate for

construction mortar
Anthony Andrews a, *, Edward F. Nyarko a, Albert A. Adjaottor a, Elsie Nsiah-Baafi b,
Mark Adom-Asamoah c
a
Department of Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
b
UTS-Boral Center for Sustainable Building, Botany, Australia
c
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: M.T. Moreira The processing of low-grade sulphide gold ores generates a significant volume of tailings which impacts the
environment. The reuse of sulphide mine tailings as a substitute for sand in construction mortar offers the ad-
Keywords: vantages of reducing costly tailings management whilst promoting sustainable construction. However, the
Sulphide mine tailings acceptance of mine tailings as alternative sand for construction depends on its effective stabilization during use.
Stabilization
In this study, hardened mortar cubes have been prepared by varying the substitution of river sand with sulphide
River sand
mine tailings. The stabilization effects of cement, cement-lime and cement-pozzolana on sulphide mine tailings
Fine aggregate
Masonry mortar have been investigated. The water demand, slump behaviour, bulk density, water absorption, compressive
strength, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were examined to observe the physical and mechanical properties of the
mortars. The water demand and bulk density decreased whilst the slump value and water absorption increased
with increased tailings replacement. The highest 28-day compressive strength of 12.2 MPa was achieved at 25%
tailing replacement with a cement binder. Cement proved to be the best binder for the stabilization of the tailings
which was followed by cement-pozzolana and cement-lime respectively.

1. Introduction costly maintenance (Kiventerä et al., 2016). Proper management and

Mining generates huge quantities of solid wastes in the form of waste
rocks and mine tailings (Benarchid et al., 2019). The mine tailings are
fined grained slurries after processing the ore (Simonsen et al., 2020). As
the high-grade ores get depleted, the use of technology has enabled the
processing of low-grade ores thus increasing the volume of tailings
generated (Yang et al., 2021). Tailings are often stored for short to
medium term in impoundments while waste rocks are often stored in
gravity pits. Tailings, having gone through metallurgical processing
such as milling and leaching, often contain harmful concentrations of
cyanide, heavy metals and other chemical contaminants. Improper
disposal of the tailings poses a threat to the environment including Acid
Mine Drainage (AMD) (Dold, 2014; Benarchid et al., 2019), the collapse
of a storage facility (Macklin et al., 2003), and soil contamination
(Simonsen et al., 2020). Environmental regulations are imposing stricter
limitations on mine tailings storage practices (Xiaolong et al., 2021).
Additionally, the storage of mine tailing in impoundments requires
utilization of mine tailings have the potential to contribute to environ-
mental protection whilst enjoying some economic benefits (Qi and
Fourie, 2019). Recently, attempts have been made to reuse and recycle
mine tailings (Argane et al., 2016) and waste rocks (Adom-Asamoah and
Afrifa, 2010) as aggregates in concrete, cementitious material (Simon-
sen et al., 2020) or cement paste backfill (Tariq and Yanful, 2013; Qi and
Fourie, 2019) applications. It has been reported that some mine tailings
contain clay minerals and can be used as a component in alkali-activated
blends (Kotwica et al., 2018a). Thus the reuse of mine tailings in con-
struction can either partially replace cement or act as fine aggregates in
concrete. For instance, a 30% binder replacement with gold mine tail-
ings as a cementitious material was found to reduce CO2 emissions from
cement production by about 22% (Ince, 2019). The utilization of mine
tailings in construction constitutes a paradigm shift in tailings man-
agement techniques that can reduce volumes of mine wastes whilst
mitigating their environmental impacts. The characteristics of tailings
markedly depend on the mineralogy of the ore deposit and the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aandrews.coe@knust.edu.gh (A. Andrews).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131971
Received 2 December 2021; Received in revised form 9 March 2022; Accepted 22 April 2022
Available online 27 April 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Andrews et al.
processing routes selected. Furthermore, the properties of mortar and
concrete produced from mine tailings depend on the tailings charac-
teristics and substitution level, water-to-cement ratio, and other addi-
tives (Benarchid et al., 2019).
Gold mining at Obuasi in Ghana dates back over a century and re-
mains one of the oldest viable mines on the continent of Africa. In
Anglogold Ashanti, Obuasi Mine, a total of 14,726,019 Mt sulphide
tailings from the Pompora Treatment Plant have been stored in a
decommissioned tailings storage facility (TSF) located at Kokoteasua, a
suburb in Obuasi. From 2004, the mine began re-mining the tailings and
depositing its tailings in Pompora Tailings Storage Facility until the
operation was halted in 2010 due to TSF stability issues. The Kokoteasua
TSF currently holds about 4,870,478 Mt of tailings at a grade and
complexity which makes it currently uneconomical for re-mining. Since
the stoppage of the re-mining exercise, the Kokoteasua TSF has
remained a major environmental liability to the mine. The mine has to
pump incident water and runoffs off the Kokoteasua TSF for treatment
through reverse osmosis (RO) plant before discharge due to its high
levels of total dissolved solids (TDS), arsenic and other metals beyond
the Ghana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) effluent discharge
standards. Notwithstanding, seepage of this incident water in the cause
of its temporary storage poses the threat of pollution to groundwater in
the area.
Studies conducted in Obuasi indicate that soils around active and
decommissioned tailings dams contain arsenic and high amounts of
sulphide minerals, such as arsenopyrite, which can generate acid mine
drainage (AMD) and thus have become an environmental concern in the
catchment areas (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2009). Additionally, inactive tail-
ings impoundments are receiving more attention due to the long-term
effects of windblown dispersal and groundwater contamination
(Aucamp and van Schalkwyk, 2003). The traditional management of
hazardous tailings after the end of life of the tailings dam has been to
adequately cover them with silty or clayey material that minimizes
percolation and erosion of the tailings during storms for closure. How-
ever, the large demand of land for these tailings impoundments in the
first place, combined with the expensiveness and scarcity of natural
material for covering these tailings deposits makes them an uneco-
nomical and often difficult venture (Lyu et al., 2019). The above con-
cerns make it worth the while to investigate options of stabilizing the
tailings material for use in a sustainable way to eradicate its liability and
also make the land available for the community for development. For
instance, sulphide mine tailings have been used as alkali-activated ma-
terial with ground granulated blast furnace slag to produce a C-S-H
phase with a 10% increase in early strength (Kotwica et al., 2018b).
Reuse of the Kokoteasua sulphide mine tailings as fine aggregate for
construction mortar works is considered in this work.
In Ghana, river sand is one of the primary sources of sand used in the
preparation of construction mortar. Due to the rapid growth in the
construction industry, demand for river sand has increased enormously,
leading to its deficiency, and thus increasing the cost of construction.
The mining of river sand is also destroying rivers by deepening the
riverbeds and causing bank slides, loss of vegetation on the banks of
rivers, and disturbing aquatic life (Yifru and Mitikie, 2020). Therefore,
there is a need to look for an alternative material to partially replace
river sand for sustainable construction. The objective of this research is
to investigate the stabilization of the Kokoteasua tailings and their
sustainable use as fine aggregate for construction mortar. The physical,
chemical and mineralogical characterization of the mine tailings was
conducted. Three different binders (cement, cement-lime, and
cement-pozzolana) were used to stabilize the tailing material. River sand
was substituted with tailings at varying proportions to produce mortars
and the physical and mechanical properties were determined. Remobi-
lization studies were conducted to assess the effectiveness of
stabilization.
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Journal of Cleaner Production 357 (2022) 131971
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sampling and sample preparation
Tailings samples were collected from the decommissioned Kokotea-
sua Tailings Storage Facility (TSF) located at Obuasi in the Ashanti re-
gion of Ghana. The entire TSF surface area was divided into four main
areas as shown in Fig. 1. The area marked “A” is the main sampling area
which was gridded into a 100 m × 100 m plot. Area marked “B” was
gridded into two irregular blocks of approximately 80 m2. No further
gridding was possible at area “B” due to the presence of huge erosion
gullies and unstable slopes towards the east of the area. Area marked “C”
is a partially re-mined area that was not sampled due to its low tailings
content and erosion of lateritic material from the surrounding highlands.
Area marked “D” is a completely mined out area that is used as a water
impoundment for incident water and was therefore not sampled. The
remaining areas were steeply sloped which were inaccessible for sam-
pling. Two bulk samples were randomly picked within each grid ac-
cording to USEPA EPA530-D-02-002, 2002. The sample points in each
grid were however not less than 50 m apart in each case to get as much
variability as possible within the sampling grids. A backhoe was used to
dig out about 100 kg of tailings at each location up to depths of 0.7–0.8
m. About 20 kg bulk sample was then representatively taken from the
dug-out at each sample point by quartering with a shovel. A hand-held
Global Positioning System (GPS) using Geo tracker android Software
was used to record the exact location of each sample point. Samples
were packaged into labelled transparent plastic bags, sealed to avoid
losses and cross-contamination, and stored for further analysis. A 500 g
representative sample was composited in the laboratory from the two
bulk samples from each grid by coning and quartering. A total of eleven
test samples of 500 g each were formulated. The samples were air-dried
for 6–7 days to ensure moisture levels are uniform for mortar formula-
tions. The air-dried samples were then packed into zip lock bags for
further analysis. River sand was obtained from the locality and used as
fine aggregate.
2.2. Physical and chemical characterization of soil samples
2.2.1. Specific gravity and particle size distribution
Specific gravity determination was carried out on a single composite
sub-sample of 500 g. The sample was first sieved through a 4.75 mm
sieve and dried for 24 h in a Genlab SPIO 12001S drying oven at 80 ◦ C to
avoid the oxidation of sulphides and other oxidizable components of the
tailings. A 35 g test sample was analyzed in a 250 ml pyconometer ac-
cording to ASTM D854-14.
Particle size distribution was carried out by sieve analyses using 1.18
mm, 0.6 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.212 mm, 0.15 mm, 0.075 mm, 0.053 mm sieves
in an Endecotts EFL 2000 electromagnetic sieve shaker. Particles that
were finer than 0.053 mm were analyzed by a hydrometer using BS
1377-1-2016 standard protocols.
2.2.2. Chemical and mineralogical analyses
The chemical compositions of tailings, sand and binders were
determined using a VMR-Olympus X-ray fluorescence spectrometer
whilst their mineralogical compositions were determined using PAN
analytical Empyrean Series 2 X-ray diffractometer. The XRD analysis
was carried out using Cu K-alpha radiations of wavelength 1.54060 nm
operating at 45 kV and 40 mA. Identification of the mineral phases
present was done with the Jade software package.
2.2.3. Soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC)
Soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were determined according
to APHA 4500 and APHA 2510 methods respectively. 10 g of soil sample
passing through 1.7 mm sieve was weighed into a beaker and 50 ml of
deionized water was added to achieve a soil-to-water ratio of 1:5. The
mixture was allowed to stand for 1 h. The pH and EC of the supernatant
A. Andrews et al.
Fig. 1. Division of Kokoteasua TSF
solution were measured using a calibrated Jenway 3505 pH meter and
Eutech CON2700 conductivity meter, respectively.
2.2.4. Anions determination in soil samples
The presence of sulphates, chlorides, and phosphates in the soil was
analyzed using KONELAB 20i Aquakem Discrete Analyzer as per ASTM
4500 (2017). 50 ml of deionized water was added to 10 g of soil sample
and shaken for 2 h using an orbital shaker. The solids were allowed to
settle and the decant filtered. The Aquakem Konelab 20i was used to
measure the concentration of the analyte in the filtrate by photometric
analyses using the appropriate calibrators, controls and reagents.
2.2.5. Arsenic, metals and cyanide determination in soil samples
Arsenic and metals in soils were determined using the aqua regia
digestion method according to the EPA 3050B (1996). A 1 g soil sample
was weighed into a 50 ml digestion tube to which 6 ml of conc. HNO3
and 3 ml conc. HCl was added. The mixture was heated on a hot block
which had been pre-heated to 105 ◦ C for 40 min 10 ml of deionized
water was added to the mixture and heated again for 80 min. The
mixture was then cooled and filtered through Whatman 1 filter paper
into a 50 ml flask. Deionized water was added to obtain the 50 ml mark.
Metal concentrations were then determined in mg/kg with Agilent 7900
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP MS) using the
appropriate blanks and standard solutions for each metal. The free and
total cyanide concentration was determined using Skalar Segmented
Flow Autoanalyzer following APHA 4500 (2017) procedure.
3
Journal of Cleaner Production 357 (2022) 131971
2.3. Mortar preparation, casting, curing and testing
2.3.1. Mixing ratios
Table 1 shows the mix design for the formulation of mortars. A
cement:sand ratio of 1:5 was used following the BS 5628-3 mortar
designation (iii) suitable for general purpose application. Portable water
was used for mixing. Sand and tailings samples were thoroughly dried
prior to mixing to ensure exact moisture levels in the mortars. Mortar
mixes were composed of cement-tailings-sand, cement-lime-tailings-
sand, and cement-pozzolana-tailings-sand. For each binder, different
tailings:sand proportions of 0%:100%, 25%:75%, 50%:50%, 75%:25%
and 100%:0% were used to formulate the mortars. Mixing of the mortars
was conducted manually in a 1m diameter steel mixing tub. The tub was
rinsed thoroughly and dried after each mix. Mortars prepared were cast
into 100 mm × 100 mm wooden moulds (Fig. 2) following BS
8500–2:2015 and ensuring compaction by filling in two layers each
receiving 25 strokes with a tamper. Triplicate specimens were generated
with each mortar mix for the different curing ages to be tested. After 24
h, mortar specimens were demoulded, placed in a water bath at room
temperature and cured for 7, 14, 28 and 56 days respectively.
2.3.2. Bulk density and water absorption test
Bulk density was determined following BS EN 1015-6 procedure
whilst the water absorption of mortar cubes was determined according
to ASTM C 642–13. Three samples were tested and recorded after 28
days of curing. An average value of the three was subsequently
determined.
A. Andrews et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 357 (2022) 131971

Table 1
Mortar mixing design.
Replacement of Gold Tailings (%) Binder: Aggregate Constituents (g)

Tailings Sand Cement Lime Pozzolana

0 Cement: Aggregate 0.0 1882.1 333.1

25 1:5 481.4 1411.6 333.1
50 962.8 941.0 333.1
75 1444.2 470.5 333.1
100 1925.7 0.0 333.1
0 Cement: Lime: Aggregate 0.0 1613.2 286 229
25 1:1:5 561.7 1209.9 286 229
50 1123.3 806.6 286 229
75 1685.0 403.3 286 229
100 2246.6 0.0 286 229
0 Cement: Pozzolan: Aggregate 0.0 1882.1 223 88
25 0.67:0.33:5 481.4 1411.6 223 88
50 962.8 941.0 223 88
75 1444.2 470.5 223 88
100 1925.7 0.0 223 88

Metals concentrations in the leachate were determined using pro-

cedures outlined in US EPA 200.7 (1994). Metal concentrations were
determined using Agilent 7900 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometer (ICP MS). ASTM 4500 (2017) procedure was used to
determine the concentration of sulphate, phosphate, chloride and ni-
trate in the water samples. KONELAB 20 Aquakem Discrete Analyzer
was used to determine the concentrations of the anions using appro-
priate calibrations and controls.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Physical and chemical characteristics

The particle size distribution (PSD) of the aggregates (tailings and

sand) was characterized according to BS 1377-3 (2018) standard pro-
tocols. Fig. 3 shows the PSD and classification of the tailing and sand
samples. The tailings consisted of 48.7% sand, 42% silt, and 9.3% clay.
Hence, the texture of the tailing samples is classified as silty sand.
Similarly, the sand sample consisted of 28.1% gravel, 71.6% sand, and
Fig. 2. Fresh mortar cubes in moulds.
0.3% silt, indicating that the texture was coarse sand. It has been re-
ported that finer particles affect early strength whilst coarser particles
2.3.3. Slump test
affect later strength (Celik, 2009). Size fractionation results suggest that
The slump, indicating the workability of mortar mixtures, was
the mine tailings could be utilized as the filler since it has a smaller size
determined using a standard slump cone on a wetted concrete slab.
fraction. The specific gravity of the tailings and river sand was deter-
Slump tests were carried out according to the standardized procedure
mined to be 2.72 and 2.64 g/cm3, respectively.
described in ASTM C143-12 (ASTM, 2012). Standard slump cone with
dimensions; lower diameter of 200 mm, an upper diameter of 100 mm
and height of 300 mm was used.

2.3.4. Compressive strength test

The compressive strength measurements of the hardened mortar
cubes at the respective test ages were determined as per BS EN 1015-11
(BSI, 1999). Measurements were carried out with PROETI DI CPN2
Universal Tensile Test machine. Triplicate mortar specimens of each mix
design were crushed and average compressive strength values were
reported.

2.4. Remobilization and chemical analyses of leachate

Specimens were dried and weighed using an electric balance after 56

days of water bath curing. Specimens were gently dropped into a bowl
containing 300 ml distilled water (mortar to eluant leachate ratio 1:3).
To minimize evaporation, the leaching bowl was kept closed. TDS and
pH readings were recorded at regular intervals until an equilibrium was
reached. After 60 days, leachate concentration had stabilized indicating
no further leaching was occurring. The leachates were then collected
and filtered for metal analysis. Fig. 3. Particle size distribution of tailings and sand.

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A. Andrews et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 357 (2022) 131971

The chemical compositions (wt %) of the tailings and binders are Table 3
presented in Table 2. Quartz was the major oxide in the tailing (62.65%) Physicochemical parameters of tailings and sand.
with high fractions of Al2O3 and Fe2O3 and a low fraction of CaO. Parameter Unit Tailings Sand
Furthermore, the tailings contain a minimum of 70% of primary oxides
pH – 7.9–8.9 7.9–8.00
(SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3). Consequently, the tailings could possess hy- EC μS/cm 222 3.41
draulic properties (Simonsen et al., 2020). The river sand consisted Chloride mg/kg <5 3.30
mainly of quartz (88.12%) with minor fractions of Al2O3, Fe2O3. The Sulphate mg/kg 437.37 0.32
Ordinary Portland Cement (42.5R) contained CaO (60%), SiO2 Phosphate mg/kg 0.78 0.085
Calcium mg/kg 17727 147.71
(26.15%), Al2O3 (2.91%), and Fe2O3 (2.97%). These oxides enhance Magnesium mg/kg 8763.64 98.03
hydration in mixtures to achieve a desirable compressive strength (sta- Sodium mg/kg 102.09 63.78
bilization). Minor oxides such as MgO (1.48%) and SO3 (3.51%) were Potassium mg/kg 300.00 167.55
also present. For pozzolana, an adequate amount of active ingredients Sulphur mg/kg 2590 ———
Cyanide-Free mg/kg 0.37 ———
SiO2 (67.99%), Al2O3 (11.97%), and Fe2O3 (2.85%) were present.
Cyanide-Total mg/kg 0.42 ———
Higher content (>70%) of the active ingredient (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3)
makes it possible to achieve a higher compressive strength due to
improved hydraulic reactivities (Simonsen et al., 2020). The major ox-
Table 4
ides in lime were CaO and SiO2 with minor fractions of SO3 and Fe2O3.
Mean concentration of arsenic and heavy metals in tailings and sand.
The mineralogical composition of tailings consists of quartz (SiO2),
feldspar mineral albite (NaAlSi3O8) and iron (II, III) oxide Fe3O4. The Element Tailings (mg/kg) Sand (mg/kg) WHO Guideline
sand and pozzolana consisted mainly of quartz. As 766.36 4.32 20
Fe 38636.36 10630.24 50000
Al 4145.45 1428.73 ——
3.2. Physicochemical properties Mn 389.09 181.1 2000
Pb 24.81 2.80 50
Ni 38.81 2.32 50
Table 3 shows the physicochemical properties of the tailings and Cr 27.45 20.94 100
sand. The pH of tailings ranged from 7.9 to 8.9 whilst that of sand was Co 16.54 3.40 50
from 7.9 to 8.00. A higher EC value was observed for tailings (222 μS/ Cu 70.36 2.96 100
cm) relative to sand (3.41 μS/cm). The mean concentration of Ca, Mg, Zn 81.90 1.9 300
Na, K and S2− in tailings samples were respectively 17,727, 8763.64,
102.09, 300, 2590 mg/kg. A high concentration of Ca may be attributed
are reportedly among the highest in the world and have been linked to
to lime (CaO) used to condition the pH during gold ore extraction. High
the principal gold-bearing ore in the region, arsenopyrite (FeAsS).
sulphide content in the tailing was due to the sulphidic nature of Obuasi
Hence, tailings can therefore be a potential source of As contamination
gold ore (FeS, FeAsS). Sulphate (SO2−4 ) concentration was high (437.37 to nearby environmental receptors that may pose an environmental
mg/kg) due to the oxidation of sulphide minerals during storage health concern. The mean concentrations of Mn, Pb, Ni, Cr, Co, Cu and
(Bempah et al., 2013). Free and total cyanide were both detected in the Zn in sand samples (Table 4) were also below the WHO maximum
tailings samples with mean concentrations of 0.37 mg/kg and 0.42 permissible limits. The mean arsenic concentration in the sand is also
mg/kg respectively. The mean concentrations of Ca, Mg, Na and K in well below the WHO limit.
sand samples were 147.71, 98.03, 63.78, and 167.55 mg/kg respec-
tively. Free and total cyanide in the sand were below the laboratory
detection limit. The concentration of chloride in tailings was below the 3.3. Water demand
laboratory detection limit (<5 mg/kg) whilst a mean concentration of
3.30 mg/kg was observed in the sand. The water to cement ratio (w/c) is a critical parameter affecting the
Table 4 shows the mean concentrations of arsenic, Fe, Al, Mn, Pb, Ni, strength of cementitious materials. The estimation of water demand is
Cr, Co, Cu and Zn in the tailings and sand samples. The concentrations important for two main reasons: (1) for effective hydration of cement
have been compared with WHO guidelines. Iron concentration was the and (2) serves as a lubricant for fine aggregates based on its specific area
highest in the tailing sample (38,636.36 mg/kg). The mean concentra- (Singh et al., 2015). Water demand, in this context, is the amount of
tion of Mn, Pb, Ni, Cr, Co, Cu and Zn in tailings samples were all below mixing water required to produce a specified consistency of mortar. The
WHO maximum permissible limits. However, the presence of these water requirements for the preparation of mortar samples with varying
metals in the tailings can be a source of contamination to adjoining tailings substitution with different binder types are presented in Fig. 4.
environmental receptors (soils, river water and sediments) through The results show that both sand and binder types have a strong influence
moisture movement or wind erosion of dried tailings (Antwi-Agyei et al., on the water demand and therefore the properties of the mortar pro-
2009). Mean arsenic concentration of 766.36 mg/kg far exceeded the duced. Generally, the water demand is found to decrease with increasing
WHO maximum permissible limit. Gold ore deposits in Obuasi are rich amounts of tailings for both cement and cement-lime binders (Fig. 4). An
in iron and are characterized by sulphide minerals in arsenopyrite form increase in tailings replacement increases the surface area of the fine
(Kumi-Boateng, 2007). A high concentration (542 mg/kg) of As in aggregate and thus decreases the water demand. For the
tailings was also observed by Bempah et al. (2013) in tailings from the cement-pozzolana binder, however, the water demand remained at
AngloGold-Ashanti, Obuasi Mine. Arsenic levels in ores found at Obuasi about the same level with increasing amounts of tailings. This could be

Table 2
Chemical compositions (wt%) of tailings, sand, and binders.
Sample SiO2 Al2O3 MgO P2O5 SO3 K2O CaO MnO Fe2O3 LOI

Tailings 62.65 9.96 1.01 0.05 0.24 1.41 2.08 0.11 5.90 14.9
Sand 88.12 2.53 - - - 0.25 - 0.04 2.73 3.33
Cement 26.15 2.91 1.48 0.07 3.51 0.42 60.00 0.05 2.97 2.27
Pozzolana 67.99 11.97 - - 0.03 0.38 - 0.02 2.85 4.39
Lime 0.11 - - - 0.08 - 55.35 - 0.05 43.90

5
A. Andrews et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 357 (2022) 131971

the mixture via an increase in interparticle friction (Argane et al., 2016).

For instance, 100% substitution with tailings saw an increase in slump
values for all binder types 40 mm. It could also be observed that
increasing tailings substitution decreased slump value for cement binder
whilst an increase in slump values was observed for cement-lime binder.
This is due to the high water demand for cement-lime mixtures as shown
in Fig. 4. Cement-lime mortars are known to be less workable (low slump
value) than cement mortars. The high slump values observed in Fig. 5 for
75% tailings substitution (42.7 mm) and 100% tailings substitution
(59.0 mm) using cement-lime binders is due to the addition of more
water to the mixtures. Cement-pozzolana binder gave the highest slump
value (70.0 mm) far above the minimum threshold with the order of
high flowability with respect to aggregate/mortar type as follows; 75%
˃100%˃25% ˃50% tailings.

3.5. Bulk density and water absorption

The effect of tailings substitution on the average bulk density and

Fig. 4. Effect of tailings substitution on water demand for different binders.

due to the high water demand for pozzolana which counters the low
water demand for cement (SABIR et al., 2001). Additionally, for the
same percent tailings replacement, water demand is highest in
cement-lime binder followed by cement and cement-pozzolana respec-
tively. Thamboo et al. (2018) reported that lime-cement mortars are less
workable than cement mortars and thus require high water demand. It is
also evident from Fig. 4 that the water demand at 0% tailings (i.e. 100%
sand) were high for cement (2.1) and cement-lime (3.0) binders. This
could be attributed to the porous nature (coarser particles of sand) of the
mixture as shown in Fig. 3. A similar observation has been reported
elsewhere (Thamboo et al., 2018).

3.4. Slump behaviour

Generally, a slump range of 40–60 mm is aimed at preparing mortar

mixes. The flow characteristics of mortar mixtures are presented in
Fig. 5. It can be observed that sand recorded the least slump values for all
binder types which fell below the minimum threshold of 40 mm even
though it had the highest water demand. Substitution of sand with
tailings increased the slump values for the various binder types. This is
due to the finer particle size distribution of tailings (Fig. 3) which
increased the surface area. It is reported that increasing fine content in
mortar mixtures decreases the workability by increasing the viscosity of

Fig. 6. Effect of tailings substitution on (a) bulk density and (b) water ab-
Fig. 5. Effect of tailings substitution on slump value for different binders. sorption for different binders.

6
A. Andrews et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 357 (2022) 131971

water absorption of hardened mortar for the different binders after 28d
curing are shown in Fig. 6. The average densities of mortars for all kinds
of binders did not change for tailings substitutions up to 25%. There-
after, the average densities decreased with increasing tailings substitu-
tion. Again, the highest average density (8.4 g/cm3) was observed in
mortar produced with cement binder only, followed by cement-
pozzolana (8.3 g/cm3) and lastly cement-lime (8.2 g/cm3). The
average densities of the sand, tailings and binders were measured as
follows: sand ~1.61, tailings ~1.38, cement ~1.43, lime ~1.14, and
pozzolana ~1.15 g/cm3. Sand is denser than the binder and tailings. For
the same binder type, increasing tailings would decrease the bulk den-
sity whilst for the same tailing substitution, cement would have the
highest bulk density followed by cement-pozzolana and cement-lime
respectively.
On the other hand, the average amount of water absorbed for each
mortar under the different binder types steadily increased with
increasing tailings content in the mortar (Fig. 6b). For cement binder,
mortar prepared using 0% tailings (100% sand) absorbed the least water
of 7.4% relative to mortar prepared using different tailings substitutions.
Accordingly, there was a steady rise of water absorbed for each mortar
prepared with 25%, 50% and 75% tailings substitutions with water
absorption values of 9.1%, 13.5%, 17.1% respectively, which were all
below 20%. However, the mortar with 100% tailings substitution had
water absorption above 20%. Similar patterns of water absorption were
also observed for mortar prepared using cement-lime and cement-
pozzolana binders. Again, 100% tailings substitution exceeded water
absorption of 20%. The increasing water absorption could be related to
the nature of tailings, which present higher fine content and thus absorb
more water due to the large surface area (Argane et al., 2016). It has
been reported that the durability of cement-based mortars is dependent
on the amount of fluid penetrating the mortar (Aparna et al., 2018).
Thus the durability of mortars can be improved by reducing the pene-
tration of water or fluids which can cause a chemical attack (Sicakova
et al., 2017). From Fig. 6, penetration resistance can be improved by
increasing the density of the mortar through the reduction of fines in the
mortar mix.

3.6. Compressive strength

The compressive strengths of mortars cured at 7, 28, and 56 days are

presented in Fig. 7. The results show that there is at least a 40% increase
in strength at 25% tailing substitution at all ages of curing (Fig. 7a, b and
c) using cement as a binder. The 28-day compressive strength (Fig. 7b) at
25% tailings replacement for cement, cement-lime and cement-
pozzolana are 12.2, 5.0, and 5.6 MPa respectively. The increase in
strength compared to the control sample (i.e. 100% sand) could be due
to the physical and mineralogical characteristics of the tailing material.
However, further increase in tailings substitution resulted in decreasing
compressive strengths for all binders and ages of curing. On one hand,
the chemical makeup of the tailing materials retards the degree of hy-
dration and thus lowers the strength values at higher percent replace-
ment as was observed by Argane et al. (2016) when sand was partially
replaced with tailing material. Furthermore, tailings consisted of high
silt content (42%). A high percentage of silt often reduce the strength of
the mortar/concrete because the silt competes with the cement during
hydration (Ngugi et al., 2014).
On the other hand, the compressive strength values correlate with
the bulk density and water absorption results shown in Fig. 6. The higher
compressive strength at 25% tailings replacement produced slightly
dense mortar cubes suggesting compact microstructure. As the tailings
replacement increased beyond 25%, bulk density decreased with a
Fig. 7. Effect of tailings substitution on mortar compressive strengths (a) 7
corresponding increase in water absorption suggesting open micro-
days, (b) 28 days and (c) 56 days.
structure and thus lower compressive strengths. Since the tailings are
finer than the sand, it suggests that at 25% replacement, the tailings act
as fillers increasing the bulk density and thus the compressive strength.
Beyond 25%, the particle fines increase and thus compromise on the

7
A. Andrews et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 357 (2022) 131971

strength. The maximum compressive strength (12.2 MPa) was achieved

at 25% replacement cured for 28-days. A further increase in strength
(15.7 MPa) was observed after curing for 56-days. The strength values
recorded are above the minimum threshold mortar strength requirement
of 2.5 kN/mm2 (BS 5628-1) except for higher (>50%) tailings re-
placements using cement-lime and cement-pozzolana binders (Fig. 7c).
The XRD patterns of the mortars cured at 28 days using 25% tailings
substitution for the different binders are shown in Fig. 8. It was observed
that changes in the binder type did not affect the hydration products.
The major crystalline phases identified in all the cured samples were
quartz (S), portlandite (CH), ettringite (Et), and calcium silicate hydrate
(C–S–H). The relatively high peak intensity of quartz is due to its high
content in the tailing, sand, and pozzolana samples as shown in Table 2.
Generally, strength development in mortar is attributed to the formation
of the C–S–H phase. Even though XRD quantification of the phases was
not carried out, the high strength values observed in cement-based
mortar is due to the high proportion of C–S–H formed. It has been re-
ported that the binder type affects the strength development of the
mortar type (Ercikdi et al., 2014). Pozzolana on the other hand is sup-
plementary cementitious material (SCM). Pozzolans usually require a Fig. 9. TDS remobilization of mortar cubes cured at 65 days.
source of calcium hydroxide or portlandite (CH) to hydrate. Thus from
the XRD results, the silicate in pozzolana chemically combine with CH to salts in the water – 447 ppm for cement binder and 883 mg/L for
form additional C–S–H. However, the strength development is slower as cement-pozzolana binder. However, these values are below GS 1212
shown in Fig. 7 where the 7-day strength is lower than the 28-day (2019) requirement of 1000 ppm. Thus, the leaching of salts was also
strength for the same tailing substitution. It is interesting to note that successfully stabilized in cement and cement-pozzolana mortars. On the
excess silicate in pozzolana affects strength negatively. Furthermore, the other hand, salt leaching was highest in the control mortars (0% tailings
presence of ettringite could be due to the high presence of SO3 substitution) using a cement-lime binder. A mean concentration of 3850
(Mccarthy and Dyer, 2019) in cement as shown in Table 2. ppm was recorded. Additionally, 100% tailings replacement recorded a
salt leaching concentration of 1757 ppm. The excessive TDS leaching in
the control experiment was because there were no arsenic and sulphates
3.7. Total dissolved solids (TDS) and leachate analysis
in the sand to form complexes with lime; hence almost all the lime added
remained as free ions in solution. Table 5 shows the chemical analysis of
One of the limitations for the use of gold tailings as fine aggregate or
the leachate after 65 days of exposure to the control, 25% and 100%
as a cementitious material is its high content of heavy metals which
tailings replacement mortar cubes in water. It is evident that the lime
poses a threat to the environment. The leaching characteristics of metal
concentration was the highest (623 ppm) in cement-lime mortar cubes.
ions in water as a function of tailings substitution is shown in Fig. 9. The
The stabilization of arsenic was most effective using cement-lime
hardened mortar cured at 28 days was exposed to distilled water for 65
binders which confirms a report by Nehdi and Tariq (2007). The
days. The pH of the leachates was measured to be between 6 and 9. The
observed low concentration of arsenic in the control mortar is due to the
results show that excessive salt remobilization did not occur in mortars
very low concentration of arsenic in the sand.
made with cement and cement-pozzolana binders. Also, tailings
replacement levels between 25% and 75% after the exposure period
4. Conclusion
exhibited minimal levels of remobilization. For the binders under
consideration, 50% tailings replacement recorded the highest level of
The conclusions reached from obtained results showed that the
replacement of river sand with sulphide mine tailings decreased the
water demand and bulk density whilst increasing the slump and water
absorption. The compressive strength increased up to 25% replacement
after which strength decreased with increasing tailings substitution. The
major crystalline phases identified in the hardened mortars were quartz,
portlandite and calcium silicate hydrates. Cement proved to be the best
binder for the stabilization of the tailings which was followed by
cement-pozzolana and cement-lime respectively. The study shows that
an appropriate amount of sulphide mine tailings can be substituted for
river sand for cement-based mortar. The lower addition of tailings can
improve the physical, mechanical and durability properties of mortars.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Anthony Andrews: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Validation,

Fig. 8. XRD patterns of mortar cured at 28 days and 25% tailings replacement
(a) cement (b) cement-lime and (c) cement-pozzolana. Et = ettringite; CH =
portlandite; CSH = calcium silicate hydrate; S = quartz.
Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Edward F. Nyarko:
Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Formal analysis. Albert
A. Adjaottor: Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – review & edit-
ing. Elsie Nsiah-Baafi: Formal analysis, Validation, Writing – review &
editing. Mark Adom-Asamoah: Formal analysis, Validation, Writing –
review & editing.

8
A. Andrews et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 357 (2022) 131971

Table 5
Chemical analyses (ppm) of leachate.
Tailings (%) As Ca Na K Mg Cl SO₄2 PO₄3 NO−
3

Cement
0 0.058 3 96.9 46.2 <0.5 1.8 20 1.2 5.23
25 0.58 2 124 39.8 <0.5 7.4 18 0.94 6.57
100 1.1 3 93.6 20.6 <0.5 17.9 53 0.7 7.1
Cement-Lime
0 0.002 623 53.1 104 <0.5 7.3 3 1.26 2.11
25 0.009 15 76.1 59.3 <0.5 3.2 6 0.93 2.36
100 0.021 200 66.9 72.9 <0.5 4.3 1 0.39 6.04
Cement-Pozzolana
0 0.085 4 53.1 53.2 <0.5 6.3 53 1.1 1.25
25 0.67 2 76.9 76.9 <0.5 11.8 20 1.81 9.7
100 0.89 43 38.4 25 <0.5 44.4 128 0.86 2.9
GHEPA 0.1 250 200 5 2 250 300 — 50

Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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