UNIT TWO

2. Community and community development

What is the difference between society and community?

Community
A community is a small or large social unit (a group of people) who has something in
common, such as
norms, religion, values, or identity. Communities often share a sense of place that is situated
in a given
104 | P a g e HU, CEBS, Department of Adult Education and Community Development -105 | P a g e HU, CEBS,
Department of Adult Education and Community Development -
geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighborhood) or in virtual space through
communication platforms. It is a group of people living or working together in the same area.
People in
communities might go to the same schools, shop in the same stores and do the same things.
They also help
each other and solve problems together. If it's a bigger community, the people in it might not
always go to
the same places, but they might like or believe in the same things. Generally Community: is a
group of
people with a common characteristic or interest living together within a larger society or
community is a
“body of persons or nations having a common history or common social, economic, and
political interests”
Society
A society is defined as the group of individuals that are involved in a large group that shares
the same
opinions and perspectives. People with common interests come forward and make a society.
Well, society
can also mean an organized group of people working together for their common interests,
perspectives, or
beliefs. For instance, the US is a capitalist society. Well, in the animal kingdom, when a
particular species
of animals live together, that is termed as a society. For instance, honey bee society, etc. In
Sociology,
there are six significant types of societies, namely pastoral society, horticulture society,
industrial society,
hunting & gathering society, agricultural society, and post-industrial society. People sharing
the same
culture also live in societies. Now, what is the importance of a society? Well, in sociology,
society is
essential for living. Society is a place where one can comfortably live and participate in
societal works. A
society is essential as it is a home for all people with similar cultures, interests, hobbies,
perceptions,
opinions, etc. Well, there are many functions of society like it is a large human group,
satisfies the needs
of the members, has a sense of cooperation and belongingness, etc.
2.2.Essential elements of Community:
Essential elements of community are described below:
i.
Group of people: Community is a group of human beings. It is not possible to form a
community
without a group of men and women.
ii.
Definite locality: A community always occupies a definite geographical area. Locality is the
physical basis of community. Without a definite locality, social relations between human
beings
cannot be established106 | P a g e HU, CEBS, Department of Adult Education and Community Development -
iii.
Community Sentiment: Community sentiment means a feeling of belonging together. It is
"we
feeling" among the members. The members of a community speak the same language,
conform to
the same mores, possess the same sentiment, and have the same attitudes.
iv.
Likeness: The people in a community share a common way of life. Their customs, traditions,
mores, language, etc. are similar.
v.
Permanency: A community is not temporary like a crowd or a mob. It is relatively stable. It
includes a permanent life in a definite place.
vi.
Neutrality: Communities are not deliberately created. They are not made by planned efforts.
An
individual is born in a community. It has a natural growth of its own.
vii.
A particular Name: Every community has some particular name. In the words of Lumley,
"It
points to identity, it indicates reality, it points out individuality, it often describe the
personality
and each community is something of a personality ".
viii.
Size: A community may be big or small. A small community may be included in a wider
community. For example, a city and a village may be included in a district. District may
enclose
small communities-like villages, towns, tribes etc
ix.
Regulation of Relations: Every Community in course of time develops a system of
traditions,
customs, and morals. Practices, some rules and regulations to regulate the relations of its
members.
People in a community come together to meet the primary needs through a common set of
institutions and organizations.
2.2.1. Mechanisms of classifying community: You can classify every type of community by
the
purpose that brings them together.
1. Interest. Communities of people who share the same interest or passion.
2. Action. Communities of people trying to bring about change.
3. Place. Communities of people brought together by geographic boundaries.
4. Practice. Communities of people in the same profession or undertake the same activities.
5. Circumstance. Communities of people brought together by external events/situations.
2.3.Types of Communities
There are three types of Communities these are Urban, Suburban, and Rural community.they
have special
characteristics for each type of community.
1. Urban Community (Cities) Tall Buildings Skyscrapers Walk Bus
Many people living close togetherSmall amount of space
Not very much open space or natural areas.
2. Suburban Community to, but not in, cities
Close
Fewer People
Live in Houses or small apartment buildings not skyscraper
Many people have yards
Many natural areas.
3. Rural Community “the country” or farmland
Fewer people
A few buildings spread out over large distances
Lots of open space and natural areas - Must drive because it is too far to walk - Roads are
not
paved, so people need special vehicles, like pick-up trucks - Farms have special types of
vehicles (tractors)
Types of Society
1. Tribal Society: Hunters and Gathers are a major part of the tribal societies. Rather they are
the
founders of such societies. The social structure of this community is unified, and these people
primarily speak in their language, which is unknown to the common people. In addition,
tribal
people usually follow magic, totemism, etc.
2. Agrarian Society: People who do agricultural activities are a part of an agrarian society.
Potters,
blacksmiths, weavers, artisans, etc., also are a part of an agrarian society. Domestication of
plants
and animals takes place in this society.
3. Industrial Society: The organized production and machinery of goods is called an
industrial
society. People here are laborers who work to make industrial goods. This society came into
being
after the industrial revolution when people shifted their focus from family businesses to
factories.
4. Post-Industrial Society: This phrase was coined by Daniel Bell. This society included
practical
application of theoretical knowledge that led to various innovations in science.

Development is not a commodity to be weighed or measured by GNP statistics. It is a

process of change that enables people to take charge of their own destinies and realize
their full potential. It requires building up in people the confidence, skills, assets and
freedoms necessary to achieve this goal

2.6.1. Community Development Vs Economic Development

While conceptions and definitions of community and economic development vary, in practice
they are
inextricably linked on many levels and are highly synergistic. To understand these synergies,
consider
another definition of community development (Green and Haines 2002: vii):
Community development is . . . a planned effort to produce assets that increase the capacity
of residents
to improve their quality of life. These assets may include several forms of community capital:
physical,
human, social, financial and environmental. Recall the previous definition of economic
development
(AEDC 1984):
The process of creating wealth through the mobilization of human, financial, capital, physical
and
natural resources to generate marketable goods and services. The economic developer’s role
is to
influence the process for the benefit of the community through expanding job opportunities
and the
tax base
These two definitions are clearly parallel. The purpose of community development is to
produce assets
that may be used to improve the community, and the purpose of economic development is to
mobilize
these assets to benefit the community. Both definitions refer to the same community capital
assets: human,
financial, and physical (environmental or natural resources). As mentioned above, a more
modern holistic
definition of economic development would include not only wealth and job creation but
increasing the
quality of life and standard of living for all citizens. This expanded definition is certainly
compatible with
community development. The definition of economic development does not include social
capital perse,
but while economic developers might not have used this term when this definition was
created, it will be
seen that social capital is important for economic development as well as for community
development
As most economic developers will attest, a key to success in economic development – new
business
recruitment, retention, and expansion of existing businesses, and new business start-up is to
have a
“development-ready” community. Most businesses operate in competitive markets, and one
of the major
factors influencing business profitability is their location. When making location decisions,
businesses
weigh a host of factors that affect their costs and profits such as:Available sites and
buildings;
Transportation services and costs (ground, water, air);
Labor cost, quality and availability;
Utility costs (electricity, natural gas);
Suitability of infrastructure (roads, water/sewer);
Telecommunications (Internet bandwidth);
Public services (police and fire protection
Quality of life factors (e.g., education, health care, climate, recreation) are also important in
many
location decisions (Pittman 2006). If a community scores poorly in these factors, many
companies would
not consider it development-ready. A weakness in even one important location factor can
eliminate a
community from a company’s search list. Whether a community is considered development-
ready
depends on the type of business looking for a location. For example, important location
criteria for a
microchip manufacturing facility include a good supply of skilled production labor,
availability of
scientists and engineers, a good water supply, and a vibration-free site. A call center seeking
a location
would focus more on labor suitable for telephone work (including students and part-time
workers), a good
non-interruptible telecommunications network, and, perhaps, a time zone convenient to its
customers.
While location needs differ, a community lacking in the location factors listed above would
be at a
disadvantage in attracting or retaining businesses. Shortcomings in these or other location
factors would
increase a firm’s costs and make it less competitive.
2.7. The purpose of community development?
The purpose of community development is majorly to build communities on the basis of
justice, mutual
respect and equality.
That said, we can break this down into simpler points that explain the purpose of this phrase
“community
development” in such a way that you and the next person all get to understand it before
making that
important decision to participate in any community development activities.
So the purpose includes:
To bring people to motivate themselves through programs geared towards their overall
development as a unit of society.
Encouraging togetherness and teamwork is another purpose of community development and
this
brings about a sense of strength.
113 | P a g e HU, CEBS, Department of Adult Education and Community Development -It aims to bring social
reforms through discouraging ancient social or cultural practices that are
outdated and possibly harmful.
We also cannot underestimate the purpose of community development that is creating
awareness
on various social concerns such as health, poverty, security, and hunger among others.
It also aims to promote good governance as it ensures the community leaders are on their
toes. It
makes them aware that they are being watched when it comes to issues related to their people
and
how they make decisions that affect them.

2.7. The purpose of community development?

The purpose of community development is majorly to build communities on the basis of
justice, mutual
respect and equality.
That said, we can break this down into simpler points that explain the purpose of this phrase
“community
development” in such a way that you and the next person all get to understand it before
making that
important decision to participate in any community development activities.
So the purpose includes:
To bring people to motivate themselves through programs geared towards their overall
development as a unit of society.
Encouraging togetherness and teamwork is another purpose of community development and
this
brings about a sense of strength.
113 | P a g e HU, CEBS, Department of Adult Education and Community Development -It aims to bring social
reforms through discouraging ancient social or cultural practices that are
outdated and possibly harmful.
We also cannot underestimate the purpose of community development that is creating
awareness
on various social concerns such as health, poverty, security, and hunger among others.
It also aims to promote good governance as it ensures the community leaders are on their
toes. It
makes them aware that they are being watched when it comes to issues related to their people
and
how they make decisions that affect them.

2.8. Most Important Characteristics or Elements of Community

Meaning of community can be better understood if we analyze its characteristics or elements.
These
characteristics decide whether a group is a community or not. However, community has the
following
characteristics or elements:
1. A group of people:
A group of people is the most fundamental or essential characteristic or element of
community. This group
may be small or large but community always refers to a group of people. Because without a
group of
people we can’t think of a community, when a group of people live together and share a
common life and
binded by a strong sense of community consciousness at that moment a community is
formed. Hence a
group of people is the first pre-requisites of community
2. A definite locality:
It is the next important characteristic of a community. Because community is a territorial
group. A group
of people alone can’t form a community. A group of people forms a community only when
they reside in
a definite territory. The territory need not be fixed forever. A group of people like nomadic
people may
change their habitations. But majority communities are settled and a strong bond of unity and
solidarity is
derived from their living in a definite locality.
3. Community Sentiment:
It is another important characteristic or element of community. Because without community
sentiment a
community can’t be formed only with a group of people and a definite locality. Community
sentiment
refers to a strong sense of awe feeling among the members or a feeling of belonging together.
It refers to
a sentiment of common living that exists among the members of a locality. Because of
common living
within an area for a long time a sentiment of common living is created among the members of
that area.
With this the members emotionally identify themselves. This emotional identification of the
members
distinguishes them from the members of other community.
4. Neutrality:
114 | P a g e HU, CEBS, Department of Adult Education and Community Development -Communities are
naturally organized. It is neither a product of human will nor created by an act of
government. It grows spontaneously. Individuals became the member by birth.
5. Permanence:
Community is always a permanent group. It refers to a permanent living of individuals within
a definite
territory. It is not temporary like that of a crowd or association.
6. Similarity:
The members of a community are similar in a number of ways. As they live within a definite
locality they
lead a common life and share some common ends. Among the members similarity in
language, culture,
customs, and traditions and in many other things is observed. Similarities in these respects are
responsible
for the development of community sentiment.
7. Wider Ends:
A community has wider ends. Members of a community associate not for the fulfillment of a
particular
end but for a variety of ends. These are natural for a community.
8. Total organized social life:
A community is marked by total organized social life. It means a community includes all
aspects of social
life. Hence a community is a society in miniature.
9. A Particular Name :
Every community has a particular name by which it is known to the world. Members of a
community are
also identified by that name. For example people living in Odisha is known as odia.
10. No Legal Status:
A community has no legal status because it is not a legal person. It has no rights and duties in
the eyes of
law. It is not created by the law of the land.
11. Size of Community:
A community is classified on the basis of it’s size. It may be big or small. Village is an
example of a small
community whereas a nation or even the world is an example of a big community. Both the
type of
community is essential for human life.
12. Concrete Nature:
A community is concrete in nature. As it refers to a group of people living in a particular
locality we can
see its existence. Hence it is concrete.
13. A community exists within society and possesses a distinguishable structure which
distinguishes it
from others.
115 | P a g e HU, CEBS, Department of Adult Education and Community Development -2.9. Principles of
Community Development
Human beings can transform their world
Development comes from within
Healing is a necessary part of development
Justice is an inviolable rule in the development process
No vision, no development
Development process must be rooted in the culture of the people
Interconnectedness/the holistic approach
The hurt of one is the hurt of all; the honor of one is the honor of all
Unity: essential prerequisite of development
Curriculum Development in LL
1.1.2 Education and Training

In this sense, the definition contains at least the following several specific key points:
Education is planned process of purposeful learning;
This process is often carried out within a system;
It comprises all deliberate and systematic activities designed to meet learning needs;
It involves organized activities and embraces both initial education at the early stages of
a
person’s life prior to entry into the world of work, and continuing education throughout a
person’s life;
Finally, education includes a variety of programs and types of education which are
designed for different purposes and context; such as, formal education, adult education,
non-formal education, continuing education, lifelong education, etc.

Meaning of Curriculum
The literal meaning of curriculum is derived from a Latin word (currer) that means a chariot
race, runway
or path to reach the goal. It is the sum total of all the learning experiences that pupils have in
order to
achieve the goals of education that determine the direction of these experiences. Let us see
some
definitions of curriculum:
Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mould his material (student} in
his
studio (school), Cunningham.
It is a plan for action or a written document that includes strategies for achieving desired
goals or ends, Ralph Taylor & Hilda Taba.
A plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be educated, Saylor.
Curriculum is an organized set of formal education and/or training intentions, D. Pratt.
All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in
groups or
individually, inside or outside the school. (John Kerr).
The total learning experience provided by a school. It includes the content of courses (the
syllabus), the methods employed (strategies), and other aspects, like norms and values, which
relate to the way the school is organized.
Curriculum can refer to the entire program provided by a classroom, school, district,
state, or
country.

Educators definition of curriculum and functions of schools

Subject oriented educators - Curriculum is a set of school-subjects to be taught by
teachers
and learnt by students to promote intellectual capacity. The function of the
school is to cultivate mind and promote intellect.
Objective oriented educators - Curriculum is a series of structured learning outcomes to
be
attained by learners through instruction. The function of the school is to bring about
behavioral Changes.
Experience oriented educators - Curriculum is the sum total of planned effort of school
(to
provide students with theoretical and practical experiences and activities both inside and
outside
school), everything planed by educational institution. The function of the school is enhancing
the production of skilled manpower (through the provision of different experiences).
Child-centered educators - Curriculum is what can effectively engage the mind of
children.
The function of the school is helping children Promote thoughts and beliefs, hopes, choices,
feelings and wishes.

Nature of Curriculum

The nature of curriculum has been considered and described by different theorists in their
own ways;

some of them were stated as follows:

1. Content/subject matter:

- this is the very old traditional approach to understand the nature of curriculum where
Greeks

considered curriculum as liberal arts. These were trivium (grammar, rhetoric & logic) and

quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy& music) i.e. Curriculum was nothing but the

different subjects taught in schools.

2. Programmed/ planned activities:

- it can be the overall planned activities by the teacher as to how to teach , what to teach,

how to motivate, what devises are required to draw their attention, and so on ; all that is

planned in advance before, during and after the real teaching-learning process. Here

curriculum should also pay attention to means and ends or outcomes.

3. Intended learning outcomes:

137 | P a g e HU, CEBS, Department of Adult Education and Community Development -

- this refers to curriculum as the intended learning outcomes, a shift from means to an

ends.

4. Cultural reproduction:

- it means that curriculum is the reflection of the culture of a particular society. They

identify appropriate skills and knowledge (values, religion, and political system etc).

Concepts will be incorporated with the curriculum, which in turn reflects their belief and

all cultural aspects.

5. Experience:

- John Dewey says curriculum as a single experience, which is a continuum of means and

ends, and also, he says that these two are inseparable. Curriculum provides experiences

to respond, react and reflect on various processes of learning. It depends on the learner

as what he experiences.

6. Discrete tasks and concepts:

- This can be related to training or industry where individual gets exposed to different

tasks to master over the task and attain the concepts. An example of this can be rules

of grammar, mathematical problem, other mechanical skill-oriented tasks in various

professions, expose the learner to these relevant tasks.

7. Agenda for social reconstruction:

- this means that schools should provide an agenda of knowledge which guides

students to enrich society and the cultural institutions. It is to activate the students

prepared well with adequate knowledge and skills to adopt in their future life.

Scope of curriculum

1. the nature of knowledge

2. the nature of knowing

3. the domain and limits of the new specially (that is curriculum) and

4. the translation of curriculum principles and theories into educational practice

Chapter Two: Foundations Of Curriculum

The most commonly accepted foundations curriculums include, the following areas:

1. Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum

2. Psychological foundation of Curriculum

3. Sociological foundation of Curriculum

Philosophy deals with values in life and education tells us have these values can be realized

- Philosophy gives meaning to all that is done in an educational process

- The aim of education is related with the aim of life and the aim of life is always individual

has at a particular time

Type of philosophy

a. Social Philosophies

 Idealism

 Realism

 Pragmatism

 Existentialism

b. Educational Philosophies

 Perennialism

 Essentialism

 Progressivism

 Reconstructionism

Idealism

Plato, father of Idealism,

In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full moral
excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind:
literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through
lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help
students discover and clarify knowledge).

Realism

Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind.

The ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is
objective-what can be observed.

Pragmatism

For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real.

The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and
unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works.

Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that
thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness. John Dewey
(1859-1952) also applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He believed that
learners must adapt to each other and to their environment.

Existentialism

The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual

The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and
individual standards rather than external standards are central.

Existence comes before any definition of what we are.

We should not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take
responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic
individuals, as we make meaning of our lives.

They start with the student, rather than on curriculum content.

B. Educational Philosophies
In perennialism the belief was that you taught "everlasting" information to the students. The main
idea was to stimulate thought provoking discussions from different topics presented to the student.
As in essentialism the teacher is the center of the instruction. The educator was responsible for
teaching principals not facts. Teacher helps students think on rationally: based on Socratic Method
oral exposition, explicit teaching of traditional. Their goal was to open the students mind to scientific
reasoning, and that factual information may be proven false
Essentialism

Essentialism is an educational philosophy whose adherents believe that children should learn the
traditional basic subjects thoroughly and rigorously. In this philosophical school of thought, the aim
is to instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge, enacting a back-to-basics
approach. Essentialism ensures that the accumulated wisdom of our civilization as taught in the
traditional academic disciplines is passed on from teacher to student. Such disciplines might include
Reading, Writing, Literature, Foreign Languages, History, Mathematics, Science, Art, and Music.
Moreover, this traditional approach is meant to train the mind, promote reasoning, and ensure a
common culture. The teacher is responsible for installing moral values that will help the student on
the road to becoming an ideal citizen. The students are taught factual information and are not
offered any vocational training. The classroom setting is very rigid and disciplined. Students are rated
academically by testing. Both the teacher and the administrators decide what is best for the student

This creates an atmosphere where students do not expand their minds creatively. Schools that use
the essentialism philosophy encourage academic competition

Progressivism

In the 1920's with the founding of the Laboratory School, John Dewey created the foundations of the
progressive education movement. This is the first philosophical approach that takes into
consideration the three learning types (auditory, visual and kinesthetic learners) of students. In a
progressive approach classroom, you will see thought provoking games, books, manipulative objects,
experimentation and social interaction between the students. This approach also uses field trips
outside of the classroom for educational purposes. Progressive philosophy isn't center around the
main goal of educating students for adulthood. Instead this approach was meant to enrich the
educational growth process. Teacher is guide for problem solving and scientific inquiry. Aim of
education is to promote democratic social living

Re-constructionism

Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of
education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction
against the realities of World War II. For social reconstructionist curriculum focuses on student
experience and taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international
terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in
social studies and literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus.
Communitybased learning and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies. Teacher
serves as an agent of change and reform acts as a project director and research leader helps
students become aware of problems informing humankind.

2. The psychological foundation

Different experts have formulated different theories of learning that explain the process of learning
theories may be broadly categorized into:

i. Mental discipline

ii. Behavioral view of learning

iii. Connectionism

iv. Gestalt theory of learning.

i) Mental discipline is a theory of learning which was also known as faculty psychology.
According to this theory the mind was made up a series of faculties, each of which was
related to a particular foundation or ability of the mind. Learning was thought to be the
exercising of the various

faculties regarded as muscles, which needed exercise to grow. Memory was one of the
faculties. Faculty psychology or mental discipline was the prevailing theory during the
long period when rote memory was the primary learning process. Curriculum content
was often chosen On the basis of how well it would discipline and exercise the mind
rather than because of its value in the life of the students. The curriculum designed to
meet the needs of the philosophy, which supported the mental discipline theory of
learning was often composed of subjects such as foreign language and mathematics.

ii) Connectionism is a theory of learning based on the connection of the various elements of
the nervous system in causing behavior. Thorndike theorized that since behavior was
caused by connection formulated in the neural passage, learning was the process of
formulating new or connections. Once these connections have been established, behavior
may be repeated under similar conditions indicating that learning has occurred. Thorndike
formulated three laws as a part of his theory:  The law of effect: is the strengthening or
weakening of a connection based on the consequence brought about the connection. It a
connection produces results, it is strengthened and the connection is likely to be repeated.
If a connection produces unpleasant or annoying results, it is weakened and is less likely
to be repeated.  The law of readiness: is an aspect of the law of effect. It has to do with
the tendency of the physiological neurons to operate or to conduct in order for connection
to be made.  The law of exercise: relates to repeating or failing to repeat a connection.
Repeating or Exercising a connection strengthening that is it raises the probability that
particular set of circumstance could be expected to yield the same reaction. The
curriculum dictated by connectionism has a great deal of drill and repetition in it Effort is
made to select experiences on 1he basis of their securing a satisfying reaction from the
learner.
iii) Behaviorism Behaviorism developed along strictly scientific lines, that is, behavior was
dealt with and explained in terms of observable reactions. Learning is explained by
behaviorist theory as a conditioned response. There is much concern for reinforcement,
association, and habit formation. Learning occurs when a particular response is desired
and a stimulus is found to produce it. The curriculum implied by behaviorism differs little
from that of connectionism. Drill remained a prominent method of teaching and
experiences Selected were such as to produce conditioned responses.
iv) Gestalt theory of psychology Gestalt theory was developed as a contrast to the over
emphasis on trial and error and the lack of emphasis on insight in behaviorism. The
greatest contribution of the Gestalt theorists was in the area of perception. Learning is
the organization of parts into meaningful whole. A learning situation is taken as a
problem situation. The learner perceives the problem as he focuses his experiential
 background upon the problem situation. Gestalt theory leads to the development of a
curriculum that offers the learners an opportunity to discover processes and
relationships. Emphasis is placed upon perceiving a whole in order to understand the
importance of a specific.

3. Social foundation of curriculum

Culture is the fabric of ideas, ideals/values, beliefs, skills, aesthetic objects, ways of thinking,
customs and institutions, marriage, mourning, funeral ceremony, hearth/fireside, defense, attack,
way of living, nutrition, dressing, games, stories, heroes for worship, music, caring children and
family, modes of transportation and communication, etc. Culture is dynamic as well as static. All in
all, culture refers to what people think, feel, believe and do. And curriculum is always a reflection of
what people think, feel, believe and do.

Types of cultural values

■ Cultural Universals — values held and cherished by all adult members of a society

■ Cultural Specialties - values held and cherished by a portion of adult members of a society. Often

vocation based, e.g. customs and habits unique to farmers, intellectuals, upper class, lower

class, professional ethics, etc

■ Cultural alternatives: values held and cherished by small number of people in a society. It

refers to cultural elements which depart from commonly accepted practices and ideas. They

constitute the growing edge of the culture (social change) they are often invention or diffusion

from another culture.

Chapter Three: Model in Curriculum Development

3.1. The objectives model

3.2. The process model, and

3.3. The situational analysis models

3.1. The objectives model

This model is influenced by behavioral psychology and makes use of the objectives expressed in
behavioral terms. According this model, rational curriculum planning begins with a specification of
educational aims and then proceeds to break them down into behavioral objectives. Statements
intended learning out comes, which are sufficiently precise and unambiguous to enable
measurement.

Specific Models of Curriculum Development (Objective model)

1. Tyler Model
is one of the best-known objective models
Tyler's model also has served as starting point for other models developed following it. One of
which in Taba's model and other is wheeler's model.
four stage model
1. Determining educational objectives
2. Selection of educational experiences
3. Organization of educational experiences and,
4. Determining relevant evaluation strategies

2. Taba Model
took what is known as a grass - root approach to curriculum development.
Tuba noted seven major steps to the grass - root model in which teachers would have major
inputs
1. Diagnosis of needs
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of content
4. Organization of content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. organization of learning experiences
7. determining relevant evaluation strategies

Taba is basically the same as Tyler's model

except the following major differences.
■ Taba included diagnosis of needs as the first step
■ Taba treated content and learning experiences separately in terms of both the selection and
organization and
■ Taba stressed the relationship among the factors in the model

3. The Wheeler model

wheeler's have argued that the Tyler model is rather too simple and suggest that evaluation
need not be a terminal process, but should take place at every stage. This is the essence of the
wheeler's model, which as converted Tyler's original ideas into a cyclic form and offers a five-
stage model of the curriculum process, his model is cyclic rather than liner and it links up
evaluation with other stages.

Diagrammatical representation of wheeler model

 Be see According to circle

1.Aim, Goal and Objective 2. selection of learning experience 3. Selection of contents

4.. organization and integration Learning experience 5. Evaluation

3. The Lawton’s model

gives emphasis to the relationship between education and society to design curriculum

To this end, he forwarded the five stages of curriculum design& development model. These
are:

1) Philosophical questions/ cultural universals e.g. aim of education and worthwhile knowledge,
2) Sociological questions/ cultural variables e.g. the kind of society we have or we want,
3) Selection of contents from the culture - according to the location, significant issues and
problems
identified in the economic, social and political areas are elements of the culture of the society,
from which contents of the curriculum is constituted.
4) Psychological questions and theories - these include theories of learning, instruction and
development. They try to define theories and principles, about the processes of learning, teaching
and the nature of the child. They also deal with how learning takes the developmental stages of
the learner and the methods and practices of teaching.
5) Curriculum organization in stages and sequences - here, the major assumption is that the
nature
of the subject and the maturity levels of the learners are useful to sequential arrangement of
learning experiences.

3.2. The Process Model

In this model, contents, principles and procedures are specified rather than anticipated
outcomes in terms of objectives; here the content selected represents a particular form of
knowledge, which is intrinsically worthwhile. The content shows important procedures and
the choice of content is not dependent on student’s behavior to which it might give rise but
on the degree to which it reflects the form of knowledge. Therefore, developing a
curriculum using the process model involves devising teaching methods and materials
which are consistent with the principles, concepts and criteria inherent in such activities. In
this model, specifically, the process is specified (for example, the content being studied,
the method being employed and the criteria inherent in the activity). On the other hand,
the end product is not specified beforehand using the criteria inherent in the field of
knowledge. All stages used in the objectives model are also employed in this process model
except the stating of objectives and organization and matching of learning experiences with
context. Instead of objectives they use acceptable principle or procedures to treat similar
issues.

3.3. The Situation Analysis Model

The major emphasis of this curriculum development model is on the contextual
framework; it views curriculum development as a means where teachers modify and
transform learner’s experiences through providing knowledge of each specific situation.
The model underlines the importance of the curriculum development process and its
inevitable political character; as different pressure groups and ideological interests seek to
influence the process of education. It encourages recommendations about the curriculum
from different institutions separately depending on their unique situations. In its planning,
it considers a critical appraisal of the institutional situation as one of its most crucial
features. Its major focus is on the context where learning is taking place including the
context of national, societal and institutional. Thus, institution-based curriculum
development has been emerged
from this assumption, where school-based curriculum initiated for promoting real change at
institutional level. In other words, curriculum experts go to the institutions (schools), work
with
teachers and develop curriculum.
There are five main stages in the situation analysis model of curriculum development.
a) Situation analysis - it represents review of the situation and analysis of the interacting
elements.
Here, internal and external factors are analyzed. Some of the internal factors include
ideological
atmosphere, parental expectation, change in the subject, etc
b) Goal formulation - it set based on the situational analysis
c) Program Building-embraces selection of subject matter, the sequencing of teaching -
learning
episodes, the development of staff & the choice of appropriate materials& media.
d) Interpretation and implementation - in this stage practical problem involved in the
introduction
of a modified curriculum are anticipated and tackled as the implementation proceeds.
e) Monitoring, assessment and reconstruction – this is the ongoing assessment of progress
of keeping adequate records based on the feedbacks from a variety of participants.

Chapter Four: Basic Steps in the Process of Curriculum Development

Following this curriculum development process pass through the following basic steps;
1) Need Assessment (Diagnosis of Needs)
2) Formulation of Aims, Goals and Objectives
3) Selection of Contents and Learning Experiences
4) Curriculum Organization
5) Curriculum implementation and change
6) Curriculum evaluation.
Taxonomy of Educational Goals and Objectives

Cognitive domain

The cognitive domain is concerned with behaviors related to thinking while the affective
domain is concerned with attitudes and values and the psychomotor domain with learned
muscular response
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation

Affective domain
1.Receiving
2. Responding
3. Valuing
4. Organization
6. Characterization

Taxonomy of psychomotor Domain

1. Imitation
2. Manipulation
3. Precision
4. Articulation
5. Naturalization

Least Complex to Most complex all above

Criteria for formulating objectives

a) Matching- Objectives should relate to the goals and the aims from which they
are derived.
b) Worth- First, it relates to the importance of objectives. It also relates to whether
attaining an
objective has value to the student at present and in the future.
c) Wording- The persons who are to use curriculum objectives as their guides
should understand
the objectives (intended outcomes) in the same way as the writers of the outcomes.
Objectives should
be brief and free of excessive wordiness and are easy to understand
d) Appropriateness- In determining appropriateness, educators must consider the
students who are
to receive instruction and the context within which the curriculum is delivered. The
age,
 social/educational background, personal needs and interests of the student must be
considered.

e) Logical grouping- Objectives should be grouped logically so as to make sense when

units of
instruction and evaluation are being determined. They should be grouped according to
some common
thread idea, or domain.
f) Periodic revision- No objective can be treated as permanent; objectives need periodic
revision in
accordance with time as students, society, the realm of knowledge, and instructional
strategies
change. Educators should occasionally analyze their objectives to determine if they are
still of value
to the program

Chapter Five: Selection of Curriculum Experiences and Curriculum

Organization

5.1.3 Criteria for selection of content

Validity-
Comprehensiveness
Variety-
Suitability (Appropriateness)
Balance of breadth and depth
Continuity-
Relevance to life
Interest
Utility-
Learnability
Feasibility

5.2. Curriculum Organization

Curriculum organization refers to arranging curriculum experiences for a
student in a given grade level so as to obtain a desired effect in regard to the
intended objectives (Ragan, 1962

5.2.2. Approach to curriculum organization

1. Horizontal relationship
Horizontal relationship of content and learning experiences refers to the relationship of
ideas of different areas /subjects taught at the same time.

(1) Integration of subjects (e.g. Geography, history, civics) becomes social studies.
(2) The correlation in scheduling of topics in different subjects so that they complement one
another
 (e.g. Conservation of natural resources in Geography, Biology and Civics and Ethical
education).
(3) The need for requisites (e.g. A student must take calculus course while taking physics).
(4) The value of providing more coherence and personal or social relevance of content
through project or problem-oriented curricula.

2. Vertical organization
Vertical relationship of content and experiences refers to the relationship of ideas, contents
over time. Vertical organization centers on the concepts of sequence and continuity

5.2.3. Organizing criteria

1. Maintaining curriculum continuity
2. Establishing sequence.
Sequence putting the content and materials in to some sort of order of success in. It answers
the question like  What should determine the order of succession  What is to follow what?
And why?  What is the most appropriate time to acquire certain learning?
3. Establishing Integration and
The logical approach sequencing of content organization puts the content of the materials in
to some
order of successions in answering the questions “what is to follow what? Logical sequencing
as
showed is a matter of specifying the learning structure of any subject In order to determine
what
comes before and what follows after by analyzing the subject matter interims of the type of
learning
involved.
3. Establishing scope.

5.2.4. Organizing principles in curriculum