UNIT 1

Definition of Additive manufacturing (AM)

It refers to the layer-by-layer fabrication of three-dimensional physical models directly from
computer-aided design (CAD). It is an automatic process of manufacturing object (parts,
prototypes, tools and even assemblies) directly from their CAD models without any cutters,
tools or fixtures specific to the object geometry.
Basic principle of AM

 A 3D model is designed in CAD software and converted into a Standard Tessellation

Language (STL) format or other newer Additive Manufacturing file format.
 3D printing machine manipulates the file to adjust the position and orientation of the
part.
 3D printing machine or additive manufacturing machine manufactures the part by
sequential layers.
Need of AM

 Weight reduction induced optimized design of component. For example,

conventional steel buckle used for safety belts in aeroplane weights 155 g whereas
titanium buckle designed with AM weighs 70 g- Reduction of 55% weight.
 Complexity for free
AM enables the manufacturing of new geometric shapes that are not possible with
conventional methods. Example: AM makes it possible to design advanced cooling
channels that cools tools/ components better and therefore reduce cycle time.

 Customized medical products tailored for patient needs.

Procedure of product development in additive manufacturing

Step 1: CAD:
CAD models that fully describe the external geometry are required for all AM parts. Any
professional CAD solid modelling software can be used to create this, but the final product
must be a 3D solid or surface model. To create such an image, reverse engineering
equipment (for example, laser and optical scanning) can also be used.
Step 2: Conversion to STL:
Upon completion of the digital model, the STL (Standard Tessellation Language) file format
must be used to create the stereolithography. Nearly every CAD system supports this format,
which is how AM machines communicate. The STL file serves as the basis for calculating the
slices of the model.
Step 3: Transfer to Machine:
In the third step, the STL file is transmitted to the AM machine. As a result of this step, it is
possible to adjust the build so that it is positioned and sized correctly. A computer controls
the AM machine. The AM machine is controlled by the computer, that computer only
generates the required instruction in the form of G-codes and M-codes based on the given
process parameters. It generates instructions automatically, if any correction is needed for
the betterment of the part to be built it can be corrected.
Step 4: Setup:
Before the building starts, the equipment has to be set up. The settings can constitute
power, speed, layer thickness, and other several parameters related to material and process
constraints, etc.
Step 5: Build:
The fifth step is the actual building of the CAD model, melting layer by layer. This process can
be semi or fully automated but some online monitoring is often conducted, so that the
machine does not run out of material or that some software error occurs.
Step 6: Part Removal:
Once the part is manufactured it has to be removed from the process, which is normally
done manually. This may require interaction with the machine, which may have safety
interlocks to ensure, for example, that the operating temperatures are sufficiently low or
that there are no actively moving parts.
Step 7: Post-processing:
After the build, the part might need some post-processing before it is completely finished.
Of course, depending on the material and AM process used, some parts might need
machining, cleaning, polishing, removal of support structures, hot isostatic pressing (HIP),
and heat treatments.
Step 8: Application:
At this stage, the part can be ready for use. Nevertheless, it could also need some additional
treatments, like painting, or assembling with other components before it is fully usable. For
example, they may require priming and painting to give an acceptable surface texture and
finish.
Classification of additive manufacturing processes

AM divides the techniques used to create the layers into seven categories, of which the first
four on the list are suitable for metals.

(i) Binder Jetting

Unique in AM in that it does not use heat during the materials fusing process. A binding
liquid or binder is selectively deposited, which joins the powder material together to form
the 3D part. Depending on the type of powder, the system being used, or customer
application requirements determines the selection of the kind of binder. The process starts
with the powder material being spread over the build platform using a roller and the print
head deposits the binder on top of the powder where specified. The build platform lowers
to allow for the next layer, and the process repeats until the item is complete. Any unbound
powder gets removed.
Advantages of Binder Jetting:
• Ability to make parts with a range of different colors
• Uses a range of materials: metal, polymers, and ceramics.
• Faster AM process
• No warping or shrinking of parts

Disadvantages of Binder Jetting:

• Parts require post-processing which adds significant time to the overall process
• Low part strength, not always suitable for structural parts
• Less accurate than Material Jetting

(ii) Directed Energy Deposition (DED)

DED creates 3D objects by melting and depositing either powder-based or wire-based

materials from a focused thermal energy source, including laser, electron beam, or plasma
arc. While the process can make metal, ceramic, and polymer parts, it is mainly used for
metal parts and in more hybrid manufacturing where the substrate bed is moveable to create
complex shapes. DED is also referred to as laser metal deposition (LMD), 3D laser cladding,
or direct light fabrication because of the different energy sources uses and final use. Lastly,
based on how the process works, it’s mainly used for repairing or reconditing existing parts
by adding material where needed.

Advantages of DED:
• Strong and dense parts
• Fast build rates
• Reduction in material waste
• Range of material selection: metal, ceramic, and polymer

Disadvantages of DED:
• Capital cost for systems are high
• Parts have lower resolution resulting in poorer surface finish, requiring secondary
processing
• Support structures are not usable during the build process

(iii) Power Bed Fusion (PBF):

PBF has 4 categories of energy sources, laser fused, electron beam fused, fused with agent
and energy and thermally fused. The energy source melts either plastic or metal powder
particles, which solidifies and fuses together in a pattern to make the object. The powder bed
fusion process uses two chambers, the build chamber and powder chamber, and a coating
roller. To create the objects, the coating roller moves and spreads the powder material across
the build chamber to deposit a thin layer of powder. Some PDF processes will use a scrapper,
blade, or leveling roller after the coating roller to ensure the thickness of the material top
layer is uniform. Next, the energy source melts the deposited top layer of the metal powder
base. When that layer has been scanned and fused, the build platform is incrementally
lowered down, simultaneously the powder chamber is raised by the same, and the process
repeats until the object completed.

Advantages of PBF:
• Low cost of machines
• No or minimum support structures needed for the build
• Variety of material selection
• Multiple materials can be used
• Capable of recycling powder

Disadvantages of PBF:
• Slow and long print time
• Additional post-processing time
• Weaker structural properties
• Variations of surface texture quality

(iv) Sheet Lamination

AM that builds 3D objects by stacking and laminating thin sheets of material through
bonding, ultrasonic welding, or brazing. To create the final shape of the object, laser cutting
or CNC machining is used. Of all the AM technologies, this produces parts with the least
additive resolution or amount of detail but provides low cost and faster manufacturing time
for quick prototyping using readily available, low-cost material.

Sheet lamination can be categorized into seven types:

• Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
• Selective Lamination Composite Object Manufacturing (SLCOM)
• Plastic Sheet Lamination (PSL)
• Computer-Aided Manufacturing of Laminated Engineering Materials (CAM-LEM)
• Selective Deposition Lamination (SDL)
• Composite Based Additive Manufacturing (CBAM)
• Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM)

While the types of sheet lamination differ slightly, the overall principle is the same. The
process starts with a thin sheet of material being fed from the roller or placed onto the build
platform. The next layer may or may not be bonded to the previous sheet, depending on the
process. Layering continues until it achieves the full height. Removal of the print block and
all the unwanted outer edges

Advantages of sheet lamination:

• • Relatively low cost
• • Larger working area
• • Full-color prints
• • Integrates as hybrid manufacturing systems
• • Ease of material handling

Disadvantages of sheet lamination:

• • Layer height can’t be changed without changing the sheet thickness
• • Finishes can vary depending on the material and could require post-processing
• • Limited material options available
• • Removal of excess material after the laminating phase can be difficult and time-
consuming
Challenges in Additive Manufacturing

 Production appropriate inspection technologies for AM processes are somewhat

underdeveloped or costly and is a key challenge in going from the coupon level, to the
part level, and then full-scale production. In situ process monitoring for layer-wise
defects or partwise quality is critical, ideally with precise closed-loop feedback
systems, to ensure a quick turnaround time for obtaining robust quality control.

 Even small defects in fabricated parts can have a large impact on performance and
safety, especially in turbine engines. Most of the current methods involve destructive
testing to capture fine details such as micro-scale cracks, porosity, and small voids.
Not only are these generally time-consuming and expensive, but may also lack the
required resolution, precision, and accuracy, for expected properties/component life.
The lack of a layer-by-layer inspection process that is robust and accurate is a
challenge.

 The lack of a full understanding of the key process inputs and outputs drives
extraneous and unimportant data to be collected and possibly mislead outcomes. The
information that the current methods offer is typically not optimized and may not
have supporting industry adopted specifications.

 A critical aspect of certification requires a combination of non-destructive and

destructive evaluation methods that account for process variabilities that need to be
carefully built into the specification for qualification. Smart optical and thermal
measurement systems are being developed for in situ monitoring of AM fabrication of
3D structures; however, the resolution of many of these techniques are not upto the
mark.
 The final inspection of the part is based on the part requirements, not necessarily the
smallest defect that can be created. The ability to define the manufacturing process
windows that establish material property design curves is critical and enabling for part
design application and associated process control requirements. The nonavailability of
first principal models to optimize process parameters accurately to predict the layer-
upon-layer heterogeneity is currently limiting the ability to reach mass production
with ease.

 It is also important to consider the thermal history of an AM component when

designing for critical applications. For example, if ten tensile test specimens are
fabricated one-by-one sequentially and removed from the machine when complete,
the material properties may be different when all ten specimens are fabricated
simultaneously without any post-heat treatment. In the former case, the component
will be built comparatively quickly and so experience a higher mean temperature. In
the latter case, the time interval between layers for a given specimen will be greater
due to the time spent melting other specimens, and so, more thermal energy will
dissipate between layers. Batch-wise variability of poorly controlled or understood
processes has been seen in the actual part performance, which is difficult to detect via
microstructural or porosity variations. Because of many of the challenges discussed
previously and some of the historic bias created in early application shortcomings,
process-based qualification and certification is yet to be readily and fully integrated.
UNIT 2
1) Z printer:
The Z Printer® 150 (monochrome) and Zprinter® 250 (multicolour) are compact and perfect
for classrooms, departments, or small businesses. They’re user-friendly, offer five times the
resolution of low-end 3D printers, and have the industry’s lowest operating cost.
These printers are not only affordable but also print five to 10 times faster than other 3D
printing technologies. They can simultaneously print multiple stacked models, supporting
entire classrooms or departments during busy times. The Zprinter 250 and other colour
models are unique in their ability to print in multiple colours, enhancing 3D models with
graphics, logos, text, labels, and design comments for better evaluation.
Key specifications:
- Resolution: 300 x 450 dpi
- Minimum Feature Size: 0.016 inches (0.4 mm)
- Vertical Build Speed: 0.8 inch/hour (20 mm/hour)
- Build Size: 9.3 x 7.3 x 5 inches (236 x 185 x 127 mm)

2) Stereolithography
 Stereolithography is a Rapid Prototyping process using liquid polymer, solidified
layer by layer with a laser. The laser action solidifies liquid resin on a platform,
forming the part.
  The process begins with an STL file, a standard for AM processes. Slicing the file
creates 2D slices, translating the 3D model into cross-sectional information. The
physical model is then built layer by layer. The STL file represents the 3D model with
triangular facets, each described by vertex coordinates and a unit vector indicating the
normal direction.
 Photosensitive resins in this process consist of monomers, solvents, photoinitiators,
and additives. UV light cures the resin by creating free radicals through the
photoinitiators, reacting with monomers to form polymer chains. Solvents adjust
monomer concentration, affecting the reaction rate, while additives enhance
appearance or mechanical properties.

Advantages of SLA:
• • Relatively fast production
• • Good for complex models
• • Scalability is simple
• • No Human factor
• • No Wasted Materials
• • Biomedical Molding Application

Disadvantages of SLA:
• • Parts are affected by moisture, heat, and chemicals
• • limited to photosensitive resin
• • Layers cause stair stepping instead of smooth surface

3) Fused Deposition Modelling

Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), or material extrusion additive manufacturing, uses
polymers as raw material. The filament is heated and extruded through a 3D printer nozzle
with three degrees of freedom. A plastic wire is pushed through rollers and melted in a heated
nozzle, building layers on a mobile platform. Post-processing may involve removing support
structures, and surface finish can be enhanced through grinding, waxing, or heating.
Steps in FDM:
 First, a part model is created in a STL file with AutoCAD or another design program.
The model needs to be imported into Stratasys’ software, Insight.
 The software slices the .stl file into horizontal layers mathematically, generating the
required supports.
 Insight creates tool paths required for the extrusion head. The system draws cross-
sectional layers one at a time in the X, Y, and Z coordinate by using a heated material
extrusion process.

Advantages of FDM:
• • It does not need synchronization between its transmitter as well as receiver
• • FDM is simpler and easy demodulation
• • Less expensive
• • FDM system does not need synchronization but TDM needs synchronization
• • FDM provides more latency than TDM

Disadvantages of FDM:
• • It is suffering the problem of cross talk
• • FDM is only used only when a few low-speed channels are desired
• • Intermodulation distortion takes place
• • The circuitry for FDM is complex than TDM
4) Laminated Object Manufacturing

LOM technology utilizes adhesive-coated paper, plastic, or metal laminates as a 3D printing

medium. These sheets are glued together layer-by-layer and shaped using a knife or laser
cutting. Objects created with LOM can be further modified through machining or drilling.

LOM is versatile, often using paper as the material, though plastic and metal sheets are also
applicable but more complex to cut. While a fast and inexpensive additive manufacturing
process, LOM is primarily used for rapid prototyping rather than production. Precision
depends on the thickness of material layers, usually not as high as in other methods.

Steps in LOM involve:

1. Utilizing a building platform where sheets of material can be rolled out.
2. Coating the materials with an adhesive layer, heated by a feeding roller to melt the
adhesive. Each layer is glued to the previous one to build the object. A blade or laser
draws the object's geometry and cross-hatches excess material for waste removal.
3. Lowering the build platform after each layer is glued, allowing the placement of
another layer with the heated roller.
4. Repeating the process until the model or prototype is complete.

Advantages:
The LOM technique has the following advantages like cheaper process, no significant
requirement of support materials, no residual stress development, or no variation in the
material properties, and it demonstrates the scope for manufacturing bigger components.

Disadvantages:
LOM can only use materials that can be cut and bonded by heat or glue, which limits the
range of colours, textures, and properties of the models. LOM models also tend to have rough
edges and surfaces, as the material is cut by the laser or the knife
5) Selective Deposition Lamination

Selective Deposition Lamination refers to the ability to selectively apply a binding substance,
or heat and pressure to adhere layers of material. It refers to a paper-based 3D printing
process in which sheets of paper are cut and bonded together to form a 3D object. So rather
than being made from plastic, 3D models are made from paper.

Steps in SDL:
 Details are created on a building platform, which is supplied with a sheet of paper
from a feed roller. On the sheet of paper, glue is applied at a higher density on the
cross section of the detail and lower density on the surrounding area.
 A tungsten carbide knife, cuts a cross section of the detail on the paper and a square
pattern on excess material. After each layer, the building platform is lowered and fed
with a new sheet of paper.
 This process is repeated for each layer till a finished part is obtained. Finishing is
required in the form of removal of the excess paper.
 Some printer models can produce full color objects by coloring the outer edges of the
cross sections on each layer.
Advantages of SDL:
 Multi-coloured components can be produced with high resolution, cost-effectively
and in an environmentally friendly manner.

Disadvantages of SDL:
 The components can only be loaded to a limited extent, display models are primarily
produced using this process.

6) Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM):

Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM), also known as Ultrasonic Consolidation (UC), is

a solid freeform fabrication process. It combines ultrasonic seam welding of metallic tapes
with computer numerically controlled (CNC) milling for precision. UAM is a bond-then-form
method, creating metallic components directly from a 3D model using low-temperature
ultrasonic welding and subsequent CNC trimming of metal layers.

In UAM, parts are constructed from the bottom up on a heated substrate, with temperatures
ranging from room temperature to approximately 200°C. Layers are typically deposited as a
combination of foils laid side by side, unlike single large sheets common in sheet lamination.
CNC milling is then employed to trim these layers, achieving the desired accuracy and
geometry. UAM is particularly effective with metals exhibiting low deformation resistance.

Steps in Ultrasonic Consolidation (UAM):

1. Fix a solid metal base plate onto the build platform.
2. Lay metal foil on the base plate, drawing the entire platform under the Sonotrode to bond
the foil without shaping the part.
3. Repeat the process until bonded layers reach a predetermined depth.
4. Use a CNC machine, similar to traditional subtractive CNC machining, to trim the part by
removing excess foil.
5. Repeat the cycle until the part reaches the specified height.
6. Utilize a smaller milling tool to further shape the part and complete any internal milling
needed for the finished part.
7. Repeat the full UAM cycle until the part is finished.
8. Remove the part from the build platform, and detach the base plate.

Advantages of UC:
1) It can produce metal parts with ‘impossible’ internal channels.
2) It can bond multiple metals.
3) It can embed sensors and circuitry.

Disadvantages
1. Limited Material Options
2. Surface Finish and Resolution
3. Limited Build Volume

7) SINTERING:
Sintering is the process of applying heat and/or pressure to fuse bits of metal, ceramic, and
other materials into a solid mass. This ancient technique, observed in nature with sedimentary
minerals forming slate and quartzite, has been adapted by humans over millennia for making
bricks and porcelain. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), a close relative to Direct Metal Laser
Sintering (DMLS), uses a computer-controlled CO2 laser to build parts from plastic instead
of metal. Both methods involve drawing slices of a CAD model in a material bed, fusing
micron-sized particles one layer at a time, with DMLS utilizing an ND: YAG fiber laser.
Steps in SLS:
1. Disperse powder in a thin layer on the platform inside the build chamber.
2. Preheat the powder just below the material's melting point for ease of laser scanning.
3. The laser scans a 3D model's cross-section, melting the powder just below or at its melting
point, fusing particles to create a solid part. Unfused powder supports the part during
printing.
4. Lower the platform by one layer, apply a new powder layer, and scan the next cross-
section with the laser.
5. Repeat the process until the parts are complete, leaving them to cool gradually inside the
printer.
6. Once cooled, the operator removes the build chamber and transfers it to the next station.
Printed parts are separated, and excess powder is cleaned.

Advantages:
1. Wide Material Compatibility
2. No Need for Support Structures
3. High Resolution and Detail
4. Batch Production Capability

Disadvantages of SLS:
1. Fewer materials
2. Rough surface and porosity
3. High shrink rate
4. Higher waste than other additive manufacturing

8)Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS):

Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) is an additive manufacturing process mainly for
metallic materials, akin to Selective Laser Melting (SLM). A computer-controlled head
moves above a surface, feeding powder materials into nozzles coaxial with the laser head.
Propelled by air or inert gases, the feedstock melts upon reaching the surface due to a focused
laser spot. LENS achieves over 99%-part density, suitable for complex geometries, but may
require supports. It excels in fabricating tough materials like Inconel and soft metals like
aluminum, overcoming high reflectivity issues. Key parameters include feed rate, material
reflectivity, melting point, laser power, and scanning speed. LENS can fill specific areas,
making it valuable for repairing molds. Despite its advantages, it may need post-processing
for geometric accuracy.

Steps in LENS:

1. Initiate the process by directing a high-powered Nd:YAG laser beam to create a molten
pool on a metal substrate. Metal powder is blown into the pool to increase material volume.
This cycle is repeated to deposit a layer of the structure, building upon each successive layer
until the metal CAD model is complete.

2. Perform the metal deposition inside a controlled work area or "glove box," where
environmental factors are tightly regulated. For instance, the chamber can maintain an argon
atmosphere with oxygen levels below ten parts per million.

3. post-deposition, allow the materials to rapidly cool and solidify, resulting in fully dense
metals with exceptional hardness, strength, and ductility. The material properties match or
exceed those of wrought materials, leading to reduced wear and increased component life.
For plastic injection molders, this means less maintenance and repair, along with decreased
downtime on the production line.

Advantages:
1. Precision and Accuracy:
2. Material Efficiency and Waste Reduction:
3. Versatility in Material Compatibility:
4. Rapid Prototyping and Shorter Lead Times

Disadvantages:
1. Limited Build Size
2. Equipment Complexity and Cost
3. Surface Finish and Resolution
4. Material Restrictions and Limited Availability
9)Electron Beam Free Form Fabrication (EBFFF):

Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing (EBAM) and Electron Beam Free Form Fabrication
(EBFFF) leverage proven Electron Beam (EB) Welding technology for a cost-effective
approach to creating metallic parts. Utilizing modern CAD modeling, these processes deposit
feedstock material in an additive layering method, producing near-net-shape preforms. Suited
for various aerospace materials, including reactive and refractory alloys, EBFFF utilizes
commercially available "welding wire" as feedstock material, deposited on a substrate plate
of similar material.

EBFFF excels in constructing large depth-to-width ratio parts, such as ribbed aircraft
structures and spars. While it can build complex unitized parts layer by layer, its immediate
benefit lies in enhancing components from simplified castings, forgings, or plate products.
Operating in a vacuum environment with a high-power electron beam (1x10-4 torr or lower),
EBFFF uses wire feedstock to avoid challenges associated with feeding powder in a vacuum.
The vacuum ensures a clean process environment and eliminates the need for a consumable
shield gas, commonly used in laser deposition systems.

Steps in EBFFF:
 The object is built in a vacuum chamber and utilize the energy source of an electron
beam to melt a continuously supplied metal wire.
 The focal point of the electron beam melts the workpiece surface together with the m
 tal wire fed. Both electron beam and wire nozzle is moved according to a cross
section of the CAD model to build the complete layer. The liquid metal solidifies as
soon as the electron beam is moved.
 The process is repeated layer by layer until the object is completed.
 Finishing in the form of surface treatment is often required.
Advantages:
1. High Build Speed
2. Excellent Material Utilization
3. High Temperature Capability
4. Complex Geometries and Internal Structures

Disadvantages:
1. Limited Material Selection
2. Challenging post-processing
3. Equipment Cost and Complexity
4. Energy Consumption and Environmental Concerns

10) Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Electron Beam Melting (EBM) starts with a 3D CAD file, sliced into layers and loaded onto
the control panel of an EBM machine. Powdered metal material is deposited layer by layer
from hoppers onto the work table. The first layer is preheated for optimal melting, and then
electron beams, reaching temperatures of up to 2000°C, melt the powder into the desired
shape. The process takes place in a vacuum to prevent oxidation and atmospheric
contamination.

Controlled by CAD software, the electron beams create each layer of the part. After finishing
a layer, the work table is raked, a new layer of powder is added, and the electron beams shape
the next layer. This layer-by-layer approach allows for the creation of both solid and hollow
parts. Once completed, excess powder is blown away, and the manufactured parts are
revealed.
Steps in EBM:
 The build plate is coated with a layer of metal powder.
 As the layer is preheated, the powerful electron beam selectively melts powder in the
areas defined by the digital CAD model.
 The next layer is then deposited and the beam melts and fuses layers together.
 The process is repeated until the final shape of a part is achieved. After removing the
excess powder, the metal part can then undergo post processing.

Advantages:
1) High Speed and Efficiency
2) Excellent Material Utilization
3) High Temperature Capability
4) Complex Geometries and Internal Structures

Disadvantages:
1) Limited Material Options:
 2) Surface Finish and Resolution
3) Equipment Cost and Size:
4) Post-Processing Challenges

11) Plasma transferred arc additive manufacturing (PTAAM):

The technology described can be categorized as Directed Energy Deposition (DED),

specifically a Free Form Fabrication System. It utilizes a plasma arc as an energy source to
melt Metal Matrix Composites (MMC). A water-cooled copper nozzle with a small diameter
constricts the arc, enabling a reduced arc diameter and increased power density compared to
other arc welding processes. Unlike some systems that supply metal powder using various
methods, PTA-AM delivers it through ports in a coaxial nozzle, a feature shared by modern
PTA hard facing
torches.

The inclusion of powder delivery through the nozzle internals is a common and globally used
feature in this system, demonstrating its versatility as a multi-functional 3D printing
technology. The use of powders enhances flexibility, allowing the deposition of various
alloys in the process.

Steps in PTAAM:

1. Powders are delivered from the hopper to the torch in an inert gas medium, with argon
serving as the inert gas for the center, powder, and shield gases during welding.

2. A high current ionizes the inert gas in the torch system, transforming it into a plasma. The
plasma generates high temperatures, melting the feed alloy powder, which deposits onto a
substrate.

3. The properties of the final product heavily depend on the alloy used and the process
parameters during deposition.
4. Different thermal histories during deposition introduce anisotropy in parallel and
perpendicular directions, emphasizing the significance of controllable process parameters and
the material's quality and properties in determining the microstructure and mechanical
properties of the final product.

Advantages:
1) High Deposition Rates
2) Excellent Material Properties
3) Minimal Distortion and Residual Stresses
4) Versatility in Material Selection

Disadvantages:
1. The plasma arc AM process is noisy.
2. It requires highly skilled welders.
3. The plasma arc for AM requires the replacement of orifice.
12) Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM):

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) adopts the heat source of gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW or TIGAM), gas metal arc welding (GMAW or MIGAM). It uses the principle of
layer-by-layer deposition, and through the addition of wire, the welding wire is melted layer
by layer. The workpiece formed by WAAM technology is composed of full weld metal with
uniform composition and high density. Compared with other additive manufacturing
technologies, WAAM technology does not require a vacuum environment and expensive
equipment, and can be manufactured using conventional welding equipment. Due to the
advantages of high material utilization, low equipment cost, high deposition rate, and easy
real-time repair, WAAM technology has attracted increasingly more attention from domestic
and foreign researchers. However, the arc additive manufacturing has poor forming accuracy
and generally requires secondary surface machining.

Steps in TIGAM:
1. Utilize CAM software to program tool paths, starting and stopping points for the welder,
and wire feeder. The software converts a 3D model into a 3D printable code by slicing it into
numerous 2D layers.
2. Convert CAM code into coordinate system locations based on the input design.
3. The welding torch moves to the specified coordinates, triggering the wire feeder to deposit
material along the precise paths.
4. Ignite the arc, and the wire feeds into the molten weld pool in the given direction.
5. After completing the first layer, allow sufficient cooling time, then move the welding torch
vertically, initiating the printing of the second layer.
6. Repeat the layering process until the required number of layers is achieved.
7. Retrieve the final part, subject it to cleaning and machining processes for finishing touches.

Advantages of TIGAM:
1) Possibility to weld super alloys
2) Making large
3) Fast AM process
4) Non-consumable electrode

Disadvantages of TIGAM:
1) Not as accurate as EBM and EBFFF
2) Relatively slower manufacturing speed than other AM processes.
3) In case of TIGAM, the concentrations of shielding gas may build up.
4) It produces brighter ultraviolet rays.
5) It has lower filler metal deposition rates.

13) Metal inert gas additive manufacturing (MIGAM) :

MIGAM is a versatile technique suitable for thin AM components. An arc is struck between
the end of a wire electrode and the workpiece, melting both of them to form a layer of the
AM part. The wire serves as both heat source (via the arc at the wire tip) and filler metal for
the AM part. The wire is fed through a copper contact tube (contact tip) which conducts
welding current into the wire. The AM layer is protected from the surrounding atmosphere by
a shielding gas fed through a nozzle surrounding the wire. Shielding gas selection depends on
the AM part to be produced and the application. The wire is fed from a reel by a motor drive,
and the welder moves the welding torch along the joint line. Wires may be solid (simple
drawn wires), or cored (composites formed from a metal sheath with a powdered flux or
metal filling). Consumables are generally competitively priced compared with those for other
processes. The process offers high productivity, as the wire is continuously fed.

Steps in MIGAM:

 MIGAM always uses a direct current electrode positive (“DCEP”) polarity. That
means the ground clamp is attached to the negative terminal, and the MIGAM torch
is attached to the positive terminal.
  Attaching the ground clamp to the AM part and pulling the MIGAM torch trigger to
feed the wire into the AM part layer an arc. The arc happens as the wire contacts the
grounded metal, which closes and shorts the electrical circuit.
 The arc quickly generates heat, and the wire at the tip melts, as does a small part of
the base metal. But the wire feeder continually pushes solid wire into the joint, which
creates another short circuit.
 Note that your wire acts as an electrode and filler metal material with the MIGAM
process. It’s required to create an arc and form layer by layer AM part.

Advantages of MIGAM:
1) Higher AM speeds
2) Greater deposition rates
3) Less post cleaning
4) Low skill factor is required
5) Better visibility during AM part manufacturing

Disadvantages
1) Higher initial setup cost
2) Higher maintance cost
3) The setting of plant variables requires a high skill level
4) Less efficient where high duty cycle requirements are necessary
5) Radiation effects are more severe
UNIT 3
Axes and linear motion guideways

(a) Sliding contact linear motion bearings

This type is the oldest, simplest, least expensive way, and it still has wide range of
applications. In general, all sliding contact bearings have greater friction coefficient than
other types described hereunder, and because of this, they are considered to be inferior to
these guides for precise positioning applications. With lubricant forcibly maintained between
two relatively moving objects, a relative speed helps to pull in lubricant, and thereby, a thin
film is formed.

(b) Rolling element linear motion bearings

This type decreases friction utilizing rolling contact via rolling elements (balls, rollers, etc.)
that are placed between two relatively moving objects. There are many specialized
manufacturers and each manufacturer provides wide variety of products. Because of its
superiority over the sliding contact linear motion bearings as described hereunder and
because of its availability, this type has won the position as an essential component for the
equipment that requires highly accurate positioning operation.

(c) Hydrostatic or aerostatic linear motion bearings

When extremely accurate and quiet operation must be attained, a guide without mechanical
contact between its elements is often chosen. With pressurized fluid forcibly supplied
between two relatively moving objects, one of them is kept floating by the fluid. Depending
upon the fluid in use, it is classified in aerostatic and hydrostatic linear motion bearings.
Although this type of guides is very advantageous for particular purposes, it is usually costly,
difficult in manufacturing, and requires expensive auxiliary apparatus. Yet, this type is
sometimes used for ultra-precision machines.

(d) Magnetic linear motion bearings

By means of magnetic force, either repelling or attracting, one of the two relatively moving
objects is kept afloat. Use of electromagnet makes it costly and ineffective in energy
consumption. This type has very limited applications.
 Structure of Linear motion (LM) guideways

Advantages of LM guideways

 High Positional Accuracy

 Long Life with high motion Accuracy
 High speed motion is possible with low driving force

Ball screws

 A ball screw (or ballscrew) is a mechanical linear actuator that translates rotational
motion to linear motion with little friction. A threaded shaft provides a helical
raceway for ball bearings which act as a precision screw. As well as being able to
apply or withstand high thrust loads, they can do so with minimum internal friction.
They are made to close tolerances and are therefore suitable for use in situations in
which high precision is necessary. The ball assembly acts as the nut while the
threaded shaft is the screw. In contrast to conventional leadscrews, ballscrews tend to
be rather bulky, due to the need to have a mechanism to recirculate the balls.

 Another form of linear actuator based on a rotating rod is the threadless ballscrew,
a.k.a. "rolling ring drive". In this design, three (or more) rolling-ring bearings are
arranged symmetrically in a housing surrounding a smooth (threadless) actuator rod
or shaft. The bearings are set at an angle to the rod, and this angle determines the
direction and rate of linear motion per revolution of the rod. An advantage of this
design over the conventional ballscrew or leadscrew is the practical elimination of
backlash and loading caused by preload nuts.

Physical properties of ball-screws

The four main components of a ball screw include the ball screw shaft, ball nut, ball
bearings, and the seal.
 Ball-screw shaft: The Screw Shaft is a long bar of chromium steel that has grooves
formed into a helical pattern. This is the main body of a Ball Screw.
 Ball groove design: When forming the groove for a ball screw it is important to think
of the points of contact. The most common groove style is the Gothic Arch. This type
of groove allows for four points of contact at all times. With four contact points the
ball can be loaded in any direction in that plane.

 Pitch circle diameter of balls: The pitch circle (dm) is measured from the center of
the bearing to the center of the bearing on the other side of the screw. This
measurement is used for the maximum speed calculations.

 Nominal Diameter: The outside diameter of the screw. This measurement is useful for
sizing the screw as it is easy to measure.
 Root Diameter: Diameter from the bottom of the groove to the bottom of the adjacent
groove. This is the smallest part of the screw and is important for the critical speed
calculation.
 Lead: It is the distance the nut travels in one rotation. The larger the lead the faster the
nut can travel. The lead also determines the vertical maximum payload and the
stopping power of the screw. This is because the load angle is steeper for greater
leads; the amount of weight it can hold is less.
Advantages of Ball Screws
 Highly efficient, requiring less torque – therefore smaller motor
 Higher accuracy grades for greater positional accuracy
 Lower friction – able to run at cooler temperatures
 Available in rolled and ground types
 Can be adjusted to increase/decrease preload
 Need to be replaced less frequently

Bearings
Bearings are machine elements which are used to support a rotating member viz., a shaft.
They transmit the load from a rotating member to a stationary member known as frame or
housing. They permit relative motion of two members in one or two directions with minimum
friction, and also prevent the motion in the direction of the applied load

Classification of Bearings:

On the basis of the contact between the rotating and the stationary member:
(a) Sliding contact: The sliding contact bearings have surface contact between
stationary member and rotary member and come under lower kinematic pair.
(b) Rolling contact: The rolling contact bearings have line or point contact between
stationary member and rotary member and come under higher kinematic pair.

On the basis of type of load carried:

(a) Radial Bearing: The load acts perpendicular to the axis of the shaft or journal.
 (b) Thrust bearing

Thrust Bearing: A collar is provided to restrict the axial movement of the shaft or
journal. The collar present in the bearing tends to arrest the movement of the shaft in the axial
direction. The collar is accommodated and thus correspondingly engages with the surfaces in
the thrust block.

(c) Radial Thrust Bearing

Encoders/ Glass scales or Linear encoders

Linear encoder is a sensor or transducer that measures linear movement of an object. The
device can move in different directions but always travels along one axis. It can detect speed,
distance, direction, and displacement. However, there is a special type that works with the use
of this method with diameters or round objects. It is called Ring encoders. Simple structure of
linear encoder consists of signal unit (located in slider) that linked to measuring scale. It can
be divided into 3 basic elements depending on functional purposes:

• Scale (or Tape)

• Signal Source
• Transducer

• Scale is one of the most important details. The accuracy and operation method
strongly depend on its design. This part has special marks on its surface that help the sensing
system to determine its current position. Such labels are offset from each other by a certain
distance. The more a number of such marks and the denser they are placed, the higher the
resolution. To work with small values, all encoder elements are mounted in one case. To
operate at long distances (from 2 meters to 50 or even more) a special tape (strip) is used.
That strip is installed separately from the sensor system. That is why it is made from durable
materials such as stainless steel.

• Signal source sends a pulse that passes through the scale. When it moves through
scale’s marks, the pulse is distorted depending on the type of mark. The sort of signal
depends on the working principle. The most popular technologies are optical and magnetic.

• Transducer is a receiver where the changed signal goes. It converts information about
position into digital or analog signals. Then received data moves to connected PLC through
wiring via several interfaces (PROFINET, Ethernet, etc.). Linear encoder resolution
calculation occurs by counting pulses in relation to distance.

Magnetic linear encoder

Magnetic linear encoder uses a magnetic reader head for analyzing changes in magnetic
fluxes for displacement analysis. Its scale consists of a set of poles (north and south) that are
magnetically coded. They are arranged in a specific way depending on the type of strip
(incremental or absolute). When a slider passes through each pole on the magnetic tape, the
sensor reads current changes in the magnetic fields. After that, the transducer compares all
received data with the coded position. A sensing task usually performs by a Hall sensor. The
main advantages of magnetic units are their reliability and non-contact way of working.

Linear Optical encoder

Optical linear encoder uses light beams or lasers as a signal. To improve the quality and
direction of light pulses additional elements are also installed into design (lens, scanning
reticles, etc.) To do this, transparent (clearance) or opaque areas are placed on the scale as
marks. The optical scale is usually made from glass or plastic, sometimes from aluminum.
Optical technology allows linear measurements with the greatest accuracy and high
resolution. However, pollution or solid particles in a gap between measuring surface and
sensor as well as mechanical shocks and vibration can significantly affect the accuracy.
Therefore, such devices should be used in conditions with small risk of mechanical shocks
and factors affecting the light signal.
Process chamber
The process chamber in additive manufacturing is the enclosed space where 3D printing
occurs. It ensures controlled temperature, environmental conditions, and often houses
features like build platforms and safety systems, crucial for producing high-quality parts.
Safety interlocks

A safety interlock is a feature that makes the state of two mechanisms or functions mutually
dependent. It may be used to prevent undesired states in a finite-state machine, and may
consist of any electrical, electronic, or mechanical devices or systems.
Mechanical interlock:
It is an interlock that is physically connected to another device to prevent unintended
actions.

The dashed line in between the forward and reverse contact indicates that there is a
mechanical interlock. This prevents the motor’s forward and reverse contactor coils from
energizing at the same time. Energizing both contactor coils at the same time would cause
damage to the motor.

list some of the noticeable applications of sensors within AM:

• Automatic Bed Levelling (ABL) is an increasingly valued feature of 3D printers

which ensures the precise levelling between the nozzle and the changes of the build plate;
• Continuous control of flow and pressure through the nozzle;
• Continuous control of the “arm” to ensure the precise, layer-by-layer printing;
• Structural integrity ensured by pressure control (neither more, nor less amount of
welding and material distribution should be performed over the previous layer).

NC machine tool (Numerical control machine tool)

Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in which the processing

equipment is controlled by means of numbers, letters, and other symbols. The numbers,
letters, and symbols are coded in an appropriate format to define a program of instructions
for a particular work part or job. When the job changes, the program of instructions is
changed. The capability to change the program is what makes NC suitable for low- and
medium-volume production. It is much easier to write new programs than to make major
alterations of the processing equipment.

The general relationship among the three components is illustrated above. The program is
fed into the control unit, which directs the processing equipment accordingly. The program
of instructions is the detailed step-by-step commands that direct the processing equipment.
In its most common form, the commands refer to positions of a machine tool spindle with
respect to the worktable on which the part is fixtured. More advanced instructions include
selection of spindle speeds, cutting tools, and other functions. The program is coded on a
suitable medium for submission to the machine control unit. The most common medium in
use over the last several decades has been 1-in.-wide punched tape. Because of the
widespread use of the punched tape, NC is sometimes called “tape control.” However, this is
a misnomer in modern usage of numerical control. Coming into use more recently have
been magnetic tape cassettes and floppy diskettes. The programming is done by a person
called the part programmer.
CNC machine tool (Computer Numerical control machine tool)

When computers are used to control a Numerical Control (NC) machine tool than the
machine is called CNC machine. In other words, the use of computers to control machine
tools like lathe, mills, slotter, shaper etc is called CNC machine.
The cutting operations performed by the CNC is called CNC machining. The Various
machining services in which CNC machine is used are known as CNC machining services. In
CNC machine shops, programs are designed or prepared first, and then it is fed to the CNC
machine. According to the program, the CNC controls the motion and speed of the machine
tools.
 Working of CNC Machine tool
• First, the part program is inserted into the MCU of the CNC.
• In MCU all the data process takes place and according to the program prepared, it
prepares all the motion commands and sends it to the driving system.
• The drive system works as the motion commands are sent by MCU. The drive
system controls the motion and velocity of the machine tool.
• The feedback system records the position and velocity measurement of the machine
tool and sends a feedback signal to the MCU.
• In MCU, the feedback signals are compared with the reference signals and if there
are errors, it corrects it and sends new signals to the machine tool for the right operation to
happen.
• A display unit is used to see all the commands, programs and other important data. It
acts as the eye of the machine.

DNC Machine (Distributed Numerical Control System)

Direct numerical control (DNC) can be described as a various type of a manufacturing system
in which that multiple NC machine or CNC machines are remotely controlled from a host
computer or DNC control of multiple machines tools by a single computer through a direct
connection. Direct numerical control (DNC) is defined “as a system that integrates multiple
machines by direct connection through a central computer”.
The central computer is designed to provide instructions on demand to each machine tools.
The central computer also retrieves data from machines. Therefore, there is two-way
information is exchanged between the central computer and each of the machine tool.
It is shown in the diagram below.

Working of DNC machine tool

• In DNC, many NC machines are directly controlled by computers, removing enough
hardware from a separate controller of each machine tools. The part-programs are
downloaded to machines directly from a computer memory (thus bypassing tape readers).
• The basic DNC system needs following the basic components are the mainframe
computers, memory, communication networks, NC machine tools.
• The communication network can be arranged either through connecting the remotely
located computer, with long cables to the individual machine control directly or connecting
the mainframe computer with a small computer at individual operator’s station called as
satellite computer.
• DNC systems are costly and preferably used in large organizations. The combination
of DNC/CNC makes possible to eliminate the use of the programme as the input media for
CNC machines.

(b) Functions of DNC system

• For use the central computer for storage and editing programs for all machine tools
connected to it.
• To give the stored programs to the connected machines on demand.
• For to post-process part programs written in higher-level languages like APT.
• To combine CAD with CAM by having a common database.
• To provide a link between a central computer and various plant computers
connected through modems and networks even though the plants may be placed several
kilometres away from each other
CNC programming
The preparation of a set of instructions to carry out the machining of a work piece is called
part programming. This work is carried out by a part programmer. He prepares the planning
sheet and writes the instructions in a coded form which is acceptable to the controller of
machine tool. Part programming is of two types: -
1. Manual
2. Computer assisted
In the former, the programmer prepares the program and uses the tele type to prepare the
punched tale version of the program. In the later, the tape is produced by the computer
after it has been fed simple instructions in proper format which are different from the one
used in manual part programming. Various symbols used in programming are given below.

A part program defines a sequence of NC machining operations. The information contained

in the program can be dimensional or non-dimensional like speed, feed, auxiliary function
etc. The basic unit of part program input to the control is called a block. Each block contains
adequate information for the machine to perform a movement and / or functions. Blocks in
turn are made up of words. Each word consists of number of characters. All blocks are
terminated by the block end character. A block may contain any or all the following:
• • Sequence or block number (N)
• • Preparatory functions (G)
• • Dimensional information (X, Y, Z etc.)
• • Decimal point (.)
• • Feed rate (F)
• • Spindle speed (S)
• • Tool No. (T)
• • Tool offset function (D)
• • Miscellaneous functions (M, H etc.)
• • End of block (EOB)

Block Example:
N1234 G.. X.. Y.. S.. M.. F.. T.. D.. LF
Recent developments of CNC systems for additive manufacturing

Combining CNC Machining with 3D Printing

There’s no denying that CNC machining and 3D printing are different – one is subtractive,
the other is additive. CNC machines cut away unnecessary parts of a workpiece. 3D printing
– or additive manufacturing – builds three-dimensional shapes, layer by layer. Machine shops
don’t necessarily need to choose just one of these. A number of manufacturing operations
have adopted “hybrid manufacturing” capabilities, combining CNC milling and turning with
a direct metal-laser sintering or other additive process. The number of operations looking at
how CNC machines and 3D printers can be combined to get projects finished is rising.

When people would ordinarily use injection molding for prototypes, they may discover its
more efficient to rely on a 3D printer instead. When accuracy is a concern, CNC machines
can achieve tolerances of up to 0.025 millimetres. However, the accuracy for a 3D printer is
typically about 0.1 millimetres – another reason that 3D printers are commonly chosen for
making prototypes. After that, a CNC machine can create the product.

Some people may also combine the technologies when they need to produce large volumes of
products. CNC machining is a faster production option than using a 3D printer – though in
some cases it may be sensible to use a 3D printer to make the parts, then take them to a CNC
machine for finish processing. It’s a potentially viable solution for an outcome that is both
efficient and accurate.
 More Preventive and Predictive Maintenance

One CNC machining trend for 2022 involves a move away from reactive upkeep. Deferring
the costs of preventive maintenance could sacrifice operational time and cause product waste.
On the other hand, staying on top of upkeep helps prolong the machine’s service life and
enhance performance at peak efficiency.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming more widely used in numerous areas of

manufacturing. In 2022, expect to see more attention paid to how AI could help make gains
for predictive maintenance for CNC machinery. Whereas preventive maintenance focuses on
scheduled appointments to reduce the chances of unexpected breakdowns, predictive
maintenance aims to warn operators of issues before they happen.

Researchers recently used AI to measure the quality performance of a CNC milling machine.
Their approach used machine learning to detect acoustic signals and match those indicators
with excellent or poor-quality performance. The algorithms could suggest when to replace a
part, as well as evaluate the amount of wear on a machine. This is an early example from lab
tests, but it illustrates why people in the know are starting to think differently about their
CNC machine maintenance options.

Increased Investments in Automation

Automation is another factor influencing CNC machining operations this year. It has been
gaining importance in recent years, and that trend will continue in 2022. As more
manufacturers investigate what automation could do for CNC machining, positive results will
help the trend gain prominence. One company offers a camera-controlled robotic cell used to
automatically load or unload CNC machines. Customers can then install additional stations to
handle turning, measuring, and marking.

In another case, a collaboration between Mitsubishi and AIST resulted in a CNC machine
solution that combines automation and AI. It’s an error-correction system that uses AI to
estimate discrepancies between a CNC machine’s current position and its command value.
Tests have shown this approach brought a 51% improvement in accuracy compared to non-AI
options. This technology can even apply corrections during dynamic machining, saving time
while keeping quality high.
CNC (Computer Numerical Control) plays a surprisingly significant role in additive
manufacturing, even though they seem like opposing technologies. While CNC machining
subtracts material to create a desired shape, it can be seamlessly integrated with additive
manufacturing to enhance and refine 3D printed parts. Here are some key applications of
CNC in additive manufacturing:

1. post-processing:

Support structure removal: After 3D printing, many technologies require support structures to
hold the object in place during the printing process. CNC machining can efficiently and
precisely remove these support structures, ensuring a clean and finished product.
[Image of CNC machining post-processing for additive manufacturing]

Surface finishing: 3D printed parts often have a rough surface texture due to the layer-by-
layer printing process. CNC machining can be used to smooth and polish the surfaces for a
more aesthetically pleasing or functionally optimal result.

High-precision features: Certain features, like threads or tight tolerances, might be difficult or
impossible to achieve directly through 3D printing. CNC machining can add these features
with extreme accuracy, complementing the additive manufacturing process.
2. Hybrid manufacturing:

Combining additive and subtractive: In some cases, a single part might benefit from both
additive and subtractive techniques. CNC machining can be used to create complex internal
structures with additive manufacturing, while simultaneously machining external features for
a complete and optimized product.

Metal additive manufacturing: Certain metal 3D printing technologies, like laser powder bed
fusion (LPBF), often require post-processing with CNC machining. This can involve milling
the support structures, machining high-precision features, or heat treatment for improved
mechanical properties.

3. Tooling and fixturing:

Jigs and fixtures: CNC machining can be used to create custom jigs and fixtures specifically
designed to hold and position 3D printed parts during various post-processing steps, ensuring
accuracy and efficiency.

3D printing molds and dies: CNC machining can be used to create molds and dies for various
casting and forming processes based on 3D printed patterns or prototypes, reducing lead
times and costs.

4. Research and development:

Rapid prototyping: CNC machining can be used to quickly create functional prototypes from
3D printed models, allowing for iterative design and testing before committing to full-scale
production.

Custom tooling and equipment: For research and development in additive manufacturing
itself, CNC machining can be used to create custom tools and equipment needed for
experimentation and innovation.

The integration of CNC and additive manufacturing opens up a wider range of possibilities
for design and manufacturing. By combining the strengths of both technologies, companies
can achieve greater efficiency, precision, and flexibility in their production processes.
UNIT 4
1.Preparation of 3D-CAD model

• CAD stands for computer-aided design. It is used to create, analyze, modify designs for
pictorial representations. It is a common tool used by designers across various fields — architecture,
construction, automobile, aerospace, etc.
• 3D printers run based on a set of instructions. These are captured through 3D modeling on
CAD software. A file generated out of the CAD software is later used by the printers to print the
given model. The CAD file helps one determine the materials requirements and structure of the
overall design.
• CAD software’s typically generate STL files (there are different types of files which will be
discussed later in this article). It stands for “Stereolithography,” sometimes also called — Standard
Triangle Language/Standard Tessellation Language. This STL file contains the structural details that
are easy to understand by computers.

2. Types of CAD modelling

Parametric Modelling: 2D sketches are used to create the model. It has a history tree that can be
modified. The tree inscribed features, functional relationships with other sketches. The major
advantage of this modeling is that changing a single parameter will automatically adjust the remaining
parameters. The framework behind such models consists of mathematical equations. It is commonly
used in designing buildings or structures in architecture.

Direct Modelling: It is similar to parametric modeling. However, it does not have a history tree. This
type of modeling is favorable for those one-off designs that have very little change in structure. It is
commonly used for rapid prototyping and short production cycles.

Surface Modeling: This type of modeling is dependent on the surface to form the geometry of a
given object. It allows one to look at the object at a certain angle. It can also be divided into two
categories — parametric and freeform.

3. The three most common types of files available in the market today

1. IGES/IGS
2. STL
3. STEP

(a) IGES/IGS (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification):

This is one of the oldest formats of CAD files available. It was adopted by American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) from the US air force who used CAD geometry between 1976 and 1984.
This type of file is often unsupported by some of the latest CAD versions.

(b) STL (Stereolithography or Standard Tessellation Language):

This type of CAD file is made exclusively for 3D printing by 3D Systems. This is why STL is a better
option when compared to IGES. They can be further divided into ASCII (large-sized files) and Binary
(compressed files). It is recommended to use binary files due to their smaller size. The biggest
disadvantage of STL files is that it does not cater to holes, gaps or water tightness while
manufacturing certain products.

(c) STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data):

This file format was created exclusively for the aerospace manufacturing industry. The latest version
is now being adopted in the automotive industry. It can also save the layers with color as well as
export itself into an STL file. This helps in understanding the solid bodies a bit better. This is why the
STEP file format has a slight edge compared to the STL format.

4. Reverse engineering

Reverse engineering, sometimes called back engineering, is a process in which software, machines,
aircraft, architectural structures and other products are deconstructed to extract design information
from them. Often, reverse engineering involves deconstructing individual components of larger
products. The reverse engineering process enables you to determine how a part was designed so that
you can recreate it. Companies often use this approach when purchasing a replacement part from an
original equipment manufacturer (OEM) is not an option.

Reverse-engineering process

The reverse-engineering process is specific to the object on which its being performed. However, no
matter the context, there are three general steps common to all reverse-engineering efforts. They
include:
 Information extraction: The object being reverse-engineered is studied, information about its
design is extracted and that information is examined to determine how the pieces fit together.
In software reverse-engineering, this might require gathering source code and related design
documents for study. It may also involve the use of tools, such as a disassembler to break
apart the program into its constituent parts.
 Modeling: The collected information is abstracted into a conceptual model, with each piece of
the model explaining its function in the overall structure. The purpose of this step is to take
information specific to the original and abstract it into a general model that can be used to
guide the design of new objects or systems. In software reverse-engineering this might take
the form of a data flow diagram or a structure chart.
 Review: This involves reviewing the model and testing it in various scenarios to ensure it is a
realistic abstraction of the original object or system. In software engineering this might take
the form of software testing. Once it is tested, the model can be implemented to reengineer
the original object.

Reconstruction of 3D-CAD model using reverse engineering 3.1 Benefits if Reverse Engineering
  It aids in the exploration of existing products and designs, which may then be used to create
or improve a new design.
 Reverse engineering can be used to reconstruct outdated designs.
 Reverse engineering can be used to assess designs that are decades old to identify design
strengths and defects. This can lead to better designs and higher-quality products in the future.
 Reverse engineering can be used to decrease design lead cycles and get a product to market
faster. With shorter lead cycles, the product’s cost decreases as well.
 Reverse engineering aids in the creation of a CAD model for future use. The CAD model can
be saved and retrieved as needed.

5. CAD Software for Reverse Engineering

 HighRES for Autodesk Inventor

 Point Cloud
 SOLIDWORKS 3D CAD
 Geomagic Design X
 Imagix 4D
 SpaceClaim

6. Part orientation and support generation

Factors effecting part orientation

Models for part orient determination
7. STL Conversion and STL error diagnostics

STL conversion
STL remains the most commonly used file type in additive manufacturing. When converted from
CAD, the STL file represents the surface of the digital model as a mesh of triangles, which are
composed of 3 elements:
(a) Vertices (points)
(b) Edges (lines between points)
(c) Faces (surfaces between lines)

Each triangle also has a normal vector, which defines which side of a triangle faces outward. Unlike a
CAD file, an STL file is an approximation of the original design, and contains the information of both
the inside and outside of a part.
 8. STL errors

(a) Holes or gaps in a mesh

One of the most common errors leading to printing failures is missing triangles. This occurs when the
adjacent triangles fail to share two common vertices. If this error is overlooked, the printer will not be
able to correctly print the design. Which is why it’s crucial to make the design in STL file manifold
or, as it’s also known, watertight – which means that there mustn’t be any gaps on the surface.

(b) Flipped normals

Each triangle in the mesh has a normal vector, which points out to the outer side of a triangle.
Normals tells the printer which way to add the material. Occasionally, the normal vector faces the
reverse direction and this can lead to confusion during the printing process. When the designed model
has a flipped normal, a 3D printer has difficulties in identifying the inside and the outside of the
model, and so the model cannot be accurately sliced and printed.

(c) Intersecting and overlapping triangles

This error occurs when two surfaces overlap or cross one another due to the complexity of the internal
geometry. While it typically doesn’t take too much effort to repair such an error, if it isn’t corrected,
this will inevitably add time and cost to the process, as the model will require more material. To avoid
a failed print, you will need to remove or unify these triangles with file repair software.

(d) Bad edges

The problem of bad edges is encountered when the edges of triangles are not properly connected to
each other, creating holes and bad contours. Bad edges result in non-manifold design, which means
that the digital model isn’t printable. Patching and blending bad edges with the dedicated software
tools can help to repair the file and will allow you to print a high-quality object.

(e) Noise shells

Shells are the outer layers of a print on the outside of the model. The higher the number of shells,
the denser outside walls of the printed part. However, when a shell gets too small, it becomes
redundant and serves little purpose. Such shells are called “noise shells” and, although they can be
easily dealt with by flipping inverted triangles.
9. STL error diagnostics

• Repair your STL file using a dedicated 3D printing software: Many software solutions exist
dedicated to the preparation of STL files for 3D printing and they can repair most STL errors. Popular
(and free) examples include Netfabb (using the Repair command) and Meshmixer (using the
Inspector command). For quick repairs, 3D Builder is an easy-to-use software for visualizing and
repairing STL files.

• Repair the error in the native CAD software before exporting to STL: In most cases, best results will
be achieved when the STL file is correctly designed and exported in the first place and is always the
recommended option.

10. Slicing and generation of codes for tool path

Every RM and RP system has its own specifications. The part boundary form, part filling method, and
part separation from the surrounding material determine the tool path pattern for every layer. This tool
path pattern could be a robotic movement in XY plane for FDM or contour crafting machines, a laser
pattern for material solidification in SLA and selective laser sintering (SLS) machines, or a laser
cutter pattern for a Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) machine. These processes require
different tool path pattern generation strategies. Therefore, unlike CNC standard tool path files (e.g.
APT and G-Code), there is no standard tool path file for RP systems. Therefore, most of the new RM
and RP require a new tool path generator or modification to the previous systems. The selective
inhibition of sintering (SIS) process is presented below. The software that is developed for this can be
modified and adjusted for many other RP and RM processes. This system uses STL files with the
ASCII format as input and works in two steps.

Step 1—Slicing Algorithm

The STL file is read as input. Slice files are then generated by executing the slicing algorithm. Only
the intersection of those facets that intersect current Z = z is calculated and saved. In this step, one
facet is read at a time from the STL file. Then the intersection lines of this facet with all XY planes
for Zmin ≤ z ≤ Min{ Zmax, Max{ zA, zB, zC}} are calculated. The intersection lines are stored in the
specified file for the associated z increment. This results in one intersection line on each XY plane.

By repeating this process for all facets, a set of slices is generated. This algorithm saves the data of
only one facet in the computer memory; therefore, only a small amount of computer memory is
needed, and there is no practical limitation on the model size. In this step, each slice is saved in a
separate file on the disk. This guarantees that Step 2 is run much faster than when all slices are saved
in a single file. The example shown Figure above illustrates the slicing algorithm and Figure below
shows the flowchart of the slicing algorithm.

Step 2—Tool Path Generation

After the completion of the slicing process, a set of vectors becomes available in each z increment.
These vectors are not connected and are not in sequence. In the tool path generation process, the
software starts from one vector and tries to find the next connected vector to this vector. Then it
does the same for the newly found vector until it reaches the start point of the first vector (in the
closed loop cases) or finds a vector with no leading attachment (in faulty STL files containing
disconnections). To sort the vectors, the algorithm reads one vector at a time from a slice file and
writes it to another file. This file is either a path file, when one vector is connected to the previous
vector, or a temp file, when the vector is not connected to the previous vector. Therefore, the sorting
process does not need a large amount of memory to sort the data, and there is no limitation on the
number of vectors in a slice and on input file size. In addition, unlike many other slicing algorithms
that cannot handle disconnections caused by faulty facets, this algorithm can generate a tool path
even with disconnection errors in the STL file. At disconnection instances the system sends a
message to a log file and turns the printer off and starts from a new vector. In either case, the printer
is turned off and the system starts printing from another start point. Also for each selected vector,
the possibility of hatch intersection points is investigated. At the end of the path generation process
for one slice, the hatch intersection points are sorted and written into a tool path file. After the
arrangement of all vectors in one slice ( z increment), the process starts arranging the vectors of the
next slice.

11. Surface preparation of materials

(i) Shape Adaptive Grinding

Shape Adaptive Grinding (SAG) is a novel process for freeform machining of difficult materials such
as ceramics and hard metals. Despite low stiffness equipment from the machining equipment, due to
the semi-elasticity of the tools, ductile mode grinding can be achieved with high surface finish. A
foreign researcher used the shape adaptive grinding method with spherical flexible grinding head to
polish the free-form surface of titanium AM parts. The defect layer on the additive manufacturing
surface was removed by rough polishing and fine polishing, and the final surface roughness Ra
reached less than 10nm
 (ii) Laser Polishing

Laser polishing is a new polishing method which uses high-energy laser beam to melt the surface
material of parts again to reduce the surface roughness. At present, the surface roughness of laser
polished parts Ra is around 2~3μm.Due to the high cost of laser polishing equipment, it has not been
widely used in practical 3d printing post-treatment process.

(iii) Chemical Polishing

The direct result of chemical polishing is micro roughness smoothing and polish formation along with
parallel dissolution of an upper layer. It has a remarkable effect on removing the layer that is loose
and easy to fall off on the surface of hollow structure or parts with hollow structure in small additive
manufacturing. Through chemical polishing and electrochemical polishing, the surface roughness of
above porous implant was reduced from 6~12μm to 0.2~1μm.

(iv) Abrasive Flow Machining

Abrasive flow machining (AFM), is an interior surface finishing process characterized by flowing an
abrasive-laden fluid through a workpiece. This fluid is typically very viscous, having the consistency
of putty, or dough. AFM smooths and finishes rough surfaces, and is specifically used to remove
burrs, polish surfaces, form radii, and even remove material. The nature of AFM makes it ideal for
interior surfaces, slots, holes, cavities, and other areas that may be difficult to reach with other
polishing or grinding processes.
UNIT 5
1. Support material removal
 There are a number of process parameters that can be varied to influence the
physical, mechanical, thermal properties, cost, speed, and quality of an AM
component. The combination of process parameters coupled with post-processing
directly influences the microstructure (e.g. grain size, porosity, cracking density), and
mechanical properties, such as tensile, fatigue, and creep properties.

 The willingness of numerous AM professionals to conduct post-processing is one of

the most distinguishing characteristics of competitive service providers. Companies
that can effectively and accurately post-process parts to the customer’s specifications
will often charge a premium for their services, whereas companies that compete
solely on price can compromise post-processing quality in order to reduce costs.

Support Material Removal

Support removal is the most common type of post-processing in AM. Help materials can be loosely
divided into two categories:
(a) Material that surrounds the part as a naturally occurring by-product of the construction process
(natural supports) and
(b) Rigid structures that are designed and built to support, restrain, or attach the part that is being built
to the building platform (synthetic supports).

2. Surface texture, accuracy and aesthetic improvement

Surface texture improvement

 3D-printed parts often have specific surface texture characteristics that might require
modification for aesthetic or performance reasons. Undesirable features include stair-
stepping, powder adhesion, extrusion or DED filling patterns, and marks from support
material removal. Stair-stepping is a challenge in layered production, and adjusting
layer thickness can minimize errors but may extend construction time. Powder
adhesion is crucial in binder jetting, PBF, and powder-based DED processes.
Controlling powder adhesion involves adjusting part orientation, powder morphology,
and thermal control techniques.

 Post-processing methods vary based on the desired finish. For a matte surface, bead
blasting can even out the texture, remove sharp edges, and provide an overall matte
appearance. For a smooth or polished finish, wet/dry sanding, hand polishing, and
sometimes pre-painting with substances like cyanoacrylate are employed. Painting
not only improves surface appearance but also seals porosity and simplifies sanding
and polishing. Automated techniques like tumbling and abrasive flow machining are
used for surface improvement, but they may sacrifice small feature resolution, corner
retention, and accuracy.
 Accuracy improvement
Between AM processes, there is a large variety of accuracy capabilities. Several
processes are capable of submicron tolerances, while others have precision of around 1
mm. Usually, the higher the build volume and faster the build speed, the worse the precision.
It is especially evident, for example, in directed energy deposition processes where the
slowest and most reliable DED processes have accuracy of a few' microns; while larger bulk
deposition machines have accuracy of several millimeters.

Aesthetic improvement
• Aesthetics of the part is of critical importance for its end application.
• A difference in surface texture between one region and another may be desired (this is often the
case in jewelry).
• Finishing of selected surfaces only is required.
• In cases, where the color of the AM part is not of sufficient quality, several methods can be used to
improve the part aesthetics.
• Another aesthetic enhancement is chrome plating.

3. Preparation for use as a pattern

• The parts made using AM are intended as patterns for investment casting, sand
casting, room temperature vulcanization (RTV) molding, spray metal deposition or
other pattern replication processes.
• The accuracy and surface finish of an AM pattern will directly influence the final part
accuracy and surface finish.
• As a result, special care must be taken to ensure the pattern has the accuracy and
surface finish desired in the final part.
• In addition, the pattern must be scaled to compensate for any shrinkage that takes
place in the pattern replication steps.

4. Property enhancements using non-thermal and thermal techniques

Property enhancement using non thermal techniques

• Powder-based and extrusion-based processes often create porous structures.
• The porosity can be infiltrated by a higher-strength material, such as cyanoacrylate
(Super Glue). Newer, proprietary methods and materials have also been developed
to strengthen various AM parts.
• One of the best known is the RP Tempering process (PAR3 Technology, USA).
• RP Tempering is a collection of materials and treatment operations used to
increase the strength, ductility, heat deflection, flammability resistance, EMI shielding
or other properties of AM parts
• Using nano-composite reinforcements.
Property enhancement using thermal techniques

• Many parts are thermally processed to enhance their properties.

• In beam deposition and PBF techniques for metals, this thermal processing is
primarily heat treatment to form the desired microstructures and/or to relieve residual
stresses.
• Traditional heat treatment developed for the specific metal alloy being employed
are commonly used.
• In some cases, special heat treatment methods have been developed to retain the
fine-grained microstructure within the AM part while still providing some stress relief
and ductility enhancement.

5. Brief information on characterization techniques used in additive

manufacturing

Density
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. The density of thermoplastic filaments
can be determined by using two techniques:
• Archimedes principle and
• Density-gradient technique
To use Archimedes principle to measure density, the samples are weighed in air,
before being immersed into a liquid with known density. The same samples are then
weighed again, in the liquid. The density of the plastic sample can be calculated as:

where ρ is the density of the solid, A is the weight of solid in air, B is the weight of
solid in the liquid and ∂ is the density of the liquid.

Porosity
Filament porosity, measured as a percentage of void content, significantly impacts
mechanical properties. Higher void contents often lead to lower fatigue resistance,
increased susceptibility to water penetration and weathering, and greater variability
in strength properties. Assessing void content is a useful gauge of filament quality
and can be done through two methods:

1. Fractography: A smooth cross-section of the filament is observed under an optical

microscope. Porosity is calculated by comparing the void area to the material area in
the filament's cross-section.
2. Matrix Removal Method: Primarily used for composite filaments, this method
follows the procedures detailed in ASTM 3171, titled "Standard Test Methods for
Constituent Content of Composite Materials." The test involves removing the matrix
to determine void content.

Moisture content
Moisture content in FDM thermoplastic filaments impacts melt viscosity, influencing
print quality. Filaments with low moisture generally yield parts with better print quality
and mechanical properties. Water presence can affect bonding in composite
filaments. Thermoplastic's moisture content increases with relative humidity,
controllable through conditioning in a controlled environment. ASTM D 6980 outlines
a standard method for quantifying moisture in plastics by measuring loss in weight.

Thermal properties
Thermal properties play a crucial role in FDM, considering the melting involved in the
process. Key properties include thermal stability, melting point, and glass transition
point. Thermoplastics are known to degrade at high temperatures, emphasizing the
importance of studying their thermal stability at FDM working temperatures, typically
the melting point.

Methods for studying thermal degradation include Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). TGA provides information on the
degradation rate by heating a sample under an inert atmosphere. The emitted gases
can be analyzed for more details. Differential Thermogravimetry (DTG) is employed
for a precise determination of the temperature at peak degradation.

Glass Transition Temperature (Tg) is essential for understanding material properties.

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
are two methods for determining Tg, with ASTM E1640 specifying the procedure for
Tg determination through DMA.

6. Addictive manufacturing in rapid prototyping

Additive manufacturing plays a crucial role in rapid prototyping, offering a quick and
cost-effective means of creating functional 3D representations of product concepts.
This technology allows creators to efficiently test various aspects such as part
interlocking, fastening, and stress tolerance, as well as assess the durability of
materials, functionality of microscale features, and physical dimensions. In
comparison to older techniques like product prototype machining, injection molding,
and casting, additive manufacturing provides companies with the ability to
experiment and inspect product details in a more time- and cost-efficient manner.

For creators, including individual inventors, entrepreneurs, and start-up companies,

additive manufacturing offers numerous benefits. It produces strong and durable
tangible products, utilizing layers as thin as 0.04 mm. This process is particularly
valuable as it allows for thorough testing of every aspect of a design before entering
full-scale production. Rapid prototyping is a solution that brings a product to life early
in the design process, providing a crucial opportunity to identify and rectify potential
mistakes before it's too late. In essence, for product creators, a prototype is
immensely valuable, offering insights that go beyond what a mere picture can
convey.

7. Rapid manufacturing
Rapid manufacturing encompasses various processes for producing entire parts,
customized products, and meeting low-volume production requirements, including
the production of bridge production items when needed. In contrast to traditional
manufacturing, which often involves expensive tools and machinery, as well as
extended production times, rapid manufacturing leverages software automation and
modern technology to create simple to highly complex parts and products. This
approach results in a more cost-effective and time-efficient delivery of finished
products. Examples of traditional manufacturing methods include injection molding,
forming, and joining, whereas rapid manufacturing offers efficiency, cost savings,
and rapid product completion.

8. Addictive manufacturing vs rapid prototyping

Rapid manufacturing and additive manufacturing are interdependent processes. All

facets of rapid manufacturing rely on the integration of additive manufacturing (AM)
processes to create new parts and products.

Using AM technology simplifies the creation of customized items through Computer-

Aided Design (CAD) models. This involves adding successive layers of material until
the product is fully formed, resulting in a functional product or prototype. These
products can be shipped to customers or tested for ongoing redesigns and additional
prototyping processes.

AM is versatile, applicable to a wide range of materials, with a particular popularity in

metal parts and plastic-based products. It enables the generation of highly intricate
designs that would be prohibitively expensive using traditional manufacturing
methods.

This manufacturing approach is well-suited for various engineering applications,

offering cost reductions compared to conventional manufacturing. Additionally, AM is
widely embraced for its effectiveness in fast prototyping.

9.Rapid tooling
Rapid Tooling refers to any method or technology that facilitates the swift production
of parts functioning as tools, primarily dies or molds. Among the various Rapid
Tooling methods, Injection Mold Tooling is commonly employed in the manufacturing
industry to quickly and cost-effectively produce injection-molded parts.

Benefits of Rapid Tooling include:

i) Faster Time to Market: Compared to conventional tooling methods that involve

multiple manufacturing processes, Rapid Tooling streamlines the product
development cycle with fewer steps. This expedites the prototyping and molding
process, enabling quicker design finalization and product delivery to customers.

ii) Lower Cost: The efficiency of Rapid Tooling in speeding up the development cycle
translates to cost savings. Reduced time spent on each step of the process
contributes to overall lower costs in product development.

iii) Variety of Material Grades: Rapid Tooling allows the use of actual production-
grade materials. Fabricating custom molds quickly permits the production of
prototypes with different material grades. Testing these prototypes helps in selecting
the most suitable material for real-world applications before launching the product.

iv) Designs and Functionality Testing: The short timeframe for fabricating molds in
Rapid Tooling provides flexibility for testing new ideas and making design
adjustments. Mechanical testing, such as impact and stress testing, can be
conducted on parts to identify design flaws before moving to high-volume production.

v) Process Parameter Testing: Rapid Tooling is valuable for testing process

parameters during production. For instance, variations in injection speed and mold
temperature in injection molding processes can impact part quality. This allows
engineers and designers to have greater control over the final part by fine-tuning
process parameters.

10. Repairing and Coating:

The responsibility of ensuring the safety of a machine part under expected conditions
lies with the designer. All design approaches must confirm the relationship between
applied stresses and the metal's strength. Leveraging the advantages of additive
manufacturing (AM) involves understanding its capabilities and constraints,
modifying the design process accordingly. In the early design phase, engineers
create a concept for the damaged part's missing volume, requiring solution
principles, methods, and tools.

This methodology involves two main steps:

1. Define a New Metals Library: Assign each metal alloy powder to be weldable with
several metal alloys. This helps identify which powder suits the part's metal, ensuring
strong bonding to carry designed loads.

2. Design the Repaired Volume: Consider stress concentration zones, interface

surface position, building direction, and number of building stages. Choose the
interface surface location away from fracture zones to avoid high stresses.
Determine the profile and number of building stages based on load magnitude,
application, and geometry. Modify the repaired volume according to service
conditions, optimizing specifications and manufacturing constraints.

This step-by-step process needs verification to establish solution principles. The

work presented here initiates the creation of a simple metal library and verifies the
process stages for one load case, with plans for extension to other metals and load
cases in the future.