Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Journalism Ethics in Nigeria
Journalism Ethics in Nigeria
JIMI KAYODE
ABSTRACT
The article then defines ethics and explains key ethical concepts such as values,
duties, rights and morality.
The article concludes that it is imperative for the media to practice in a more
ethical way so that the credibility gap already created can be diminished.
INTRODUCTION
The media are a social institution that must make a moral contribution to the society. This
assertion forms the basis for the call for an ethically based practice of journalism. According to
Johnson [1997:102] the media are a potentially “great secular church” and “a system of
evangelism for dispensing the darkness of ignorance, expelling error and establishing truth”.
One major way by which truth in its entire ramification can be passed along in any modern
society is essentially through the media, and people would be virtuous and take the right courses
Someone once said that “after ten years of observing government and other social institutions at
work, if the world is to be saved from selfish self-destruction it would be the journalist, in all
their objectionable practices, who would do it”. [ Black, Steele and Barney, 1999:1]
This and other such utterances portray the media as societal agents of dissemination of
information by which people shape and mold their realities of life. Such is believed to be the
influence of the media that they have been referred to as ‘agents of power’ and every society
ascribes certain duties, rights and responsibilities to the media. In addition, the media are also
expected to operate within the context of a high sense of responsibility and morality.[ Altschull,
1995]
Johnson [1997:103] in making a case for an ethical journalism enumerated the roles of the media
in a democracy. He quoted Noah Webster as arguing that the press was essential to the success of
republican government because it was the only sure way to correct government’s abuses. The
press was expected to be placed upon a “respectable footing” by society because it is a herald of
truth, and a protector of peace and good order”. However, a dilemma seems to exist concerning
the role of the press and the responsibilities of its activities. The society needs the press to oil its
democracy but fears the damage and corruption its frailties inflict on the people and the polity.
Hence, in spite of the various legal restraints, there is still a need for a moral media, serving
moral purposes and being worked by moral people. This is where ethics becomes imperative,
more so, as the press above all other social institutions is believed to have a lot of influence and
power often said to be enormous and fearsome. Such influence and power can not be curtailed
by legal restraints only but also by awareness by journalists of the duties the exercise of such
power imposes.
Johnson [1997:103-104] maintains that people who work in the media are often insufficiently
aware of the obligations of their powerful position, much less so than say politicians. He opines
that journalists even see themselves as part of the entertainment industry, “operating in the
According to Johnson, the press more than politicians stands right at the centre of all human
activities and touches many aspects of life that may be beyond politics, especially in a
moral or ethical in order to be perceived as professional. The point being made here is that the
press has a moral duty and awesome responsibilities that go with such power and influence it
possesses.
With such perceived power and influence, the media have fallen under more and more public
scrutiny and sometimes public condemnation for what is generally considered unethical
practices. For example, there is hardly any Nigerian who is not familiar with the term ‘brown
Johnson [1997:103-104] has identified the characteristic weaknesses which lie behind public
condemnation of journalism in what he termed, ‘the seven deadly sins of the media’. These are:
distortion, worshiping false images, theft of privacy, murder of character, exploitation of sex,
In order to fight these characteristic weaknesses of unethical practices and ameliorate public
condemnation the media must deliberately develop the capabilities for positive moral and ethical
objectives as well as prohibit any conduct that supports the seven deadly sins. This is the whole
duty of ethics.
Simply put, ethics is the study of morality. If we ask anybody what ethics mean, we are likely to
Day [1991:2-3] defines ethics as the branch of philosophy that deals with the moral component
of human life. It is the study of rights and who is or should be benefited or harmed by an action.
Stoner and other coauthors [2002:107-109] defined ethics as the study of people’s rights and
duties, the moral rules that people apply in making decisions, and the nature of the relationships
among people. Another definition says that ethics are rules of conduct or principles of morality
that point us toward the right or best way to act in a situation. [Dominick, 1996:434]
Odunewu [2000:122] defines ethics as the study of standards of conduct and moral
etc.
Ethics is based on the Greek word ‘ethos’, meaning character, or what a good person is or does
in order to have a good character. It deals with choosing among the good or bad options that an
individual faces. It may be seen as being concerned with that which holds society or a profession
together or provides stability and security essential to social or professional cohesion. It involves
thinking about morality, moral problems and moral judgments. It deals with what obligations we
owe or to responsibilities we have toward our fellow humans, and what we should do to make
the world a better place than we find it.[ Black, Steele, and Barney, 1999:5]
and the distinctions between virtue and vice. It involves the evaluation and application of those
moral values that a society or professional group has accepted as its norms.
The key ideas or concepts that make for a good understanding of the term ethics are: values,
Values, or more precisely ethical values, are relatively permanent desires that seem to be
institutions. All of these contribute to the moral development of the individual through the
process of socialization.
Rights are claims that entitle an individual the latitude to take certain actions subject to his
relationship with others. They are ‘spheres of autonomy’ or freedoms, upon which the individual
can act, though limited by such rights of other people, like freedom of expression.
Duties are obligations to take specific actions. They are correlated with rights and they are that
which the individual is bound to perform in the course of his professional or daily living, like
Rules and standards are guidelines upon which an individual acts and which provide resolutions
in the face of ethical dilemmas, like seeking and reporting the truth. Rules often become
internalized as values.
Relationships are connections of one individual to another in a web of mutuality. Every one is
connected to others in such a way that actions of an individual can lead to a multiplier effect
Morality is the way or manner in which an individual behaves in line with socially approved
customs or practices. There is a common morality or body of moral rules and standards
governing the practice of journalism, such as would be found in the codes of professional
The nature of ethics is such that all these concepts – values, rights, duties, rules, relationships and
morality - are interconnected in a complex entity upon which many philosophers had deliberated
over time.
ETHICAL THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
Ethical theories or principles can be seen as ethical roads or maps of morality that point the
Okunna [1995:9] defines an ethical theory as a principle put forward to explain, describe,
prescribe or predict human ethical behaviour. Over the years, philosophers have developed
several general ethical principles that serve as guidelines for taking ethical decisions or for
According to Merrill [1997:52], there are many such theories or principles and all presumably
lead to the same destination – ethical journalism. And journalists can be ethical when they take
The reason there are many ethical theories is because there is no consensus among philosophers
on the precise criteria for taking ethical decisions and there are several perspectives from which
to determine morality. However, each of the theories is a complete philosophical system from
which an answer has been provided for the question: ‘what is the right thing to do?’ It is quite
obvious that it would be difficult to provide a perfect answer to such a question; hence the
In making a case for the need for journalistic ethics, Merrill [1997:1-26] identifies two types of
journalists: the libertarian journalist and the communitarian, and explains the duality of
The perspectives of libertarians and communitarians, both, give some indications as to how
journalists behaving on the basis of individual differences would likely adopt certain specific
ethical principles. For instance, the libertarian journalist is likely to be inner-directed opting for
principles that emphasize personal ethics whereas the communitarian is likely to be other-
directed, opting for civic transformation and professional codes. However, this duality in itself
may not prove very helpful concerning actual normative ethical standards that might be used by
the journalist.
To this end, Merrill [1997:55-74] propounds a binary way of looking at broad ethical theories –
There have been diverse ways of categorizing theories of ethics and there is a measure of
controversy about how many dominant theoretical approaches there are, but Merrill’s typology
has been based on the premise that all these theories can be placed under two main categories –
PRAGMATIC ETHICS
This category of journalistic ethics considers the focus of all journalistic endeavours as the
investigation and reporting of the truth so that people are given forthright and full-disclosure of
the day’s event as much as possible. The premise is that the job of the journalist is to provide as
truthful an account as possible and that the end may justify the means; thus, it may be that
Merrill [1997:58-60] considers this a Machiavellian but pragmatic morality in which the end
For instance, a reporter who deceives a difficult source to unearth a story may be considered to
have done the right thing or at least, the professionally expedient thing.
HUMANISTIC ETHICS
Merrill [1997:62-63] explains that this category of ethics is focused on either self improvement
of the journalist or on a concern for others, especially, sources and audiences. It can be divided
Deontological Ethics
Deontologists (derived from the Greek Deon or duty) are sometimes referred to as ‘non-
They follow maxims that have been acquired from religion, reason, universal norms, moral
mentors or employers. Their main focus is that the ends do not justify the means rather there are
absolute principles that must be adhered to. There is an emphasis on the intent or motive rather
than the ends. The most famous deontologist is the philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).
A deontologist journalist would not subscribe to using deception in ferreting out a story because
to him, the end does not justify the means. In the same vein, he will be obliged to tell it as it is
even if some people are hurt because he is committed to telling the truth.
Teleological Ethics
The teleological theory postulates that it is the consequence of an action that ought to determine
the morality. Thus, it is called consequence-based theories in that the ethically correct decision or
Teleologists, unlike deontologists, do not ask whether a particular practice is right or wrong
based on certain specific principles they hold to, but whether it will lead to good results. Thus the
journalist who is a teleologist would want to take the action that would result in good
should seek to maximize good consequence for himself; at the other extreme are the utilitarian
who believe that one should promote that which is good to the greatest number of people. The
person best known for this version of this theory is the nineteenth-century British philosopher
When journalists appeal to the public interest in justifying their actions they are acting as
utilitarian. In the same vein when a journalist acts in such way as to minimize hurt to a third
Personalist Ethics
The personalist justifies actions on the basis of some kind of feeling or insight that are intuitive,
spiritual or emotive. For the most part, personalists are non-rational; they would rely on
conscience or other such transcendental parameters. Journalists who follow this path may rely
This school of ethics is best exemplified through philosophers such as C.S. Lewis or Danish
Another aspect of ethical principles are the virtue theories best articulated by Aristotle’s golden
mean which says that the proper way of behaving lies between doing too much and doing too
little. In other words, moderation is the key to morality. Virtue theories are directed at the
building of moral character and the premise that virtuous conduct involves learning to avoid the
Examples of golden mean are often found in the media, when news organizations cover riots and
disasters and try to exercise moderation or restraint in the report so as not to inflame public
sensibilities.
HOW TO DO ETHICS?
There are numerous instances in the working life of journalists in which personal ethical
decisions have to be made in order to resolve ethical dilemmas. This section presents three
models that journalists can use to make decisions that are ethically sound and professionally
One approach to doing ethics is to use moral reasoning. Moral reasoning is a systematic
approach to making ethical decisions, relying primarily on logical argument based on sound
ethical theories. The process requires knowledge in three areas: the moral context, the moral
Day [1991:63-64] has developed a model based in part on ideas advanced by Potter in “The
logic of Moral Argument” – the SAD formula – consisting of the situation definition, the analysis
and the decision. The situation definition consists of a description of the facts and identification
of the principles and values inherent in the case or situation. The analysis is where the journalist
weighs the competing principles and values, the various contextual factors involved, and the
moral duties owed to the various parties involved. The decision, the final part, consists of taking
an ethical decision that is defensible based on one or more of the ethical theories or principles.
Another model is based on what Black and other co-authors [1999:54-63] referred to as the
principles of duty. They averred that there are two approaches to making ethical decisions – one
is to decide what to do by weighing the consequences of one’s actions; the other is to decide
The principles of duty are the guideposts upon which ethical and excellent practice of journalism
is based. These principles are entrenched in all the codes of ethics across the world – truth
telling, independence of judgment and action, minimizing harm to third parties, and being
accountable. From these four fundamental principles emanate others which include, keeping
oneself informed, engaging and educating the public, giving voice to the voiceless, holding the
powerful accountable, guarding the media’s stewardship role, seeking out and disseminating
competing perspectives without being unduly influenced, remaining free of conflicts of interest,
To adhere to the principles of duty, the journalist must ask himself questions that challenge him
to consider the consequences of his actions and honour the fundamental journalistic principles of
duty. One such question is: Can I clearly and fully justify my decision and action to my
1. Seek truth and report it. Journalists should be honest, fair and courageous in gathering,
2. Minimize harm. Ethical journalists treat sources, subjects, and colleagues as human
3. Act independently. Journalists should be free of obligation to any interest other than the
4. Be accountable. Journalists are accountable to their readers, listeners, viewers and one
which highlights the characteristics usually considered essential for a good report or a good
The TUFF model provides four concepts that guide reporters to being ethical and professional –
reports should be truthful, unbiased, full and fair. The first two concepts truthfulness and
unbiased-ness are deontological, whereas, the latter two: fullness and fairness are teleological.
Journalists who work based on truthfulness and unbiased-ness tend to follow the ethics of
principles of duty. Others who work on the basis of fullness and fairness follow the ethics of
consequence. Merrill rightly recognizes that their may be a paradox between these two ethical
dimensions, especially between truthfulness and fairness. As there may be situations in which the
truthful journalist may not be fair, especially to the subject of the report. For instance, a case in
which the names of a rape victim are published adheres to the truth, but is less compassionate or
To resolve such a paradox the ethical journalist may have to make recourse to his own
Okunna [1995] in the preface to her book on the ethics of mass communication quoted Merrill
and Lowenstein as saying that a concern for ethical practice is the ‘key plank’ for excellence in
journalism professionalism, and that it is also the ‘alpha and omega of public communication’ of
The Nigerian media, just like the media in UK and the USA, have come under scrutiny and
attacks from without and within for a spate of unethical practices in the last one to two decades.
Some have argued that this spate of unethical practices of the media is not unconnected with the
general state of the country which is said to be ‘crawling with all manner of ethical maladies and
unethical behaviour’, as well as a culture that had ceased to value integrity, honesty and hard
The result of this situation of increasing corruption of the journalist is a moral panic over the
media by various sectors of the polity such that ethical consideration and criticism of journalistic
efforts have become a major preoccupation of politicians, captains of industry, media pundits as
A moral panic has emerged in the country as elsewhere in the UK and the USA, over ‘dumbing
down’ and ‘tabloidisation’ of the media. A typical criticism is exemplified in the words of some
British members of parliament which deplored ‘the steep decline in serious reporting and
analysis of current affairs’, and ‘notes that this decline has gathered pace in recent times with the
increasing emphasis on personalities rather than policies and on trivia rather than substance’.
[Keeble, 2001:3]
Such criticism as this have also been leveled against the Nigerian media by various national
opinion leaders, notably, the Nobel laureate, Professor Wole Soyinka, who berated the media
In the Tribune of November 5, 2001, one Adedayo commented concerning ethics and the media
thus: ‘the ethical imperatives of accuracy, balance and objectivity which the grand-dads of
journalism like Herbert Macaulay, Chief Babatunde Jose, Alade Odunewu and others handed
down, have taken flight. The situation is so sickening today that various degrading epithets like
“hired assassin”, “news contractors” and sundry others have come to be affixed on a Nigerian
media practitioner’.
Kukah [1996:132-143] while acknowledging the role the Nigerian media played in the liberation
of the country at various times in our history, and the fact that at one time the press legitimizes
what Nigerians consider to be the truth in any given situation, considers the media in recent
times and argued that ‘there is indeed a thin line between economic expediency and moral
standards’.
He further alluded to junk journalism as an ‘evidence of the depth of decadence into which our
society had sunk’ and a ‘manifestation of generational problem within the ranks of the press
itself’. Kukah, [1996:139] opined that junk journalism had created ‘credibility problems for the
people’s confidence’ in the Nigerian press, as it lacked the ‘analytical value of education and real
Agbese, in an article, ‘Ethics in the Press: An Insider View’ expressed concern over various
unethical practices of the Nigerian journalist and asserted that ‘the brown envelope is, perhaps,
the most eloquent evidence that journalists accept gratification in the course of their duties’.
This, like nothing else, tarnished the image of the Nigerian press considerably.
Most of us have, at one time or another decried this practice with a rather high-minded
feeling of hurt. My understanding is that the gratification is now offered in more
acceptable colours of the envelope, such as white or blue.
The above-stated quotation is an indication of the level of gratification for publishing news stories
among the journalist such that the term ‘brown envelope’ had become a household parlance even in the
public.
Some other variant of gratification and corruption mentioned by Agbese, ‘is the practice by some news
editor and even editors who ask their reporters to make daily returns to them’.
Such is the level of corruption that certain beats are considered ‘lucrative’ and journalists jostle to be
This crave for monetary gain from news sources and public relations spin doctors led to the
establishment of beat associations most of which were reputed to be so highly corruptible that there
Idowu [1996:198-211] has listed the factors that can lead to unethical practices: poor technical
knowledge, conflict of interests, ownership pattern and control, pressure of the market, poor pay, weak
He however canvasses for a personal ethics on the part of individual journalist, as morality can not be
From all indications, the media in Nigeria is by and large corrupt and there are diverse unethical
practices, however, there have considerable concerns over this situation by the journalist themselves.
The various professional groups such as the NPAN, NGE and the NUJ are already in the vanguard of a
fight to clean up the profession and make it what it used to be in the glorious days of the veterans- the
colonial and pre-independence days as well as the 60s and 70s that were the decades of press
To this end, an ethical code has been developed by the Nigerian Press Organization. In 1979 a code of
ethics was put together and adopted by the NPO but it was considered to be deficient in ‘many vital
areas’. It was said to lack ‘boldness, forthrightness and clarity and looked more of a gratuitous
contrivance which could compound and obfuscate judgment of any perceived wrong doing in
journalism practice’.
In order to correct the deficiencies of the 1979 code of ethics, a review process was embarked on
which began in March 1996, when the Press Council held a national workshop in Ota, Ogun state in
collaboration with the Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ) and the Nigerian Guild of Editors (NGE).
The amended code was then adopted and ratified at the Ilorin forum by the NUJ, NGE and the
Earlier, in 1992 the Nigerian Press Council was also inaugurated after a consensus was reached
between the media and the government. The main function of the Council is to promote the highest
ethical and professional standards and to receive and adjudicate on public complaints about the media
as well as journalist’s complaints against government and its agents’ obstruction of media.
In addition, many of the media organization have embarked on policies that present ethical values as
part of their corporate culture and staff journalists are encouraged to work according to the highest
ethical values. However, a lot still needs to be done to make journalists imbibe personal ethical values
There is no doubt that the new technologies are impacting on the practice of journalism such that today
a wide array of possibilities are emerging in the way journalists investigate, research and write stories
areas these consequences are quite novel that legal implications are as yet without precedence and
In the area of investigative journalism, technology has made possible the use of hidden cameras and
tape recorders. Should a journalist use these gadgets so long as it enhances the investigative
capabilities? The ethically pragmatic journalists would answer in the positive and argue that every
thing ought to be done to get at and publish the truth because of integrity and the public’s right to
know. On the other hand, the ethically humanistic journalist may answer in the negative arguing that
these gadgets are instruments of deception and the invasion or intrusion of people’s privacy. Should
undercover reporting be accepted as a standard in journalism? Are there any ways in which deception,
and or intrusion be justified in practice? Are there ways that hidden cameras and tape recorders are
used responsibly?
The Society of Professional Journalists and the Poynter Institute of Media Studies have provided some
kind of ethical guidelines for the use of hidden cameras and tape recorders and they say that such
gadgets can be used where the information obtainable is of profound importance, or where there are no
other ways of obtaining information, or when the good resulting from the use far outweighs the hurt
These guidelines stated above, profound as they sound, still leave the ethical dilemma to the personal
ethics of the individual journalist and his subjective definitions of the context in which the gadgets are
used. These are some of the ethical dialectics that are emerging as a result of the impact of technology
Computer-assisted journalism, refers to the use of the computer by journalists not only for gathering
materials for reporting stories but also for more far reaching research through online or internet
databases, to gather lots of facts and records from governmental and other agencies as well as a myriad
of other sources, to analyze those records, and to use such analysis as background for writing news
stories and in-depth reports. [Roat and Gotthoffer, 2001:31-35; Callahan, 2003:1-18]
The main ethical dilemma concerning computer-assisted journalism is the credibility of information
and facts accessed on the internet. According to Callahan [2003:19-32] the stunning growth of the
internet has provided journalists with unprecedented reporting opportunities, and unprecedented peril.
One of the things that makes the internet so appealing is that anyone can pull off the net so much of
information, but the other side of the coin is that anyone can also put anything on-line. The internet has
both useful and truthful information as well as trash and idle gossip, and many reporters using it have
no clue as to which is which. The internet has no gatekeepers therefore information on it may be
untruthful while it carries a seemingly authoritativeness usually ascribed to the written word. This is
the essence of the ethics of using information culled from the internet. Internet sources must be
evaluated for their integrity and journalists would do well not to believe all that they get on-line. A
healthy skepticism is imperative here when quoting or culling from the net.
Another aspect of the ethical dimensions of new media technology is the fact that the internet itself has
become a haven for people to publish whatever they deem fit for public consumption. Any one with a
little bit of computer knowledge can create a website either by himself or through the help of a
professional webmaster and provide information on the World Wide Web as much as any of the well
known and well organized news media organizations or other such social institutions. The freedom to
publish on-line by just about anybody, laudable as it is, can be grossly abused and has been so done
through the availability of objectionable material, such as racist literature and obscene literature and
pictures.
Today hard core pornography can be accessed almost without any hindrance by anyone including the
pre-adult and children. While some believe that such obscene material should be banned, others
believe that the materials should be restricted and made unavailable to minors. Opponents argue that
banning any materials violate the right to free speech and that the express freedom now enjoyed by the
Web should not be curtailed in any way. [ Shelly, Cashman, Vermaat and Walker, 1999:14.23-14.27]
Today’s technology of digital photography has also brought about better production possibilities as
resulting in crispier pictures, sharper and fuller colours, and better shots can be achieved than used to
be possible. However, the other side of the coin is the capability to retouch photographs such that they
can be manipulated to show pictures in whatever way desired by the skillful reporter.
In other words, technology has made the adage ‘pictures don’t lie’ false – photographs can now be
manipulated such that pictures can now lie. To retouch photographs especially with a view to distort
information on them is unethical and journalists should be discouraged from such a practice.
Another aspect of this is the capabilities made available through animation. While animation has
resulted in greater possibilities for film and cinematography as well as for television commercials, it
has also made possible the abuse of falsifying images with its attendant ethical implications.
By and large, new media and communication technologies have brought hitherto unimaginable
possibilities and capabilities to the practice of journalism and so have they brought hitherto unheard of
ethical problems.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, this discourse shall endeavour to look at two aspects, the need for a more ethical press
There is no doubt that the media have come under public scrutiny and an increasingly scathing berating
This situation tends to be a global phenomenon. Merrill [1997:1-26] acknowledges that journalism
and its practitioners are increasingly being cast as social villains, dispensing superficial, negative and
sensational information harmful to the health of society and that this situation calls for a more ethical
press that would eliminate or at least reduce the public’s loss of faith in the media.
In other words, it is imperative for the media to practice in a more ethical way in all ramifications so
This is even more so in the case of the Nigerian media where gross unethical practices have become
more or less the order of the day. The credibility gap had been created in the first instance by the
insensitivity, arrogance, and gross unethical behaviour by journalists, a situation that has been berated
There is definitely a need for a more ethical and responsible media if the situation must be corrected
and the credibility gap between the public and the press be eliminated.
To do this some have argued that journalism should be ‘professionalized’ in the sense of having
minimum entry requirements, or licensing, and meaningful and forceful codes of ethics as well as
systems for removing recalcitrant and unethical practitioners. Others have called for a more ethical
All of this amounts to a clear call for a committed house cleaning and self-examination by journalists
so that a growing sense of professional responsibility can be imbibed by the media individually and
severally.
The other aspect is the question whether ethics ought to be taught in journalism schools and where that
is already being done whether it is being done adequately well such that this can contribute to
The question whether ethics ought to be taught is not as easy to answer as it looks. There two schools
of thought concerning this matter – cynics contend that ethics is not a proper subject for study because
it raises questions without providing clear answers and that knowing ethics does not produce an ethical
person neither does it mean doing ethics. The other school of thought proponents of formal ethics
assert that the study of ethics is the key to understanding moral conduct and to improving the
individuals ability to cope with ethical exigencies of the real world of practice.
Secondly, the study of ethics, they believe can encourage moral reasoning, stimulate the individuals
moral imagination and thus develop his ability to think critically about ethical issues.
According to Day [1991: 6-12] even though journalists are better educated now than ever before, many
are ill-prepared to cope with the ethics of the profession therefore it may be advantageous to make
them confront ethical issues first in the classrooms before the real world of practice. This contention
supports the position that ethics ought to be taught in the classroom, if not for any reason but that
students can confront ethical dilemmas and rationally discuss them before they face them under the
better. The general notion is that ethics could not have been taught well in any journalism classroom
where the lecturer does not use a lot of real life case studies and small group discussion methods.
The teaching of ethics may not directly solve the prevalence of unethical behaviour among
professionals but it can at least provide the students with the basics of ethical reasoning and with tools
to make it easier for them to live with ethical values that can make them cope with the ethical realities
of the profession.
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