Books:

1.Kodgire V. D. “Material Science and Metallurgy”,

Text:
1. “Engineering Metallurgy”, Higgins R. A., Viva books Pvt.
Ltd., 2004.
2. “Material Science & Engg.” Raghvan V., Prentice Hall of
India , New Delhi. 2003
3. Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, Avner, S.H., Tata
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
4. Engineering Metallurgy Dr. O.P. Khanna
 Alloys.
• An alloy is a phase comprising of one or more
components
• There distinguish three of alloys:
• Substitutional:
• solute substitutes the solvent in the crystal
lattice without structural changes.
• Interstitial:
• solute does not occupy the sites in the lattice
of the solvent but resides in crystallographic
pores.
 Phase Diagrams
• An alloy is a combination, either in solution or
compound, of two or more components
(elements), at least one of which is a metal.

• An alloy with two components is called a

binary alloy; one with three is a ternary alloy;
one with four is a quaternary alloy.
 Phase Diagrams
• System: Is a part of universe under
consideration
• Components: The elements or compounds
which are mixed initially (e.g., Al and Cu)
• Phases: The physically and chemically distinct
material regions that result (e.g. a and b).
• Variable : No of parameters that will change
the phase under consideration
 Phase Diagrams
• complete solubility in liquid as well as in
solid state : isomorphous
• complete solubility in liquid and zero in solid
state : Eutectic
• complete solubility in liquid and partial in
solid state : Partial Eutectic
• No solubility in liquid and in solid state :
Layer
 Phase Diagrams
• A phase diagram shows what phases are present
and where the process boundaries are within the
composition space.
• Equilibrium phase diagrams represents relations
between temperature, pressure, compositions and
quantities of phases at equilibrium.
• Phase diagrams allows to predict phase
transformations which occur during temperature
change(e.g. upon cooling).
• The following type of binary(contains only two
component) systems will be discussed below:
 Phase Diagrams
Based on the percentage the type
of solute in solvent they are
classified as
1. Interstitial solid solution
2. Substitutional solid solution
 Hume-Rothery rules
• The Hume-Rothery rules, named after William
Hume-Rothery, are a set of basic rules that
describe the conditions under which an
element could dissolve in a metal, forming a
solid solution.
 Hume-Rothery Rule
• 1:Atomic Size Factor (the 15%) Rule.
• Extensive substitutional solid solution occurs
only if the relative difference between the
atomic diameters (radii) of the two species is
less than 15%. If the difference > 15%, the
solubility is limited.
• Comparing the atomic radii of solids that
form solid solutions, the empirical rule given
by Hume-Rothery is given as:
 Hume-Rothery Rule
• 2:Crystal Structure Rule .
• For appreciable solid solubility, the crystal
structures of the two elements must be
identical.
 Hume-RotheryRule
• 3: Valence Rule .
• Low Valence material dissolves high in high
Valence material and vice versa

• The solute and solvent atoms should typically

have the same valence in order to achieve
maximum solubility.
 4: The Electronegativity Rule or
Chemical affinity
• Materials having chemical affinity with
each other will restrict the solubility
• Electronegativity difference close to 0
gives maximum solubility.

• The more electropositive one element and

the more electronegative the other, the
greater is the likelihood that they will
form an intermetallic compound instead
of a substitutional solid solution.
• The atomic radii of Al and Si are 0.143 nm and
0.117 nm. Do they satisfy Hume rothery’s rule
of complete solid solubility?
• Solu- (D solvent – D solute)/ D solvent
• 0.143-0.117/ 0.143 =
 A cooling curve
• A cooling curve is a line graph that
represents the change of phase of
matter, typically from a gas to a solid or a
liquid to a solid.
• The independent variable (X-axis) is time
and the dependent variable (Y-axis) is
temperature. Below is an example of a
cooling curve used in castings.
• This results in a cooling curve similar in shape
to that of a single-component system with the
system solidifying at its eutectic temperature.

• When solidifying hypoeutectic or

hypereutectic alloys, the first solid to form is a
single phase which has a composition
different to that of the liquid.
• EUTECTIC SYSTEM
Metal showing Eutectic Reaction

•Pb-As
•Bi.cd
•Au-Si
 EUTECTIC REACTION

• EUTECTIC REACTION is a
reaction, by which, on cooling, a
liquid transforms into two solid
phases at the same time.
• It is a phase reaction, but a
special one.
 EUTECTIC TEMPERATURE
• TEMPERATURE at which a eutectic mixture
becomes fluid (melts).
• When the shell materials from opposing sides
come into contact, which together form an
alloy with a EUTECTIC TEMPERATURE at or
below room temperature, a liquid alloy is
quickly formed
 EUTECTIC MIXTURE
• A eutectic mixture is defined as a mixture of
two or more components which usually do
not interact to form a new chemical
compound but, which at certain ratios, inhibit
the crystallization process of one another
resulting in a system having a lower melting
point than either of the components
 Lever rule
• The relative fractions of the phases at a given
temperature for an alloy composition Co is
obtained by the lever rule.
• This rule gives the fraction of a phase by the
ratio of the lengths of the tie line between
and composition of the other phase to the
total length of the tie line.
• Lever rule
 Au-Si
Gold MT is 1,064 °C
• Si MT is 1,414
• eutectic temperature for these two
elements is TE=359◦C
• Eutectic composition is 18.6%
• https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc18_mm1
1/preview
• https://www.slideshare.net/RakeshSingh125/
coolingcurve
https://www.omicsonline.org/.../pharmaceutical-
applications-of-eutectic-mixtures-2329-..
https://profs.basu.ac.ir/elmkhah/free_space/phase_dia
grams.pptCached Similar
.
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucapikr/projects/Anna_Pinardi.pdf
 Superplasticity:

•Superplasticity is the capability to deform crystalline solids in

tension to unusually large plastic strains, often well in excess of
1000%.
•This phenomenon results from the ability of the material to
resist localized deformation much the same as hot glass does .
•As high elongations are possible, complex contoured parts can
be formed in a single press cycle often eliminating the need
•for multipart fabrications. Thus materials with superplastic
properties can be used to form complex components in shapes
that are very near the
final dimension