IAL - Mechanics 1 - Final

INTERNATIONAL ADVANCED LEVEL
MATHEMATICS/
EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE
ECONOMICS
FURTHER MATHEMATICS/
PURE MATHEMATICS
SPECIFICATION
Edexcel International GCSE in Economics (9-1) (4ET0)
SCHEME OF WORK
First examination June
Mechanics 1
Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary in Mathematics (XMA01)
Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary in Further Mathematics (XFM01)
Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary in Pure Mathematics (XPM01)
Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level in Mathematics (YMA01)
Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level in Further Mathematics (YFM01) Pearson
Edexcel International Advanced Level in Pure Mathematics (YPM01)
First teaching September 2018
First examination from January 2019
First certification from August 2019 (International Advanced Subsidiary) and August
2020 (International Advanced Level)
A level Mathematics: Mechanics 1
Mechanics 1
Unit Title Estimated hours
1 Quantities and units in mechanics: Introduction to mathematical
1
modelling and standard S.I. units of length, time and mass
2 Vectors in mechanics
a Definitions, magnitude/direction, addition and scalar multiplication 7
b Position vectors, distance between two points, application of vectors to
7
displacement, velocity, acceleration and forces
3 Kinematics of a particle moving in a straight line
a Graphical representation of velocity, acceleration and displacement 5
b Motion in a straight line under constant acceleration; suvat formulae for
6
constant acceleration; Vertical motion under gravity
4 Forces and Newton’s laws
a Newton’s first law, Newton’s third law, force diagrams 3
b Newton’s second law, ‘F = ma’, resolving forces, connected particles,
8
problems involving smooth pulleys
c Momentum and impulse; derivation of units and formulae
Impulse-momentum principle. Conservation of momentum applied to 8
collisions and ‘jerking’ string problems
d Friction forces (including coefficient of friction µ) 4
5 Statics of a particle: Equilibrium, Forces in vector form, Maximum value
4
of the frictional force
6 Moments: Forces’ turning effects 7
60 hours
UNIT 1: Quantities and units in mechanics

Teaching time
Introduction to mathematical modelling and standard S.I units of
1 hour
length, time and mass (1.1)
Return to overview
SPECIFICATION REFERENCES
1.1 The basic ideas of mathematical modelling as applied in Mechanics
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
IGCSE/GCSE (9-1) in Mathematics at Higher Tier
• Change freely between related standard units (e.g. time, length, area, volume/capacity, mass) and
compound units (e.g. speed, rates of pay, prices, density, pressure) in numerical and algebraic
contexts
• Use compound units such as speed, rates of pay, unit pricing, density and pressure
• Plot and interpret graphs (including reciprocal graphs and exponential graphs) and graphs of non-
standard functions in real contexts to find approximate solutions to problems such as simple
kinematic problems involving distance, speed and acceleration
• Calculate or estimate gradients of graphs and area under graphs (including quadratic and non-linear
graphs), and interpret results in cases such as distance-time graphs, velocity-time graphs and graphs
in financial contexts
KEYWORDS
Modelling, smooth, rough, light, inelastic, inextensible, uniform, particle, rigid body, mass, weight, rod,
plane, peg, pulley, bead, wire, lamina, length, distance (m), displacement (m), velocity (m s–1),
speed (m s–1), acceleration (m s–2), force (N), retardation (m s–2), newtons (N), scalar, vector, direction,
magnitude, (normal) reaction, friction, tension, thrust, compression.
NOTES
There may not be a direct examination question on this topic. However, the modelling process and fluent
knowledge of the S.I. units is a vital pre-requisite that underpins the rest of the mechanics course.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the sub-unit, students should:
• understand the concept of a mathematical model, and be able to abstract from a real-world situation
to a mathematical description (model);
• know the language used to describe simplifying assumptions;
• understand the particle model;
• be familiar with the basic terminology for mechanics;
• be familiar with commonly-made assumptions when using these models;
• be able to analyse the model appropriately, and interpret and communicate the implications of the
analysis in terms of the situation being modelled;
• understand and use fundamental quantities and units in the S.I. system: length, time and mass;
• understand that units behave in the same way as algebraic quantities, e.g. meters per second is
1
m/s = m × = m s–1.
s
TEACHING POINTS
Begin by asking students ‘What is mechanics?’ Lead them to the idea that mechanics is a branch of applied
mathematics that deals with motion and the forces producing motion.
Students need to be comfortable with the idea that mathematics is used to model real life and need to become
familiar with the modelling cycle:
mechanics problem  create a mathematical model (using diagrams, general principles or
formulae)  solve the model  refer back to the original problem  refine the model
[You could link with the data-handling cycle.]
It is important for students to get a ‘feel’ for mechanics at this early stage in order to support later work.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING/MODELLING

Examples of problems that may be solved in this way include:
• How far apart should the cameras be within an average speed zone?
• At what angle should you hold an umbrella to keep snow off you?
Some examples of simplifying assumptions for these problems include:
• treating the car as a particle
• motion is in a straight line
• snow falls vertically.
COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

Students can generally correctly state assumptions, but they need to make sure that any assumptions or
statements about the model relate directly to the context they are considering. For example they could make
the comment ‘the resistance will not be constant’ more specific by saying ‘resistance will increase as
velocity increases’.
NOTES
The particle (point mass) model is introduced here, i.e. the body has no size but does have mass, so rotation
is ignored and the forces all act at one point.
The language of simplifying assumptions (light, smooth, uniform, inextensible, thin, rigid etc.) is mostly
introduced in subsequent sections.
UNIT 2: Vectors in mechanics
Return to overview
2.1 Magnitude and direction of a vector. Resultant of vectors may also be required
2.2 Application of vectors to displacements, velocities, accelerations and forces in a plane
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
IAS Mathematics – P1 content
• Surds (Unit 1 of the P1 SoW)

• Vectors
• Use bearings
• Know the formula for Pythagoras’ theorem and apply the trigonometrical ratios to find angles and
lengths
KEYWORDS
Vector, scalar, magnitude, direction, component, parallel, perpendicular, modulus, dimension, ratio,
collinear, scalar product, position vectors.
2a. Definitions, magnitude/direction, addition and scalar multiplication Teaching time

(2.1) 7 hours
OBJECTIVES
• be able to use vectors in two dimensions;
• be able to calculate the magnitude and direction of a vector and convert between component form
and magnitude/direction form;
• be able to add vectors diagrammatically and perform the algebraic operations of vector addition
and multiplication by scalars, and understand their geometrical interpretations.
TEACHING POINTS
Students need to be familiar with column vectors and with the use of i and j vectors in two dimensions.
Students should be able to find a unit vector in the direction of a, and be familiar with the notation |𝒂𝒂|.
The triangle and parallelogram laws of addition should be known and students should be able to use them.
Students should understand that vectors are commutative.
Where answers are given in surds they should be simplified if possible, or rounded to 3 s.f.
When performing operations on vectors this should also be understood geometrically, diagrams will be
helpful here. Students should be able to use given diagrams but also draw their own in order to assist with
questions.
Students should understand and be able to use the conditions for parallel vectors.
Use the classroom floor as a 2-dimensional grid to help students visualise vectors. Use the position of
students in the room to illustrate concepts.
Consider vectors in mechanics, for example forces, velocities, displacements.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR REASONING/PROBLEM SOLVING

Students can prove vectors are parallel to demonstrate their reasoning skill.
Given particular vectors, students can investigate places they can or cannot reach, for example the knights
problem on a chessboard.
Consider an aircraft landing in a cross-wind – what direction does it need to fly?

Students sometimes make mistakes when manipulating vectors in i and j form and should be encouraged
to use column vectors when possible.
2b. Position vectors, distance between two points, application of vectors Teaching time
to displacement, velocity, acceleration and forces (2.2) 7 hours
OBJECTIVES
• understand and be able to use position vectors;
• be able to calculate the distance between two points represented by position vectors;
• be able to use vectors to solve problems in mechanics.
TEACHING POINTS
Students should know and be able to use ��⃗ ��⃗ = ��⃗
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐛𝐛 − 𝐚𝐚
Students should be able to calculate the distance between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) using the formula
𝑑𝑑2 = (𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 )2 .
They should know that force, velocity and constant acceleration are vectors, and that speed is the
magnitude of the velocity vector.
Begin by walking across the room and explaining the difference between position (referred to a fixed
origin), displacement (a vector measured from any position) and distance (a scalar quantity for the total
movement). Then move onto discussing speed (the rate at which an object covers distance) and velocity
(the rate of change of displacement or speed in a certain direction.
Look at problems involving displacement, velocity, acceleration and time, such as ‘A particle is moving
with constant velocity 𝐯𝐯 = 2i + 3j ms−1. If its initial position is 𝐫𝐫 = i – 2j find its position after 5 seconds.’
Point out to students that the position of a particle at time 𝑡𝑡 seconds is given by 𝐫𝐫 = 𝐫𝐫𝟎𝟎 + 𝑡𝑡𝐯𝐯, where 𝐫𝐫𝟎𝟎 is
the initial position and 𝐯𝐯 is the velocity. Revise bearings and provide problems in which a position is
given or required as a bearing.

Solve problems in context, such as determining whether two ships moving in different directions will
collide, or finding the minimum distance between the two ships.
Find the position vector of the fourth corner of a shape (e.g. parallelogram) ABCD with three given position
vectors for the corners A, B and C.
Use regular polygons to find vectors connecting different vertices.

Examiners comment that students understand the simple basics of vectors but sign errors are fairly common
at some stage of the working. Other comments include ‘a number of candidates fail to find the magnitude
of their position vector or velocity vector to obtain the distance or speed as required’ and ‘many candidates
do not appreciate the difference between velocity and speed and some struggle to convert angles to
bearings’.
UNIT 3: Kinematics of a particle moving in a straight line
Return to overview
3.1 Motion in a straight line with constant acceleration
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
• Change freely between related standard units (e.g. time, length, area, volume/capacity, mass) and
compound units (e.g. speed, rates of pay, prices, density, pressure) in numerical and algebraic contexts
• Use compound units such as speed, rates of pay, unit pricing, density and pressure
• Substitute numerical values into formulae and expressions, including scientific formulae
• Understand and use standard mathematical formulae; rearrange formulae to change the subject
• Plot and interpret graphs (including reciprocal graphs and exponential graphs) and graphs of non-
standard functions in real contexts to find approximate solutions to problems such as simple kinematic
problems involving distance, speed and acceleration
• Calculate or estimate gradients of graphs and area under graphs (including quadratic and non-linear
graphs), and interpret results in cases such as distance-time graphs, velocity-time graphs and graphs in
financial contexts
• Solve linear equations in one unknown algebraically (including those with the unknown on both sides
of the equation)
• Solve quadratic equations (including those that require rearrangement) algebraically by factorising, by
completing the square and by using the quadratic formula
IAS Mathematics – Pure Mathematics 1 content
• Gradient (Unit 3 of the P1 SoW)
KEYWORDS
Distance (m), displacement (m), speed (m s–1), velocity (m s–1), acceleration (m s–2), retardation (m s–2),
deceleration (m s–2), scalar, vector, 2D, linear, area, trapezium, gradient, equations of motion, gravity,
constant, 9.8 m s–2, vertical.
NOTES
The guidance on the specification document states that graphical solutions to problems may be required.
This section assumes constant acceleration; hence the graphical approach involves linear line segments and
the familiar equations of linear motion (suvat formulae) for constant acceleration. (N.B. ‘the equation of
motion’ refers to F = ma, and is nothing to do with these formulae).
The usual value for g in this course is 9.8 m s– 2, but some questions may specify a different value, or that a
final answer should be given in terms of g. Students may assume that g is constant, but should be aware
that it is not a universal constant but depends on location.
3a. Graphical representation of velocity, acceleration and displacement Teaching time

(3.1) 5 hours
OBJECTIVES
• be able to draw and interpret kinematics graphs, knowing the significance (where appropriate) of
their gradients and the areas underneath them.
TEACHING POINTS
Introduce this topic by making links to the IGCSE/GCSE (9-1) in Mathematics prior knowledge for
distance–time (travel) graphs and speed–time graphs. Kinematics is the analysis of a particle’s motion
without reference to the resultant force that caused that motion.
Stress that forces causing the motion of the body in this section are constant, therefore acceleration is
constant and this results in a straight line speed–time or velocity–time graph.
Extend the ideas to displacement by considering a particle which moves in reverse direction back beyond
the starting point.
For a velocity–time graph, consider the units for the area of a unit square 1 m s–1 by 1 s. The ‘s’ cancels,
leaving ‘m’, therefore the area represents the displacement.
Discuss and interpret graphs that model real situations. For example, the distance–time graph for a particle
moving with constant speed, the velocity–time graph for a particle with constant acceleration.

Throw an object straight (vertically) up in the air. Time the flight and estimate the greatest height, to scale
the graphs correctly, and keep for possible later use. Draw the displacement–time and velocity–time graphs
(upward direction positive and initial velocity non-zero). If the object is caught at the same height at which
it was thrown, what is the average velocity for the motion?

Many students can draw a velocity–time graph with the correct shape, but do not always label the required
speeds and times clearly on the axes. Students often tend to add a scale (for example 4, 8, 12, 16, …)
unnecessarily, rather than just indicating the initial and final speeds.
Candidates are able to find distance travelled and the acceleration from velocity–time graphs and can find
an average speed, but some struggle with the vocabulary of velocity and displacement.
NOTES
This unit can be linked with Unit 3b by drawing a general velocity–time graph for a particle with initial
velocity (u), final velocity (v), taking time (t) moving under constant acceleration (a). The gradient of the
𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢
line is 𝑡𝑡
= a, which rearranges to v = u + at. Finding the area under the graph in three different ways will
lead to three of the other suvat formulae, but v2 = u2 + 2as will have to be derived by eliminating t between
two of them.
3b. Motion in a straight line under constant acceleration; suvat

Teaching time
formulae for constant acceleration; Vertical motion under gravity
6 hours
(3.1)
OBJECTIVES
• recognise when it is appropriate to use the suvat formulae for constant acceleration;
• be able to solve kinematics problems using constant acceleration formulae;
• be able to solve problems involving vertical motion under gravity.
TEACHING POINTS
Make links back to Unit 3a and contrast the previous graphical approach with this algebraic approach. Note
that there are five quantities, s, u, v, a and t (four vectors and one scalar) and each formula relates four of
them hence there are five formulae. The formulae that must be derived and learnt are:
• v = u + at
(𝑢𝑢+𝑣𝑣)𝑡𝑡
• s=
2
1
• s = ut + at2
2
• v2 = u2 + 2as
1
• s = vt – at2
2
These formulae are only valid for constant acceleration in a straight line (and are referred to as the suvat
formulae).
When solving problems, write down known variables and the variable(s) to be found – this should help to
identify which one (or more, as some problems will involve simultaneous equations) of the suvat formulae
to select. Emphasise to students the need to make sure units are compatible.
Model the good practice of drawing a diagram to illustrate the situation whenever possible, especially when
considering vertical motion under gravity. This will encourage students to draw their own diagrams.
Mark the positive direction on the diagram and take acceleration due to gravity (g) to be 9.8 m s–2 unless
directed otherwise. Students may assume that g is constant, but they should be aware that g is not a universal
constant but depends on location.
If an object is thrown upwards and upwards is taken as being positive then a = –9.8 m s–2. Explain that the
velocity is zero at the greatest height and there is symmetry in the path (up and down to the same point) due
to the fact that we model air resistance as being negligible.

One of the more demanding problems is when two objects are released (or dropped) at different times, say
2 seconds apart, and students are asked to find the common position when one catches-up or passes the
other. Students may find it difficult to select the times (values of t) to assign in the equations; they may
need guiding towards t and (t – 2) or t and (t + 2).

Students are generally able to use suvat formulae in 2D to find unknown heights, velocities etc. However,
students sometimes ignore the significance of a negative value for velocity, acceleration or displacement
and don’t refer their answer back to the original problem. They need to recognise that s = –3 m means the
object is 3 m below its starting point in the negative direction i.e. s is effectively a coordinate. This is where
a diagram helps students understand the physics of the situation.
UNIT 4: Forces and Newton’s laws
Return to overview
4.1 The concept of a force. Newton’s laws of motion
4.2 Simple applications including the motion of two connected particles
4.3 Momentum and impulse. The impulse-momentum principle. The principle of conservation of momentum
applied to two particles colliding directly
4.4 Coefficient of friction
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
• Modelling and definitions/assumptions from the introduction in Unit 1
• Vectors in mechanics (See Unit 2)
• Solve two simultaneous equations in two variables (linear/linear or linear/quadratic)
algebraically; find approximate solutions using a graph
KEYWORDS
Force, newtons, mass, weight, gravity, tension, thrust, compression, air resistance, reaction, driving force,
braking force, resultant, force diagram, equilibrium, inextensible, light, negligible, particle, smooth,
uniform, pulley, string, retardation, free particle, velocity, speed, Ns, momentum, collisions, direct, smooth,
body, sphere, coalesce, conservation, friction, coefficient of friction, µ, limiting.
NOTES
This section introduces the idea of resolving forces in two perpendicular directions; a skill that will be
required throughout the mechanics modules.
Teaching time
4a. Newton’s first law, Newton’s third law, force diagrams (4.1)
3 hours
OBJECTIVES
• understand the concept of a force;
• understand the language relating to forces;
• be able to identify the forces acting on a particle and represent them in a force diagram;
• understand and use Newton’s first law;
• understand and use Newton’s third law.
TEACHING POINTS
Review the vector quantities displacement and velocity as the vector versions of distance and speed
respectively.
Mention the special acceleration (for a falling object) due to gravity. In this course, this value is assumed
to be a constant g, usually 9.8 m s–2 though it does vary in the real world.
This could be a good opportunity to dispel common misconceptions around weight and mass. Make it clear
that mass is the amount of ‘stuff’ something is made of, is a scalar and is fixed (in kg), whereas weight is a
force of attraction between an object and the centre of the earth and can vary depending on gravity and is
measured in newtons. Hence weight = mass × gravity (or W = mg).
Newton said ‘An object continues in state of rest or uniform motion unless acted on by an external force.’
Hence one can define a force as something which causes a body to accelerate. Explain to students that ‘no
force acting’ means a body will either be stationary or be moving with constant velocity (i.e. acceleration
= zero). This is why in outer space an object keeps moving at constant speed once pushed (there are no
forces to speed it up, slow it down or stop it moving).
So, an object at rest or constant velocity ⇒ no resultant force; an object changing speed or direction ⇒
resultant force. This will lead to Newton’s second law in the next section.
Newton also stated ‘When an object A exerts a force on another object B there is an equal and opposite
reaction force of B on A.’ This is Newton’s third law. Explain that if a book is on a smooth, horizontal table,
the forces acting on the book are the weight, W (vertically down) and the normal reaction, R (always at 90°
to the surface of contact). Assuming the table surface material is strong enough to hold the full weight of
the book, the two forces balance each other and there is no resultant force. The book does not move, hence
it is in equilibrium.
Ask questions such as: If the book has a mass of 5 kg, what is its weight? Therefore, what would the
magnitude of the normal reaction be to guarantee equilibrium?
Draw different examples of force diagrams to illustrate: weight, reaction, tension (in strings), thrust (in
rods), compression (in light rods, springs) etc.
To illustrate thrust, balance a book on a ruler. In which direction is the thrust force acting?
Begin with examples where forces are acting in one dimension, then move onto examples where forces are
acting in perpendicular directions. Encourage students to draw diagrams, to identify all the forces acting on
the object and to mark these clearly on their diagram.
Practise modelling real-world situations using the ideas from Unit 1, and discuss the assumptions that have
been made in the context of the problem. Students could consider whether the assumptions are reasonable
and they should draw force diagrams. Problems could be introduced where the forces are not in two
perpendicular directions.

Students are often good at drawing force diagrams, but common errors are omitting arrowheads, incorrectly
labelling (e.g. 4 kg rather than 4g) and missing off the normal reaction.
Students can easily be confused by the vocabulary, e.g. mixing up ‘resultant’ and ‘reaction’ or ‘mass’ and
‘weight’. It is important to be really clear when giving the definitions and to always use the correct
vocabulary in discussions.
4b. Newton’s second law, ‘F = ma’, resolving forces, connected Teaching time
particles, problems involving smooth pulleys (4.1) (4.2) 8 hours
OBJECTIVES
• understand and be able to use Newton’s second law for motion in a straight line (1D and 2D
problems);
• be able to resolve a force into components and be able to select suitable directions for resolution;
• be able to apply Newton’s second law to problems involving smooth pulleys and connected particles.
TEACHING POINTS
Newton stated, ‘Where there is a force, there is an acceleration (or deviation from uniform motion) and the
force is proportional to the acceleration’. Therefore F ∝ a, and choosing the constant to suit the motion
units gives F = ma (Newton’s second law). This is known as the ‘equation of motion’.
Explain to students that if they sum all the effects of the forces acting, in a particular direction, this will be
equal to the mass × the acceleration in that direction. This process is called resolving the forces in that
direction e.g. resolving horizontally, or R() for short. It’s usually best to resolve in the direction of the
acceleration and/or perpendicular to the direction of the acceleration.
When resolving always take the positive direction as the direction of the acceleration and put all the forces
on one side of the equation and (mass × acceleration) on the other side.
Begin by considering situations where forces are acting at right angles to one another (horizontal and
vertical) and resolve the system using R() and R() to create two equations. Extend to situations where
the forces are not perpendicular to each other, and guide students to consider the right-angled triangle and
use trigonometry to show that the horizontal component of a force F is ‘F cos θ’ and the vertical component
is ‘F sin θ’. Move onto inclined planes and show that the weight component of a particle acts in two
directions: along and perpendicular to the plane.
When working on connected particles problems (such as trains or pulley systems) explain to students that
they should consider the whole system as well as the separate parts. Applications to be covered are lift
problems, car and caravan type questions and connected particles passing over a smooth pulley. Consider
both pulley scenarios: a pulley with both stings hanging vertically; and a pulley at the end of a horizontal
table.

For the connected particle problems, discuss, the assumptions from Unit 1, i.e. smooth pulley, inextensible
string, same tension in the string. Extend the questions so that (for a pulley question) the particle moving
down eventually hits the ground and the string goes slack. This means the particle moving up continues as
a ‘free’ particle so we now apply the equations of motion with a = –9.8 m s–2.
Include more challenging problems, such as smooth inclined planes where the forces are not perpendicular
to each other.

Pulleys: In past exam questions, most students used an equation of motion for each particle with very few
‘single equation’ solutions. Students may also mistakenly take the acceleration to be equal to g rather than
the value obtained in the question.
Two vehicles: In exam questions of a car-and-trailer type, students may consider the car and trailer as a
single system. Common errors when resolving are: to add a tension force (when there is no rope); to
consider the weight; or to confuse the positive and negative directions.
NOTES
Emphasise the importance of drawing clearly labelled diagrams and of thinking carefully about direction
of the acceleration and each of the forces.
4c. Momentum and impulse; derivation of units and formulae.

Teaching time
Momentum-impulse principle. Conservation of momentum
8 hours
applied to collisions and ‘jerking’ string problems (4.3)
OBJECTIVES
• understand the definitions, derivation, and units of momentum and impulse;
• understand what happens to the momentum of a particle as a result of a collision;
• be able to use the principle of conservation of momentum applied to direct collisions and ‘jerking’
string problems
• in one dimension.
TEACHING POINTS
Begin with two equations, familiar from the previous sections:
v = u + at and F = ma.
𝐹𝐹
Rearrange the latter to make a = , substitute into v = u + at and then rearrange to give
𝑚𝑚
Ft = mv – mu.
Note that we are assuming F is constant in this equation.
What is the quantity mass × velocity? Its unit is based on the Ft part of the formula above which gives
newtons × seconds (N s).
Momentum is defined as mass × velocity and it is basically a measure of a body’s capacity to keep moving
(or stop moving).
The fact that the formula has initial and final velocities suggests a change of velocity, which means that an
acceleration exists, therefore a force must cause that change. However, this could be a very sudden change,
due to a collision or a strike. The quantity Ft is defined as the impulse of the force.
This gives us the impulse–momentum principle which states:
Impulse = change in momentum for a body (I = mv – mu)
Note that velocities are vectors which therefore, in one dimension, could be positive or negative depending
on their directions; this means that the corresponding impulse could also be positive or negative.
The idea of an impulse can be illustrated by considering a hammer hitting a nail. Each strike on the nail is
for a very short time, so the quantity Ft will have a large value of F (as the t is very small). This is why the
hammer is effective. F is called an ‘impulsive’ force.
Consider a single body reversing direction after being hit (e.g. a cricket ball hit by a bat) or bouncing off a
vertical wall. The impulse can be calculated using the impulse–momentum principle
(i.e. impulse = change in momentum for the ball).
The formula for impulse (Ft = mv – mu) is a consequence of Newton’s second law. During a collision a
force acts on each particle for a short time when the particles are in contact. By Newton’s third law these
forces are of equal magnitude and act in opposite directions. So the impulses acting on the particles are also
of equal magnitude and acting in opposite directions.
Hence: m1(v1 – u1) = –m2 (v2 – u2)
This can be rearranged to give the law of conservation of (linear) momentum for a collision which is of
fundamental importance in mechanics, namely: m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
In order to illustrate this you could show some clips of collisions between two vehicles from the internet
(e.g. car racing crash) or balls in a game of snooker.
Students could experiment by flicking coins (one large and one small) to see how they move after collisions.
(Sometimes the direction of the velocity is reversed if a small coin strikes a much heavier coin.)
This is also a good opportunity to mention the other assumptions we need to make for this topic. We model
the colliding bodies as particles; this ensures that collisions are direct and there is no spin. Generally the
surface on which they are moving is modelled as smooth and the particles will be travelling along the same
straight line. However, remember that the smooth surface only affects the motion before and after the
collision and not the impact itself. For collisions of two particles, it is important that students draw diagrams
which cover before and after the collision; the velocities, masses and direction of impulse should be
included as appropriate for each particle. The law of conservation of momentum will apply to the colliding
particles.
Momentum before = Momentum after

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Students must decide which direction to take as positive and then be consistent throughout their solution.
Emphasise that it is velocities not speeds (i.e. vector quantities) in the equation and so signs of terms are
important.
Remind the students that coalesce means that bodies move off together as one body after the collision.
Cover lots of examples of collisions and also include examples of two particles joined by a slack light
inextensible string. When the one in front moves off (or is travelling faster than the one behind), the string
will get tight and ‘jerk’ the other particle. This ‘jerk’ acts as an impulse (equal and opposite on each
particle). The particles will then move off together in the subsequent motion, effectively as one body, and
total momentum is conserved. It is a good idea to set a variety of questions with algebraic rather than
numerical values for the quantities.
During a collision each particle receives an impulse. As mentioned previously these impulses are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction. When asked for the magnitude of the impulse of A on B, make sure
the students are clear that only the momentum of one particle is to be considered (and not the system as a
whole). If the question refers to ‘A on B’ it is probably advisable to find the impulse on B; however, the
impulse on A has the same magnitude and so it would be equally correct to find the impulse on A. Emphasise
that the magnitude denotes a positive answer and so, even if the impulse turns out to be negative, the final
answer must be given as positive. Note that it is also worth calculating the impulse of B on A to confirm
that it is equal in magnitude but of opposite sign to the impulse of A on B.
The result will be a positive impulse if the body’s velocity has been increased as a result of the collision
and negative if the velocity has decreased. For example, if A were moving at –4 m s–1 before the collision
and 3 m s–1 after being hit, there is a positive impulse as 3 > –4.
Most exam questions have an element of problem solving but an example worth considering is a gun and
recoil. (Worked example below; note that units must be consistent.)
To extend the work on collisions you could include some questions involving successive collisions between
pairs of spheres (e.g. A hits B then B hits C). Note that when a sphere hits a wall it is possible to find the
impulse on the sphere (using change in momentum) but remember to take account of the change in direction
of motion due to the impact.

Questions on momentum in one-dimension are generally completed well. The main reason for loss of marks
is arithmetic errors or sign errors. It should be remembered that both speed and magnitude of impulse are
positive (scalar) quantities.
Occasionally students forget to take account of the directions, particularly when considering impulses, and
so run into difficulties. Remind students that any direction of motion should be described in the context of
the problem (such as ‘direction reversed’ or ‘opposite direction’) and not relative to their diagram (such as
‘to the right’ or by drawing an arrow).
Teaching time
4d. Friction forces (including coefficient of friction µ) (4.4)
4 hours
OBJECTIVES
• understand that a rough plane will have an associated frictional force, which opposes relative
motion (i.e. the direction of the frictional force is always opposite to how the object is moving or
‘wants’ to move);
• understand that the ‘roughness’ of two surfaces is represented by a value called the coefficient of
friction represented by µ;
• know that 0 ≤ µ but that there is no theoretical upper limit for µ although for most surfaces it tends
to be less than 1 and that a ‘smooth’ surface has a value of µ = 0;
• be able to draw force diagrams and solve problems involving rough surfaces which include the
frictional force.
TEACHING POINTS
Start by asking students to rub their hands together vigorously. The warmth is caused by microscopic peaks
and troughs on the surface of the skin interlocking. The rougher the surface, the ‘sharper’ these peaks and
troughs. Explain to students that this principle applies even to the smoothest looking surfaces and the force
which opposes motion is called the frictional force. The value which represents the roughness is called the
coefficient of friction (µ) and is zero for a smooth surface.
If we consider a book on a rough horizontal table, it will be harder to move the book if:
• we put a ‘paperweight’ on it (increasing the reaction force)
or
• we put it on a rougher surface (increasing the value of µ).
Therefore the expression to model frictional forces uses these two factors (in direct proportion) and is given
by µR. The direction of the frictional force acts in the direction opposite to the direction of movement of
the object. The coefficient of friction (µ) for any rough surface is always positive and although there is no
theoretical upper limit it tends to be less than 1 for most surfaces.
Present some simple problems involving moving particles and frictional forces and get students to draw
force diagrams. Cover problems involving particles moving along rough horizontal surfaces and up or down
rough inclined planes.

A variety of more complex problems can be given to students to consolidate the various scenarios presented
in this unit. These could include a pulley system along a rough inclined plane with one particle on the
inclined plane and the other hanging freely. Students should be given plenty of practice using F = ma and
resolving forces.

Students are often good at drawing force diagrams, but common errors are omitting arrowheads, incorrectly
labelling (e.g. 4 kg rather than 4g) and missing off the normal reaction or friction forces. Students can
sometimes struggle to work out the direction of the frictional force.
Some students may mistakenly think that the coefficient of friction changes if the mass of an object or the
angle of the slope changes.
NOTES
Many problems in mechanics involve resolving forces, so students should be given plenty of practice at
doing this. It is also a skill that is required in the next unit, Statics.
UNIT 5: Statics of a particle Teaching time

Equilibrium, forces in vector form, maximum value of the frictional 4 hours
force (5.1)(5.2)(5.3)
Return to overview
5.1 Forces treated as vectors. Resolution of force
5.2 Equilibrium of a particle under coplanar forces. Weight, normal reaction, tension and thrust, friction
5.3 Coefficient of friction
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
• Basic vectors, magnitude and direction (see Unit 2)
• i, j vectors (see Unit 2)
• Force diagrams and assumptions (see Units 1and 4)
• Resolution of forces (see Unit 4)
IAS Mathematics – P1 content
• 2D trigonometry
• Cosine and sine rules
sin 𝑥𝑥
• = tan x (to find the angle of the resultant)
cos 𝑥𝑥
KEYWORDS
Force, weight, tension, thrust, reaction, resultant, magnitude, direction, force diagram, equilibrium,
inextensible, light, negligible, particle, smooth, rough, perpendicular.
OBJECTIVES
• be able to find unknown forces acting on a particle which remains in equilibrium;
• understand how to find the resultant force (magnitude and direction);
• be able to find the resultant of several concurrent forces by vector addition;
• be able to resolve a force into components and be able to select suitable directions for resolution;
• be able to solve problems involving friction by using the relationship 𝐹𝐹 ≤ 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇.
TEACHING POINTS
Begin by reviewing force diagrams and resolving forces in two perpendicular directions. Point out that if
an object is in equilibrium then the sum of the components of the forces in each direction is equal to zero.
Consider problems where an unknown force in a given direction has to be found. Review the i–j notation
and look at examples where forces are given in i–j form or as column vectors. Point out that the vector
sum of the forces is equal to zero when the object is in equilibrium. Link this to the vector addition rule.
To find the resultant, R, of two or more forces start by considering two forces acting at right angles to one
another (horizontal and vertical), use Pythagoras and trigonometry to find the hypotenuse (resultant R)
and angle (direction θ above the horizontal) respectively. You could link the resultant to the idea of
velocity from speed.
Look at two forces acting at any angle and show that the triangle can be solved using the cosine rule (to
find the resultant) and sine rule (to find the direction). Look at problems such as finding the magnitude
and direction of the force exerted on a pulley.
Move on to problems involving friction. Consider what happens if someone wants to pull a very heavy
weight along a rough surface. Discuss the idea that as the force exerted increases the friction must also
increase until a maximum resistance is reached. The inequality F ≤ µR applies until the force wanting to
cause motion reaches the limiting value µR, called limiting friction.
Consider a 10 kg book on a rough horizontal plane. If µ = 0.5, investigate the value of the frictional force
if the pushing force, P is a 10 N, b 98 N, c 100 N.
Now place the book on an inclined plane and analyse the limiting friction being careful to stress that the
reaction force is NOT the weight in this case. Will the book begin to slide for different angles of plane?
What is the maximum angle achievable before the book slides?

This topic can be linked with Unit 4 and these techniques used to solve statics and dynamics problems.

When resolving common errors are: to omit g; sign errors; reversal or confusion* of when to use cos and/or
sin; to omit one force (usually weight).
Students may also easily get confused by the vocabulary and mix up ‘resultant’ and ‘reaction’.
NOTES
For students who find these concepts difficult it is possible to simplify most questions by restricting the
resolving of a force to using just cos θ. This can be done by using the method of ‘cos across the number of
degrees the force has to be turned to reach the direction we want to resolve in’.
*This eliminates the choice of cos or sin for weaker students and can avoid the confusion mentioned in the
paragraph above.
UNIT 6: Moments Teaching time

Forces’ turning effects (9.1) 7 hours
Return to overview
6.1 Moment of a force
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
• Types of forces and force diagrams (see Units 4 and 5)
• Assumptions made throughout this course; S.I. units (see throughout, but especially Unit 1)
• Weight = mass × gravity (W = mg) (see Unit 4)
• Basic equilibrium (see Unit 5)

• Solving linear and simultaneous equations
KEYWORDS
Moment, turning effect, sense, newton metre (N m), equilibrium, reaction, tension, rod, uniform, non-
uniform, centre of mass, resolve, tilting, ‘on the point’, concurrent.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, students should:
• realise that a force can produce a turning effect;
• know that a moment of a force is given by the formula force × distance giving N m and know what
the sense of a moment is;
• understand that the force and distance must be perpendicular to one another;
• be able to draw mathematical models to represent horizontal rod problems;
• realise what conditions are needed for a system to remain in equilibrium;
• be able to solve problems when a bar is on the point of tilting.
TEACHING POINTS
Start by asking two students to push up and down equally on two points of a ruler (or rod/beam) which are
directly above or below each other. The forces balance and if we resolve vertically, the resultant force is
zero. Hence the ruler will not move (equilibrium). However, if the two positions are separated, the ruler
will turn, despite the forces still having no resultant in the vertical direction. So if two (or more) forces are
not concurrent, there may be a turning effect. (See diagrams below.)
Next think about a door handle and imagine it was moved nearer the hinge of the door. Common sense tells
us the door will be harder to open or close, so any formula for the turning effect of forces must involve
distance as well as force.
Show a bicycle pedal in different positions and discuss which one makes turning easier. (See diagrams
below.)
A discussion around this can lead to the understanding that the moment of a force, is a measure of its turning
effect and is given by the formula:
moment of a force about a point = force (F) × perpendicular distance from the point to
the line of action of the force (d)
The unit is newton metres, N m.
Ask students questions such as: How do we work out the distance, d, in the second bicycle pedal diagram?
What additional information do we need? What if the pedal was at the topmost point, vertically above the
axle?
The force and distance must be perpendicular to one another, but in this unit we will only be considering
horizontal bars, supported or suspended by reactions and tensions respectively. These forces will naturally
be vertical and parallel to one another, so the moments formula can be applied easily and the only thing to
consider is the sense of the moment (whether the turning effect of each force is clockwise (negative) or
anticlockwise (positive)).
Demonstrate that a uniform ruler will balance about its centre (where all the weight acts) and that this
central point is therefore its centre of mass. Use this to extend students’ basic idea of equilibrium as a
system where there is no resultant force and also no overall turning effect, i.e. R() = 0 N and the sum of
the moments = 0 N m.
Make sure all the assumptions are revisited from earlier in the course e.g. model a rod as a straight line, a
person standing on a bridge as a particle, strings being inextensible etc. The centre of mass is at the centre
of the rod only if it is stated as being uniform.
Before starting on questions, make sure students know the notation: when we ‘take moments’ about a
certain point (say A), we write this as M(A).
Cover questions that involve:
• rods resting on two or more supports
• a rod which is suspended at two or more points
• finding the position of the centre of mass of a non-uniform rod.
Make sure you stress that theoretically we can take moments about any point and, together with resolving
(vertically), we can solve any problem. However, some positions will make the solution more efficient and
subsequently involve less algebra. Show students that taking moments about a point through which a force
acts is zero as the distance to that force is zero.

Tilting problems: consider rods on the point of tilting. (You could demonstrate with a ruler resting on a
couple of erasers, then add some coins to the end until it lifts off one of the supports.)
The forces still remain vertical and the rod horizontal (just) as the rod tends to want to lift. One of the
reactions ‘becomes’ zero at the point of tilting.
Many students made their life more difficult than necessary by not taking the easy resolving option and
using two moments equations resulting in simultaneous equations which can be difficult to solve.
Clear diagrams can help to overcome some errors such as using distances from the wrong point or missing
forces (often the weight).
Students should also be reminded to read the question carefully and give their answer in the correct form –
being particularly careful not to mix up weight and mass.
NOTES
This topic forms a good introduction to resolving and equilibrium as the forces are confined to only vertical
examples.

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INTERNATIONAL ADVANCED LEVEL

UNIT 1: Quantities and units in mechanics

OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING/MODELLING

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

UNIT 2: Vectors in mechanics

IGCSE/GCSE (9-1) in Mathematics at Higher Tier

2a. Definitions, magnitude/direction, addition and scalar multiplication Teaching time

OPPORTUNITIES FOR REASONING/PROBLEM SOLVING

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

OPPORTUNITIES FOR REASONING/PROBLEM SOLVING

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

UNIT 3: Kinematics of a particle moving in a straight line

3a. Graphical representation of velocity, acceleration and displacement Teaching time

OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING/MODELLING

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

3b. Motion in a straight line under constant acceleration; suvat

OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING/MODELLING

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

UNIT 4: Forces and Newton’s laws

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING/MODELLING

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

4c. Momentum and impulse; derivation of units and formulae.

Momentum before = Momentum after

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING/MODELLING

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

UNIT 5: Statics of a particle Teaching time

OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING/MODELLING

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS/EXAMINER REPORT QUOTES

UNIT 6: Moments Teaching time

IGCSE/GCSE (9-1) in Mathematics at Higher Tier

OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING/MODELLING

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