Original PDF Counselling and Psychotherapy Reflections On Practice PDF

(Original PDF) Counselling and
Psychotherapy Reflections on Practice

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/original-pdf-counselling-and-psychotherapy-reflect
ions-on-practice/
Title: NOB_CAP_00685_CVR Format: 245 mm x 190 mm Spine: 19 mm CMYK
AND COUNSELLING
PSYCHOTHERAPY
INSIDE STORIES AND INTIMATE CONTEXTS OF THERAPEUTIC PRACTICE
Psychotherapy and Counselling: Reflections Key features
on Practice presents engaging and in-depth • Contributions from eminent practising
case studies that illuminate the private counsellors and psychotherapists in
work of psychotherapy and counselling. a range of fields of practice provide EDITED BY
Representing the key practice modality
sections of the Psychotherapy and
authoritative insights and reflect the
diversity of modalities
CAROLYN NOBLE
Counselling Federation of Australia, the book
offers examples from a range of therapeutic
• Includes Australian case examples and ELIZABETH DAY
stories from practitioners, clients and
practices, grounded in the theoretical
consumers
PSYCHOTHERAPY
and evidence frameworks of the modality
or approach and supported by clear and • Reflective practice questions and
authoritative commentary. activities in each chapter connect theory
AND COUNSELLING
to practice and encourage reflection on
This edited collection of stories showcases key concepts
REFLECTIONS ON PRACTICE
the diversity of modalities in psychotherapy • Margin note definitions and Glossary
and counselling, details how these
modalities work, and gives readers an
help readers deepen their understanding
of professional terms
REFLECTIONS ON PRACTICE
insight into what can be expected from
particular therapeutic experiences. It Carolyn Noble is Inaugural Professor of
assists trainees and practitioners to develop Social Work at the Australian College of
a broad, comprehensive knowledge and Applied Psychology and Emerita Professor of
understanding of current and emerging Social Work at Victoria University.
practices in psychotherapy and counselling.
Elizabeth Day is Senior Lecturer in
Counselling and Psychotherapy at the
Australian College of Applied Psychology.
Initiated and endorsed by the Research Committee of the Psychotherapy and Counselling
Federation of Australia (PACFA).
& DAY
NOBLE
EDITED BY
ISBN 978-0-19-030068-5
9 780190 300685
visit us at: oup.com.au or

contact customer service: cs.au@oup.com
NOB_PAC_00685_CVR_SI.indd 1 cyan magenta yellow black 17/08/15 4:27 PM

vi Contributing author biographies
Mary Goslet is a qualified and experienced psychotherapist, a clinical member of

PACFA and Counselling and Psychotherapy Association NSW, and an Approved
WorkCover Counsellor. Contact: mgoslett@hotmail.com
Jane Guthrie M.Ed, B. App.Sc [Phty], Dip. DMT, CMA, is president of the Dance
Movement Therapy Association of Australia, and lecturer in dance movement therapy
at Phoenix Institute. Contact: jguthrie@alphalink.com.au
Rob Hadfield is a counselling psychologist active in an independent school setting and

in private practice where he provides short, medium and longer term counselling and
psychotherapy. He left academic life in 2001, having lectured in counselling studies for
a number of years. Contact: rhafiel@as.edu.au
Jennifer Hume BA Soc.Sci., Grad Dip Comm. Couns., Advanced Cert Supervision, is a
Counselling and Psychotherapy Association Canberra and Region life member, PACFA
clinical member, and Embodiment therapist working in private practice in the ACT.
Contact: jenniferhume@iinet.net.au
Graeme James CMCAPA, MSCAPE is a therapist, supervisor, and educator working in

private practice, counsellor education and a counselling agency. He holds a Bachelor of
Counselling (University of New England); Master of Counselling (UNE), with Dean’s
Merit Award. His current research topic at the University of New England, Australia,
explores therapist’s sense of self and work after a life-threatening illness. Contact:
graeme@graemejames.com.au
Sandra Kay Lauffenburger B.Ed. M.Sc. B.Soc.Sci.(Hons)(Psych) DTAA ASPA is

a PACFA mental health practitioner in a Psychodynamic Psychotherapy practice
in Canberra. Over 30 years of exploring body and movement theories and clinical
training in Self Psychology inform her work. Contact: slauf@netspeed.com.au
Jillian Lynch PhD is a psychotherapist, counsellor and supervisor in private practice in

Sydney and the Upper Blue Mountains, Australia. Contact: jillianlynch@bigpond.com
John Merchant PhD is a training analyst with the Australian and New Zealand
Society of Jungian Analysts and is a registered psychologist and accredited supervisor
with the Psychology Board of Australia. He has run adult education courses in
analytical psychology at the University of Sydney for many years, as well as workshops
and seminars in Australia, New Zealand, the UK, Europe and the USA. Contact:
john.merchant@sydney.edu.au
Frankie Merritt PhD is a registered psychologist and a member of the Australian

Psychological Society. He has taught postgraduate counselling at the University of
New England, Armidale, and is an associate professor in Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Health at the University of Notre Dame. Contact: frankie.merritt@nd.edu.au
Lucinda Mora M.App.Sc (OT), B.App.Sc (OT), Post Grad Dip Play Therapy is an
occupational therapist, play therapist, play therapy supervisor and Senior Clinical
00_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 6 14/08/15 12:59 PM

Contributing author biographies vii
Consultant at the Statewide Behaviour Intervention Service; Ageing, Disability

and Home Care; NSW Department of Family and Community Services. Contact:
lucinda.mora@facs.nsw.gov.au
Michelle Morris MA Transpersonal Psychology, Diploma of Family Therapy, Australian

Association of Buddhist Counsellors and Psychotherapists member, PACFA clinical
member, is an Embodiment therapist in private practice, working with children and
adults in Melbourne. Contact: michma@tpg.com.au
Vivienne Mountain PhD, MA – Philosophy, MA – Art Therapy, BTh, Bed is an

adjunct lecturer at Melbourne College of Divinity, relationships educator with Life
Works and in private practice as play therapist and family counsellor. Contact:
viv.mtn@bigpond.net.au
Sue Mullane Grad Dip. Special Ed; M. Ed (Dance), is a special educator, dance
movement therapist and lecturer in dance movement therapy at Phoenix Institute.
Contact: sue@makingdancematter.com.au
Carolyn Noble BSW, MSW, PhD is Inaugural Professor of Social Work at ACAP
in Sydney and Emerita Professor of Social Work at Victoria University, Melbourne,
Australia. Her research interests include social work ethics, work-based learning and
community engagement, theory development in social work, and gender democracy.
Contact: carolyn.noble@acap.edu.au
Judi Parson PhD, M Hlth Sc, MA - Play Therapy, Grad Dip Paediatrics is a paediatric
registered nurse, play therapist, lecturer in mental health – child play therapy, at the
School of Health and Social Development, Deakin University and president of the
Australasia Pacific Play Therapy Association. Contact: judi.parson@deakin.edu.au
Kylie Pidgeon BA, BSocSci(Psych)(Hons), GradDip Th, GradDip Psych is a provisional

psychologist at Bridging the Gap, NSW. Contact: kylie@btg.org.au
Michael Reed PhD is a registered psychologist, accredited clinical social worker,

authorised supervisor with the Psychology Board of Australia and the AASW and a
Fellow member of Gestalt Australia New Zealand. Michael has over 40 years’ clinical
experience of working with individuals, couples, families and groups and has been
involved in Gestalt therapy training for over 25 years with training centres across
Australia and New Zealand. Michael runs a private psychology/psychotherapy practice
in Crows Nest, Sydney. Contact: michael@reedpsychology.com.au
Elizabeth Anne Riley PhD MA Couns BSc is a Sydney-based counsellor,

supervisor and trainer and a PhD supervisor at the University of Sydney. Contact:
elizabethriley@peoplesmart.net.au
Tammy Robinson manages a gymnastics club. As a survivor, Tammy (and husband Ben)
are campaigning to raise awareness of child sexual assault. They have two young
children. Contact: gymstar@bigpond.com

viii Contributing author biographies
Karen Stagnitti PhD, BOccThy, GCHE is Professor Personal Chair in the School of
Health and Social Development, Deakin University. Karen has a specialised interest
in children’s play assessment and intervention. Contact: karen.stagnitti@deakin.edu.au
Alison Strasser DProf is the founder of the Centre for Existential Practice and has
been instrumental in creating existential curricula for a variety of counselling and
psychotherapy trainings in Australia. A practising psychotherapist and supervisor,
she is completing the second edition of Existential Time-Limited Therapy, originally
co-authored with her father Dr Freddie Strasser in 1997. Contact: alison@cep.net.au
Amanda Stuart is a counsellor and psychotherapist in private practice. Her book

The Longest Journey: Finding the True Self (2012) explores 35 former clients’ experience
in counselling. Contact: amandastuart@bigpond.com
Ruth Thorne B Sc, TSTC, Dip CM, Cert IV WT&A, M Couns, PhD is a private
practice narrative therapist and educator in semi-rural Victoria, registered with the
Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation of Australia, and a member of the Christian
Counselling Association of Australia. Ruth recently completed a PhD thesis through
the Australian Catholic University. Contact: ruth@thorne.id.au

ix
CASE EXAMPLES
2.1 Voice and power 24
3.1 Adversity, agency, insight and linkage 30
4.1 The softening power of touch 47
5.1 Understanding depression 66
6.1 Film as metaphor 79
7.1 Listening to the client 91
7.2 Guidance from the client 93
14.1 The knowing horse 198
16.1 Eve 224
16.2 Karen 225
16.3 Wendy 226
19.1 Old stuff from Dad 260
19.2 Flashback to trauma 262
19.3 The right to self-autonomy 263
20.1 Francine (pain control) 274
21.1 Working with dream images to manage chronic pain 292
21.2 Working with Embodied Imagination to overcome anxiety 293

x
ABBREVIATIONS
AASW Australian Association of Social Workers
ACOSS Australian Council of Social Services
ADHC Ageing Disability and Home Care
ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
ADTA American Dance Therapy Association
ANZATA Australian and New Zealand Arts Therapies Association
APA American Psychological Association
APPTA Australasia Pacific Play Therapy Association
APTA Australian Play Therapists Association
ASPA Australian Somatic Psychotherapy Association
ATAPS Access to Allied Psychological Services
AVO Apprehended Violence Order
CBT Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy
CCPT Child-Centred Play Therapy
CDOI Client Directed, Outcome Informed
ChIPPA Child-Initiated Pretend Play Assessment
CMP Cyclical Maladaptive Pattern
CPTSD Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
CT Complex Trauma
DBT Dialectic Behavioural Therapy
DMT Dance Movement Therapy
DSM Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
DSP Disability Services Pension
DTAA Dance Movement Therapy Association of Australia
EAP Equine Assisted Psychotherapy
EAGALA Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association
EBT Evidence Based Treatment
EMDR Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing
FaCS Family and Community Services
GEIR Gestalt Equine Institute of the Rockies
LMA Laban Movement Analysis
NDPT Non Directive Play Therapy
NTCT Narrative Therapy Centre of Toronto
ORS Outcome Rating Scale
PBE Practice-based Evidence
PMDD Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
PSI Parasocial Interaction
PTAU Play Therapy Australasia
PTDM Play Therapy Dimensions Model
PTI Play Therapy International
PTSD Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Abbreviations xi
RD Relational Dialectics
REBT Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
SDQ Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire
SRS Session Rating Scale
TLDT Time Limited Dynamic Therapy
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author and the publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders for
reproduction of their material.
Extract from My Father’s Paradise by Ariel Sabar ©` 2008 by Ariel Sabar. Reprinted
by permission of Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. All rights reserved, 60; Extract,
The Saturated Self: Dilemmas of Identity in Contemporary Life, by K. J. Gergen,
Basic Books, New York, 2000, 71; Extract, ‘A Gestalt Therapy Perspective on
Psychopathology’, by G. Francesetti & M. Gecele, British Gestalt Journal, 18(2), 65;
Mental Health Council of Australia, 59; Reprinted from Rio Political Declaration on
Social Determinants of Health, WHO, Copyright (2011), 4.
Every effort has been made to trace the original source of copyright material contained
in this book. The publisher will be pleased to hear from copyright holders to rectify
any errors or omissions.

xii
PREFACE
The profession of psychotherapy and counselling in Australia continues to develop new
and renewed modalities of practice across various disciplinary fields. The diversity of
approaches and modalities arises for many reasons—historical, disciplinary, political—
as well as from consumer input. Therapeutic approaches draw from frameworks
across a spectrum of disciplines from the philosophically informed to the science-
practitioner approaches. While each approach claims to be effective in its own domain,
there is no single approach that proves to be most effective for most clients. Therapy
is inherently intersubjective work, and the diversity of client bases will continue to
call for diversity of therapeutic approaches as well as responses. Moreover clients will
increasingly and rightly be the main arbiters of the effectiveness of the therapy they
co-create in dialogue with their therapist.
This book, comprising 23 chapters from the practice of psychotherapy and
counselling in Australia, had its genesis in discussion between members of the Research
Committee of the Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation of Australia (PACFA) in
2012. PACFA is a peak body for the psychotherapy and counselling profession in
this country. It comprises around 29 member associations, each representing one of
the many modalities of the profession. Members of the Research Committee and the
PACFA Board considered it timely at this stage of the profession’s development to open
the doors to the private work of psychotherapy and counselling in order to give readers
a glimpse of the context and content of therapeutic practice, through stories and case
studies from clients and practitioners. PACFA constitutively supports the diversity
of approaches and modalities in the profession, and the inside stories in this book
reflect that diversity. The book is intended to provide access to the intimate contexts
of a range of therapies, in order to better inform trainees and practitioners, as well as
clients and consumers, of the emergent profile of psychotherapy and counselling as it
is practised in Australia.
In this book we have gathered case studies and stories from a range of therapeutic
practices, grounded in the theoretical and evidence frameworks of the modality
or approach. It is an improbable task to organise the vast array of therapies into a
universally agreed sequence. It is an equally improbable task to present an exhaustive
account of all modalities, as these morph and renew in ways that amplify the volume
of material beyond the scope of any one book. However, we think we have gathered an
impressive array of material that shines light on current practices in psychotherapy and
counselling. We hope it will invite further discussion and interest in understanding
what is involved when people undertake therapy.
Our choice, consonant with our aims, has been to arrange material into sections
that cover some of the following: what is new or renewed in the field; the consolidation
of relational approaches that distinguish psychotherapy and counselling from allied
health practices; and a variety of stories and cases from the expressive approaches

Preface xiii
largely belonging to psychotherapeutic practice, the integrative approaches adopted in

counselling, and the psychodynamic approaches that, taken collectively, sample much
of the wide range of practices in the profession.
So if you are uncertain of the difference between psychotherapy and counselling,
not to mention how these compare with psychology, psychiatry, social work and the
therapeutic practices of allied health workers, and you want to learn more, this book is
for you. The book will not necessarily resolve all your questions about psychotherapy
and counselling; rather, by listening in on its stories you will glean a sense of its
range, breadth, depth and mercurial form. If, by contrast, you are training in the
field of psychotherapy and counselling, this book is also for you, as it sets out a fair
representation of the types of therapeutic modalities and approaches practised in this
country, and globally, with in-depth case examples and commentary to support your
practice. If you are a potential client of psychotherapy and counselling the book’s
relevance will be in the mapping it provides for the range of therapeutic options
presented herein, and how it looks from the inside for clients; and if you are a
practitioner the stories in this book may provide reassurance or inspiration, a useful
benchmark, an opportunity to locate your work in the broader field, and an extension
of your practice.
The book is not intended to do the work of a traditional textbook. In order to satisfy
the interests of wider readership it is intended to provide a balance of engaging and
in-depth stories from the inside of therapy, with theoretical frameworks that inform the
practices, and commentary to elucidate elements of the work. As a result readers can
come away with a considerable breadth and depth of knowledge of psychotherapy and
counselling as it is shaping up today in Australia, and globally.
If you are not sure of some of the stock-in-trade terms, or wish to confirm or
deepen your understanding of them, you can refer to the definitions within the
chapter margin notes, or the glossary of terms at end of the book, bearing in mind
that language and definitions are inherently subjective and inflected by place, time
and context.
The scope of an edited book is also inevitably circumscribed by the perspectives
of its editors. Our disciplinary and practice backgrounds overlap and diverge in some
ways. Carolyn’s training is in social work, which is informed by a strong commitment
to social justice, human rights and an emancipatory approach to practice, and a
long-term commitment to social inclusion and feminist activism; Elizabeth’s training
incorporates philosophy, literary and critical theory, Gestalt psychotherapy and the
long-term cultivation of mindfulness. Together we bring a social constructionist and
philosophical orientation to the framing of this work, and our chapters within it.
Readers can critically engage with our choices accordingly.
We thank the following people and organisations for their role in the genesis of
this book: each of the contributing authors for their willingness to expose both their
skills and their shortcomings in the intimate and unpredictable realm of therapy, in

xiv Preface
order to showcase how their modality, approach and interventions work on the inside;
Loraine Keats for research assistance in the preparation of the glossary; the Research
Committee, Board and office of PACFA for their input, networks and support; and the
Australian College of Applied Psychology (ACAP) for support, in the form of research
time, in the production of this book.
We hope your reading of Psychotherapy and Counselling: Reflections on Practice is
as engaging as the process of creating it has been for us.
Carolyn Noble Elizabeth Day

Sydney, Australia Kihikihi, New Zealand
February 2015

1
CHAPTER
1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND
COUNSELLING: CONTEXT
AND CONTENT
Carolyn Noble and Elizabeth Day
Psychotherapy and counselling will have touched everybody at some time in their lives,
just as mental anguish, alienation, ennui, crises or other specific types of suffering can
touch us. We will have directly sought therapy for ourselves, recommended therapy
to a loved one, or know someone else who has done so, given the now axiomatic
assertion that one in five people are affected by mental illness, including anxiety and
depression. What is involved and how this discipline conducts itself is explored in this
chapter, which includes an introduction to the book’s content and to the contribution
to the field of psychotherapy and counselling practice from those who know it best: the
therapists and their clients.
WHAT DO PSYCHOTHERAPISTS AND

COUNSELLORS DO?
The healing art and science of therapy has been practised in one form or another
for at least a century. The plurality of forms that it takes, the wide range of contexts
for its practice, and the different professional roles within which it is practised,
lead to confusion about what exactly it is. A short answer to the question ‘what do
psychotherapists and counsellors do?’ is provided by the peak body for the profession
in Australia, the Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation of Australia:
Psychotherapy and counselling are professional activities that utilise an interpersonal
relationship to enable people to develop self-understanding and to make changes in their
lives. Professional counsellors and psychotherapists work within a clearly contracted,
principled relationship that enables individuals to obtain assistance in exploring and resolving
issues of an interpersonal, intrapsychic, or personal nature. Professional Counselling and
Psychotherapy are explicitly contracted and require in-depth training to utilise a range of
therapeutic interventions, and should be differentiated from the use of counselling skills by
other professionals. (PACFA, n.d.)
Therapeutic work is conducted in various physical and temporal contexts. It takes

place in the public and private sectors, with individuals, couples, families and groups.
The work may involve short-term intervention into problems or crises—lasting
anywhere from one session to around twelve—or it may involve restructuring of the
client’s persona, worldview or spiritual understanding, and endure in the longer term,
perhaps across years. This is determined by factors such as the scope of the presenting

2 CHAPTER 1: PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELLING
issues, the therapeutic modality, and the client’s interest in and resources for extending
the enquiry to other reaches of their subjective experience.
According to PACFA, in order to facilitate an effective therapeutic change process for
clients, psychotherapy and counselling professionals are required to: develop advanced
interpersonal skills and pursue in-depth training in the application of psychotherapeutic,
and/or counselling, and psychological theories; undergo professional supervision of
their practice; meet the qualification requirements of some modalities; and undergo
their own personal therapy or analysis. Qualified and registered therapists are obliged
to meet annual requirements for ongoing clinical supervision and professional
development, and to work within ethical and legal frameworks, because ‘such practices
lead to enhanced capacity to utilise the self of the practitioner effectively in the
therapeutic relationship’ (PACFA, n.d.).
The work of psychotherapists and counsellors is ‘based on an ethos of respect for
clients, their values, their beliefs, their uniqueness and their right to self-determination’
and it factors into the therapeutic enquiry the cultural and socio-political context of
the client:
This includes awareness and assessment of social and cultural influences such as age,
development, (dis)ability, religion, cultural identity, Indigenous identity, sexual orientation,
socioeconomic status, nationality and gender. Professional Psychotherapists and Counsellors
value such differences and avoid discrimination on the basis of these aspects of identity.
(PACFA, n.d.)
In order for a therapist to sit with a client through their distress, listen intelligently
and facilitate transformative and integrated change in a life, they must be conversant
with philosophical frameworks that understand the workings of human subjectivity
(cognitive, emotional, embodied, subjective experience), diligently apply these to
specific circumstances, and develop self-awareness (through personal therapeutic
process and related practices) as well as social awareness and critical analysis (through
engagement with socio-political discourses of subjectivity and power relations).
Therapy is therefore not a simple process of advice-giving, problem-solving or
diagnosis; it is not about befriending the client; and it does not exist solely within the
enclosed space of a consultation room. At its fullest and most effective it considers
the world of the client in relationship to the broader social context of their life, and
uses the self of the therapist in co-constructed engagement with the client towards a
supported enquiry into the client’s current condition. Rather than the disinterested
stance of an expert, applying manualised techniques to fix the externalised problems of
a client, effective therapy calls the whole of the therapist into the endeavour.
Psychotherapists and counsellors are supported and regulated by their peak
professional body. The profession in Australia is self-regulating, setting and monitoring
minimum training standards and minimum practice standards, such as clinical hours,
supervision and professional development; and establishing registration pathways
from intern to full clinical registrant.
Although the profession designates qualifications and training specific to
psychotherapy and counselling, the terms ‘psychotherapy’ and ‘counselling’ are not
protected. Whereas a protected term is unique to a single profession, ‘counselling’,
PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELLING

CHAPTER 1: PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELLING 3
in particular, currently remains a broadly defined term to describe work that can be
carried out by teachers, case managers, psychologists and social workers, who may not
meet the minimum standards set by PACFA, as well as by fully trained and qualified
psychotherapists and counsellors.
There continues to be a growing number of new and renewed modalities of
practice in psychotherapy and counselling across various disciplinary fields. These
include, but are not limited to, the classic and renewed variations of psychodynamic
therapy originating with Freud, Jung and their students; the manualised approaches
of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and dialectic behavioural therapy (DBT); the
intersubjective and philosophically informed practices of existential, person-centred,
and Gestalt psychotherapies; emotionally focused therapy, family therapies, expressive
arts therapies, narrative therapy; and the socio-politically informed practices of feminist,
First Nations and cross-cultural therapies.
The diversity of range arises for many reasons: historical, disciplinary and political.
THE DISCIPLINARY BASES OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

AND COUNSELLING
There is no single discipline or research method that informs the work of
psychotherapists and counsellors. Therapeutic approaches continue to develop across
a spectrum of disciplines from the philosophically informed to the science-practitioner
approaches, with influences from social theory, sociology and neuroscience among
others.
The philosophical influences are based in enquiry about the experience of being
and what can be known about being, as such. This is a good fit for professionals
working in the uncertain space of human subjectivity. Rather than attempting to set
subjectivity aside in a pursuit for objective truths about human subjective experience,
phenomenology—a modern branch of philosophy—recognises its inherent subjectivity
and has developed systems for working rigorously with that reality. This philosophical
influence has generated a capacity for therapists to maintain competence and steadiness
in the face of the genuine uncertainties of working intersubjectively with other human
beings. The influence is most evidently present where a therapist works intentionally
and skilfully with the therapeutic relationship, attuned to the present reality—to the ‘in
between’—of the exchange flowing between them and their client.
The medical model of health and science-practitioner influences on the practices
of psychotherapy and counselling have been in the area of empirical research: on what
can be measured and objectified in the client’s experience. This has tended towards
assessment for diagnostic purposes, and the application of manualised treatments
based on diagnosis which exclude the role of the practitioner from the technique/s they
deploy. While there are benefits in this influence, it has been inflated at the cost of other
important influences because the regulatory climate in Australia favours measurable and
quantifiable factors. Governments are more swayed to fund practices that are subject
to predictability and repeatability, with quantifiable outcomes. This is misleadingly
referred to as evidence-based practice, as though practices that do not readily submit to

measurability are not evidence-based and implicitly lack effectiveness. Although many
modalities can meet requirements for quantifiable outcomes, those that tend towards
manualisation—that is, to a focus on technique using a standardised protocol set
out in a treatment manual—are more readily measurable and conform to the narrow
frame of evidence-based practice. This may in part explain the overrepresentation of
cognitive-behavioural therapy in mainstream discussions on therapeutic effectiveness.
This approach to evaluating therapeutic effectiveness has been significantly challenged
by the Common Factors meta-research, discussed below.
All the politics and differences that have emerged in the great disciplines of
the humanities and the sciences are replicated in the disciplinary domains of the
psychotherapy and counselling profession, each with the hubris that their disciplinary
methods provide the surest access to truth. Yet the family tree of psychotherapy has
over the century from Freud developed multiple branches that include these main
influences alongside input from sociology, social theory, anthropology, literary and
critical theory, gender and sexuality politics, and postcolonialism. More or less
recently, we can see the rise and rise of the relational orientation that sits astride many
modalities (relational Gestalt psychotherapy, Hakomi, psychodynamic psychotherapy,
psychoanalytic psychotherapy, for example).
Another key influence on professional practice is the World Health Organization’s
(WHO) social model of health with its emphasis on the broader social, economic and
ecological determinants of health, rather than those that are simply intrapsychic
and biological. As the leading international organisation dedicated to global health
and well-being, the WHO auspiced the First International Conference on Health
Promotion in 1986, producing the Ottawa Charter for action to achieve health for
all. The Charter defined the prerequisites for health as peace, shelter, education,
food, income, a stable eco-system, sustainable resources, social justice and equity,
and asserted that ‘improvement in health requires a secure foundation in these basic
prerequisites’ (WHO, 1986).
This approach was reiterated at the WHO World Conference on the Social
Determinants of Health in Rio in 2011:
Health inequities arise from the societal conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work
and age, referred to as social determinants of health. These include early years’ experiences,
education, economic status, employment and decent work, housing and environment, and
effective systems of preventing and treating ill health. We are convinced that action on these
determinants, both for vulnerable groups and the entire population, is essential to create
inclusive, equitable, economically productive and healthy societies. Positioning human health
and well-being as one of the key features of what constitutes a successful, inclusive and fair
society in the 21st century is consistent with our commitment to human rights at national
and international levels. (WHO, 2011)
The metaphor commonly used to emphasise the social and economic benefits of
health promotion is of servicing ‘upstream’. This refers to the priority of addressing
the causes and conditions of ill health, upstream, before people fall into ill health, to
avoid having to focus all resources on pulling people out when they are drowning
downstream. By situating it within a broader context of lives as they are lived and
experienced, this model has strong explanatory force regarding health and well-being.

Such an understanding aligns well with the more philosophically and socially informed
practices in the profession.
Clinical work within the psychotherapy and counselling profession can best be
designated as the reflective practitioner model, informed by philosophical and empirical
understandings of the human subject, the social model of health, and an emphasis on
the interpersonal therapeutic relationship. These areas can overlap in their clinical
application, based on the range of training and skill of the clinician.
Definitions based on these different approaches are as much political and
contextually based as they are about specific methodologies. Foucault’s (1969)
notion of technologies of knowledge is useful to recall here because it reminds us
that our ways of knowing are derived from the broader socio-political context in
which they arise and are deployed. They are not neutral or unaffected by the swirls
of cultural and economic relations of their context. Foucault’s argument is reiterated
in contemporary discussions about the evidence base for psychotherapy and
counselling: ‘defining evidence, deciding what qualifies as evidence, and applying what
is privileged as evidence are all complicated matters with deep philosophical and huge
practical consequences’ (Norcross, Beutler & Levant, 2006, cited in Sparks & Duncan,
2010, p. 357).
DEFINING PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELLING

From the perspective of the psychotherapy and counselling profession it is
straightforward to distinguish between professional psychotherapists and counsellors
on the one hand, and allied health practitioners who practise counselling skills on
the other. This is based on the minimum requirements for training and practice set
by PACFA: technologies of knowledge negotiated within the profession itself. While
registered psychotherapists and counsellors meet these requirements, allied health
practitioners will not, unless they have undergone additional training that meets
PACFA’s training standards.
Psychiatrists are trained under the medical model of health, with practice largely
focused on diagnosis of mental disorders—using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
(DSM) produced by the American Psychiatry Association—and treatment driven
by medication, although some psychiatrists are trained in models of psychotherapy
or counselling. Psychologists are trained in the scientific study of mind and mental
processes, and apply a science-practitioner model, again with relative emphasis on
diagnosis and assessment and manualised treatment. Counselling psychologists
undergo counselling training, and clinical psychologists may also train in models of
counselling and psychotherapy.
Differentiating psychotherapy and counselling, however, is a more challenging and
contentious endeavour within the profession. The PACFA definition of psychotherapy
and counselling indicates that there is overlap between the two, alongside ‘recognised
differences’ pertaining mainly to the goals and depth of the work:
[T]he focus of Counselling is more likely to be on specific problems, changes in life
adjustments and fostering clients’ well-being. Psychotherapy is more concerned with the
restructuring of the personality or self and the development of insight. At advanced levels

of training, Counselling has a greater overlap with Psychotherapy than at foundation levels.
(PACFA, n.d.)
Because registered psychotherapists and counsellors meet the PACFA requirements

for training and practice they have equal weight in the profession and their practice
may be most unproblematically summarised, as we do in this chapter, as therapy.
WHO COMES TO THERAPY AND WHY?

Traditional assumptions influenced by popular media were that wealthy European
clients paid exorbitant rates for interminable psychoanalytic therapy. When therapy
became more medicalised, mainstream assumptions have been that therapy was for
those with serious mental illness, not for the ‘worried well’. A century after Freud,
with increased research on the relationship of body and mind, and a broader
understanding of therapeutic work and its benefits, popular conceptions of therapy
have changed. Clients of therapy come from a much broader base of social, economic
and multicultural contexts. Many therapies are subsidised by government and/or a
third party payer. Longer-term therapies remain available for those who wish to invest
in that level of work on themselves; and most therapeutic modalities have adapted to
provide shorter-term work in recognition of the complex and busy lives of citizens of
the 21st century.
There are no indications that therapeutic services will decline; on the contrary,
the indications are that the profession will grow alongside current growth in demand.
When in 2013 the Australian Council of Social Services (ACOSS) surveyed 500
not-for-profit service providers nationally, it found services under strain and unable
to meet growing demand. Specifically, 47% of mental health services and 46% of
domestic violence and sexual assault services were unable to meet demand for services
(ACOSS, 2013). With increasing pressure from the currently unbalanced economic,
geopolitical and ecological conditions, the professional services of psychotherapists
and counsellors are likely to continue to be called upon in increasing numbers.
Clients bring a multitude of enquiries to therapy. These include but are not
limited to:
• managing stress, depression and anxiety, compulsions and addictions, family and
relationship difficulties, concerns about work, life transitions (moving to a new school,
job or house, coming out about sexuality or gender identity, pregnancy and birth,
retirement, ageing, illness, and other endings and beginnings)
• domestic violence, sexual assault and other current or early life traumatic experiences;
incarceration; dealing with physical or mental limitations
• coping as a recipient of prejudice, and the impacts of cultural, social, racial and economic
inequity, including colonisation
• processing grief
• concerns about loneliness, meaninglessness and questions about the subjective
experience of existence, expressed by the French word ennui.
Any painful subjective experience can be the prompt for seeking therapeutic
services and support. Experiences that are subjectively felt can be supported in a wide

range of ways. Consider a client presenting to therapy with stress-related concerns.

Enquiry over several sessions reveals that the client is living in an unsafe situation and
has been subject to verbal harassment. The therapist will be guided in the work, in this
as in all cases, by the combined weight of their training and supervised experience, by
professional codes of conduct and ethics, and by broader legal frameworks. A therapist
practising within a medical framework may work on a diagnostic basis, which may
include prescribing medication for symptom management; a therapist practising
within an experiential framework may be led by the physical or emotional expressions
of the client to explore the client’s subjective world as a whole, and work on building
the agency or self-functions of the client so that they are empowered to address their
situation; a therapist working with the technique of cognitive-behavioural therapy may
assign exercises to the client for retraining thought processes in order to build the
client’s coping capacity; a therapist with an integrative orientation may include some
or all of these approaches.
Any or all of these therapists will as a matter of urgency address the unsafe living
situation of the client—linking the client to relevant authorities or services—and those
practising within a social model of health will engage a contextual approach, making
connections between the client’s presentation and wider social factors. In some cases,
a client with a presentation of this kind may have most of the DSM markers for severe
anxiety or depression, or both, and could benefit from a diagnosis of mental illness,
and related treatment. In other cases such a diagnosis may alienate a client with this
presentation, and distract from attention to the external factors that have conditioned
the stress.
Most importantly, if the therapy is to be effective, the therapist will be guided by
the client’s express needs and by the dynamics of the therapeutic relationship they
co-create with the client.
THE COMMON FACTORS OF THERAPEUTIC

EFFECTIVENESS
Psychotherapy and counselling are relatively recent players in the higher education and
professional regulatory context. A number of factors have brought significant pressure
to bear on the emergence of psychotherapy and counselling as a distinct profession
in the mental health and well-being space. These include the earlier effective lobbying
of government by the profession of psychology for the science-practitioner model,
and the pressure of pharmaceutical companies for modes of research that support
their interests. These have contributed to the trend in which empirical research is
coming to stand in for all forms of research, notwithstanding the compelling case from
the Common Factors meta-research that evidence-based techniques turn out to be
peripheral to therapeutic effectiveness.
The Common Factors meta-research involved analysis of 40 years of outcomes
data and found that the client’s own life space and the quality of the therapeutic
relationship together constitute the most significant, or common, factors of therapeutic

effectiveness (Duncan, Miller, Wampold & Hubble, 2010). The research identified
four factors consistent with therapeutic effectiveness. In order of significance they are:
1. the client’s life-space (40%)
2. the therapeutic relationship (30%)
3. the element of hope held by client and therapist in the usefulness of therapy (15%)
4. the technique/s employed in the therapeutic encounter (15%). (Asay & Lambert, 1999)
According to Wampold (2010), this research signifies that particular therapeutic
treatments ought no longer to be mandated. This is because all are effective on the basis
of the therapeutic alliance between client and therapist, and because there is no evidence
that a given technique or approach is more effective than another (when researcher
allegiance to the model being researched is accounted for): ‘the notion of requiring
clinicians to use empirically supported treatment or evidence-based treatments simply
is not supported by the research evidence’ (Wampold, 2010, p. 72.). By this logic it no
longer makes sense to use documentation of a specific evidence-based treatment as a
measure of accountability; rather, the therapist themself becomes accountable for the
outcomes and is the measure of effectiveness based on client feedback.
This quietly radical research provides opportunities for psychotherapy and
counselling professionals to clarify the profile of the profession in the health space,
especially in reference to the continued rise of relational therapeutic orientations. The
renewed emphasis on the therapeutic alliance is a prompt for relational psychotherapists
and counsellors to join the conversation more actively about how the therapeutic
relationship works and to foreground the philosophical and phenomenological bases
for relational intersubjective therapy.
The centrality of the therapeutic relationship to effective therapeutic outcomes
subordinates the definitional politics of psychotherapy and counselling to the skills
and capacity of a given therapist—psychotherapist or counsellor—to establish,
maintain and work intentionally within the therapeutic relationship. This research is
quite possibly changing how therapy is practised in Australia; or at least changing the
terms in which the stories of psychotherapy and counselling are told.
What the therapeutic relationship and therapeutic interventions actually look like in
and across sessions of therapy necessarily remains shielded because confidentiality and
privacy for the client are paramount in professional practice. However, with permission
from clients to publish elements of their therapeutic experiences and, in some cases,
co-authorship with their therapist to write the story of their experience of therapy,
readers can glimpse therapy sessions in real time across a range of approaches. This
provides readers with what we hope is a compelling and insightful way of exploring
and exposing therapy in context.
Having laid out the professional, disciplinary and socio-political context of the
book, we introduce its aims and contents.
THE AIMS AND CONTENTS OF THE BOOK

Each of the stories in this book has been written either to highlight the process of
the therapeutic relationship, to detail the application and experience of effective
interventions, to represent various modalities under the PACFA banner as they are

practised, or to present new initiatives and directions in the field. Most of these stories
have been written with some form of collaboration between practitioners and clients.
While not all modalities can be covered in any single book, enough stories have been
selected here to showcase the diversity of modalities in the field of psychotherapy
and counselling, how they work in detail, and what can be expected from a particular
therapeutic experience.
Therapists employ a range of skills from their specific modality or approach, but all
will have trained in the core micro-skills. These are the bread and butter of therapeutic
practice. They include skills such as:
• encouraging and attending to the client’s story and listening reflectively
• gathering information
• questioning and probing, where appropriate
• restating and paraphrasing prominent elements of the dialogue; reflecting content,
emotions, and other phenomenological material such as body movement, choice of
metaphor, or tone of voice
• clarifying and checking perceptions
• summarising content and process
• self-disclosure, where it adds value to the client’s exploration.
Self-disclosure involves the therapist sharing with the client specific feelings,
thoughts and experiences relevant to the context in the hope of strengthening the
therapeutic alliance. When executed well, this phenomenological practice can deepen
trust, or insight, and render the relationship more real and less unequal. Psychotherapists
and counsellors place emphasis on the therapeutic power of these interpersonal skills
which, when deployed effectively within the context of the therapeutic relationship,
require a higher order of competence than in mundane communication. This higher
order of skills includes more subtle, probing, accurate, insightful and theoretically
informed explorations than are found in typical conversational responses. The
capacity to work in this way develops from the combination of training in general and
modality-specific therapeutic frameworks, the personal development of the therapist,
and supervised practice. Examples of the application of these skills are to be found in
many of the stories in this book.
Through this presentation of varied perspectives on how practitioners and clients
co-create therapy across many modalities, we aim to amplify awareness of the manifold
therapeutic options for equipping people with the agency to achieve personal growth
and change, individual and social well-being. Further, we hope to inspire in students,
practitioners and a general readership an active engagement with the diversity, integrity
and range of modalities available in the profession of psychotherapy and counselling
in Australia.
The book’s 23 chapters are divided into the following five parts:
Part 1 Contemporary Horizons of Practice, sampling practices that are overtly oriented
to cultural context, are ethically contentious, or work with a new medium.
Part 2 Relational Therapies, sampling practices that place the therapeutic relationship
at their heart or, in some related way, reference the Common Factors meta-research that
is reorienting practice from a more limited focus on evidence-based practice to a more
expansive and inclusive client focus.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
latter comprise business capacity of the very highest order, essential
to the care of his troops; keen perceptions, which even in
extraordinary circumstances or sudden emergencies are not to be
led astray; the ability to think as quickly and accurately in the turmoil
of battle as in the quiet of the bureau; the power to foresee to its
ultimate conclusion the result of a strategic or tactical manœuvre; the
capacity to gauge the efforts of men and of masses of men; the
many-sidedness which can respond to the demands of every detail
of the battle-field, while never losing sight of the one object aimed at;
the mental strength which weakens not under the tax of hours and
days of unequalled strain. For, in truth, there is no position in which
man can be placed which asks so much of his intellect in so short a
space as that of the general, the failure or success, the decimation
or security of whose army hangs on his instant thought and
unequivocal instruction under the furious and kaleidoscopic ordeal of
the field. To these qualities of heart and head add one factor more—
opportunity—and you have the great soldier.
Now, Alexander was the first man, the details of whose history
have been handed down to us, who possessed these qualities in the
very highest measure; whose opportunities were coextensive with
his powers; and who out of all these wrought a methodical system of
warfare from which we may learn lessons to-day. Look at what he
accomplished with such meagre means! He alone has the record of
uniform success with no failure. And this, not because he had weak
opponents, for while the Persians were far from redoubtable, except
in numbers, the Tyrians, the tribes beyond the Caucasus, and the
Indians, made a bold front and good fight.
Alexander’s movements were always made on a well-conceived,
maturely-digested plan; and this he kept in view to the end, putting
aside all minor considerations for the main object, but never losing
sight of these. His grasp was as large as his problem. His base for
his advance into the heart of the then known world was the entire
coast-line of the then known sea. He never advanced, despite his
speed, without securing flanks and rear, and properly garrisoning the
country on which he based. Having done this he marched on his
objective,—which was wont to be the enemy’s army,—with a
directness which was unerring. His fertility in ruse and stratagem
was unbounded. He kept well concentrated; his division of forces
was always warranted by the conditions, and always with a view of
again concentrating. His rapidity was unparalleled. It was this which
gave him such an ascendant over all his enemies. Neither winter
cold nor summer heat, mountain nor desert, the widest rivers nor the
most elaborate defences, ever arrested his course; and yet his
troops were always well fed. He was a master of logistics. He lived
on the country he campaigned in as entirely as Napoleon, but was
careful to accumulate granaries in the most available places. He was
remarkable in being able to keep the gaps in his army filled by
recruits from home or enlistments of natives, and in transforming the
latter into excellent soldiers. Starting from home with thirty-five
thousand men, he had in the Indian campaigns no less than one
hundred and thirty-five thousand, and their deeds proved the stuff
that was in them.
Alexander’s battles are tactically splendid examples of
conception and execution. The wedge at Arbela was more splendid
than Macdonald’s column at Wagram. It was a scintillation of genius.
Alexander saw where his enemy’s strength and weakness lay, and
took prompt advantage of them. He utilized his victories to the full
extent, and pursued with a vigor which no other has ever reached.
He was equally great in sieges as in battles. The only thing he was
never called on to show was the capacity to face disaster. He
possessed every remarkable military attribute; we can discover in
him no military weakness.
As a captain, he accomplished more than any man ever did. He
showed the world, first of all men, and best, how to make war. He
formulated the first principles of the art, to be elaborated by
Hannibal, Cæsar, Gustavus Adolphus, Frederick, and Napoleon. His
conditions did not demand that he should approach to the
requirements of modern war. But he was easily master of his trade,
as, perhaps, no one else ever was. For, as Napoleon says, “to guess
at the intentions of the enemy; to divine his opinion of yourself; to
hide from him both your own intentions and opinion; to mislead him
by feigned manœuvres; to invoke ruse, as well as digested
schemes, so as to fight under the best conditions,—this is, and
always was, the art of war.”
LECTURE II.
HANNIBAL.
TWO generations after the death of Alexander, the power of the

Mediterranean world was divided between Aryan Rome and
Carthage, the vigorous daughter of Semitic Tyre. Carthage was first
on the sea; Rome, on land. But Rome, always intolerant of powerful
neighbors, fell to quarrelling with her great rival, and at the end of a
twenty-three years’ struggle,—the first Punic War,—imposed her own
terms on defeated Carthage (241 B.C.). There were two parties bred
of these hostilities in Carthage,—the war party, headed by Hamilcar
Barca; the peace party, headed by Hanno. Hamilcar knew that peace
with Rome meant oppression by Rome, and final extinction, and was
ready to stake all on renewing the struggle. But he saw that present
war was impossible; that opposition could only be in the future, and
that it must be quietly prepared for. With a view of doing this,
Hamilcar got the consent of the Carthaginian Senate to attempt the
subjugation of Spain, a land of great natural resources, in
conquering and holding which an army could be created which by
and by might again cope with the Italian tyrant.
The Carthaginian fleet had been destroyed. Rome would not
permit the building of a new one. Hamilcar’s army was obliged to
march overland from Carthage along the north coast of Africa and
ship across the strait,—now Gibraltar. This was a bold thing to do,
but it succeeded, and, in a series of campaigns, Hamilcar reduced
the southern half of Spain, and (B.C. 236–227) firmly planted the
Carthaginian power there. So conciliatory as well as vigorous had
been his policy, that, on his death, the native tribes elected
Hasdrubal, his son-in-law, general-in-chief of the allied Carthaginian
and Spanish forces, which then amounted to nearly seventy
thousand men and two hundred elephants.
Hasdrubal continued the policy of Hamilcar, and largely
increased the Spanish influence and territory. But as Rome had
colonies in northern Spain, the two powers were sure soon again to
clash. In fact, Rome, after awhile, woke up to this new danger, and
notified Carthage that she would extend her colonies north of the
Ebro at her peril.
Hannibal was the son of Hamilcar. His father gave him the best
Greek education, and this the lad’s remarkable intellect readily
assimilated. He trained him to arms under his own eye. Hannibal
received his first schooling as a soldier at the age of nine, in his
father’s camps in Spain, and later his brother, Hasdrubal, made him
his chief of cavalry at the age of twenty-one. A pen-picture by
Hannibal’s arch enemy, Livy, tells us what he then was: “No sooner
had he arrived than Hannibal drew the whole army towards him. The
old soldiers fancied they saw Hamilcar in his youth given back to
them; the same bright look, the same fire in his eye, the same trick of
countenance and features. But soon he proved that to be his father’s
son was not his highest recommendation. Never was one and the
same spirit more skilful to meet opposition, to obey or to command. It
was hard to decide whether he was more dear to the chief or the
army. Neither did Hasdrubal more readily place any one at the head
when courage or activity was required, nor were the soldiers under
any other leader so full of confidence and daring. He entered danger
with the greatest mettle, he comported himself in danger with the
greatest unconcern. By no difficulties could his body be tired, his
ardor damped. Heat and cold he suffered with equal endurance; the
amount of his food and drink was gauged by natural needs, and not
by desire. The time of waking and sleeping depended not on the
distinction of day and night. What time was left from business he
devoted to rest, and this was not brought on by either a soft couch or
by quiet. Many have often seen him covered by a short field-cloak
lying on the ground betwixt the outposts and sentinels of the
soldiers. His clothing in no wise distinguished him from his fellows;
his weapons and horses attracted every one’s eye. He was by long
odds the best rider, the best marcher. He went into battle the first, he
came out of it the last.... Hannibal served three years under
Hasdrubal’s supreme command, and left nothing unobserved which
he who desires to become a great leader ought to see and to do.”
Hannibal and his brothers had been brought up with an intensity
of hatred of Rome which it is hard to describe. Every schoolboy
knows the anecdote of the lad’s swearing never to make peace with
Rome. The feeling grew with his years. When Hannibal was twenty-
four, Hasdrubal died, and he himself was unanimously elected his
successor.
Hamilcar had planned an invasion of Italy by way of the Alps; but
the scheme was left inchoate at his death. Hannibal at once began
definitely to pave the way for such an enterprise by completing the
conquest of Spain. The original conception of crossing the Alps was
Hamilcar’s, just as Philip originally planned the invasion of Asia. But
it was the fertile brain of Hannibal which gave the undertaking birth.
The colossal nature of the plan, its magnificent daring, the boundless
self-confidence and contempt of difficulty and danger which it
implies, no less than the extraordinary manner of its execution, are
equalled only by Alexander’s setting forth—also but a lad—to
conquer the illimitable possessions of the Great King.
In three years (B.C. 221–218) Hannibal had subjugated all
Spain, and after a long siege captured Saguntum. He finally set out,
with fifty thousand foot, nine thousand horse, and thirty-seven
elephants, across the Pyrenees, whence his route was almost as
unknown to him as the Atlantic to Columbus. It is impossible to follow
him in this wonderful march,—the first crossing of the Alps by any
but isolated merchants,—and probably the most daring enterprise
ever set on foot. After toils and dangers impossible to gauge, even
by the losses, Hannibal reached the Po in October, B.C. 218, with
but twenty-six thousand men and a few elephants, less than half the
force with which he had left Spain. With this handful he was to face a
nation capable with its allies of raising seven hundred thousand men;
and yet the event—as well as our knowledge of Hannibal—shows
that he had contemplated even this vast odds.
But Rome was not ready. Hannibal gained numberless
confederates among the Gauls in northern Italy, and that same fall
and winter won two victories over the Romans at the Ticinus and
Trebia. Next year (B.C. 217) he again defeated the Romans, by an
ambuscade at Lake Trasymene, killing or capturing their entire army
of thirty thousand men. These three victories were due to the over-
eagerness of the Roman generals to fight, their careless methods,
and Hannibal’s skill in handling his troops and his aptness at
stratagem.
The campaign preceding, and the battle of Lake Trasymene,
taught the Romans two valuable lessons. The instruction given the
world by Alexander had not reached self-important, republican
Rome, though Hannibal was familiar enough with the deeds of the
great Macedonian. The Romans knew nothing of war except crude,
hard knocks. The first lesson showed them that there is something in
the art of war beyond merely marching out to meet your enemy and
beating him by numbers, better weapons, or greater discipline.
Hannibal’s Flank March. B.C. 217
It was thus: The Romans had retired into Etruria. In March, B.C.
217, Hannibal, who was in Liguria, desired to cross the Appenines
and move upon them. There were but two roads he could pursue.
The highway would take him across the mountains, but by a long
circuit. This was the route by which the Consul Flaminius, at Aretium,
with his forty thousand men, was expecting him, and, therefore, the
way Hannibal did not choose to march, for Flaminius could easily
block the mountain roads. The other route was so difficult that
Flaminius never dreamed that Hannibal knew of, or could by any
possibility pursue it. Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps had taught
Flaminius nothing of his daring or his skill. This route lay along the
coast to near the mouth of the Arnus, and thence up the right bank. It
ran through an immense marsh, which, for an army, was all but as
difficult an obstacle as the Alps. But it was the lesser evil, and
promised the greater results; and Hannibal chose it, as Napoleon did
the Great St. Bernard in 1800. No better description of the task can
be given than to say that for four days and three nights the army
marched through water where only the wagons, dead animals, or
abandoned packs afforded the men any chance for rest. But the
Carthaginian general reached his goal, turned Flaminius’ left flank,
and cut him off from Rome. Here was the conception of turning the
enemy’s strategic flank as clearly carried out as ever Napoleon did it.
Such was lesson one.
The result of this turning manœuvre was the battle of Lake
Trasymene,—where Hannibal taught the Romans, and us through
them, the second lesson. The Romans had always marched in
careless open order, without any idea of van or rear guard, or of
flankers. This Hannibal knew. He placed his whole army in hiding at
both ends of a defile at Lake Trasymene, through which the Romans
must march, in such a manner that, when he made his attack, it was
on an unsuspecting column,—in front, rear, and one flank; and the
lake being on the other flank, the result was utter annihilation. After
this the Romans marched with proper precautions. Hannibal had
inflicted three staggering blows on his enemy.
But Rome now appointed a Dictator,—Quintus Fabius,—truly
surnamed Maximus, and nicknamed Cunctator, because,
recognizing that he was not able to cope with Hannibal on the battle-
field, he wisely chose to conduct a campaign of delays and small
war, the one thing Hannibal could not afford, but also the one thing
the Romans could not tolerate or understand; for the Romans had
always won by crisp fighting. Still, it was the policy shaped by Fabius
which eventually defeated Hannibal, and next to Hannibal himself,
he was the best master the Romans then had.
It is impossible, even slightly, to touch on many of Hannibal’s
campaigns and battles. I prefer to give a short description of the
battle of Cannæ, which, in its conduct and results, is typical of
Hannibal’s methods. And first, a few words about the organization of
either army.
The Carthaginian discipline was based on the Macedonian idea,
and the formation of the troops was phalangial, that is, in close
masses. But Hannibal’s army contained troops of all kinds, from the
Numidian horseman, whose only clothing was a tiger-skin, on his
tough little runt of a pony, or the all but naked Gaul with his long,
curved sword, to the Carthaginian heavy-armed hypaspist. All these
diverse tribes had each its own manner of fighting, and it required a
Hannibal to keep up discipline or tactical efficiency in such a motley
force. The Roman army, on the contrary, was wonderfully
homogeneous, carefully disciplined, in all parts organized and drilled
in the same manner, and the legion was a body which was the very
opposite of the phalanx. It had much more mobility, the individual
soldiers were more independent in action, and instead of relying on
one shock or on defence, the several lines could relieve each other,
and renew a failing battle three or even four times with fresh troops.
After Trasymene, Hannibal not only armed his men with captured
Roman weapons, but modified his organization somewhat to the
legion pattern.
The legion was at this time formed in three lines of maniples (or
companies) placed checkerwise. In front were the hastati, the least
efficient; behind this the principes; and in the rear the triarii, or
veterans. Each maniple was an excellent tactical unit. Each of these
lines could relieve the other, and thus give a succession of hammer-
like blows.
The phalanx we already know, and while it was wonderful for
one shock, it had no reserve, and if demoralization set in, it was
gone. The tendency of formation in ancient days, as now, was
towards greater mobility, and later on the Roman legion in Greece,
particularly at Pydna (168 B.C.), proved that it was superior, if
properly handled, to the phalanx.
In B.C. 216, Æmilius Paulus and Varro were consuls. The former
was a man of high character and attainments; Varro came of
plebeian stock, was overbearing and self-sufficient. The Roman and
Carthaginian armies lay facing each other near the Aufidus, Hannibal
backing on Cannæ. His position here had been the result of an
admirable manœuvre. The consuls commanded on alternate days.
There had been a serious combat on the last day of Varro’s
command, in which the Carthaginians had been outnumbered two to
one, and been defeated. This had greatly elated Varro, and whetted
his appetite for battle. He left the troops at evening in such a manner
that next day his associate was badly placed. Æmilius scarcely
wished to withdraw, lest his men should be disheartened; he could
not remain where he was, as he was exposed to Hannibal’s better
cavalry. He took a middle course, on the whole unwise. He sent a
third of his force to the north of the Aufidus, a trifle up-stream, to
sustain some foragers he had there, and make a secondary camp,
from which to annoy Hannibal’s parties in search of corn. This
division of forces was very risky. Hannibal had long been trying to
bring the consuls to battle, and now saw that the moment had come,
for Varro was precipitate, and would probably draw Æmilius into
active measures.
Battle of Cannæ B.C. 216, I

Each general made a stirring address to his army. Polybius gives
both. Hannibal’s has the true ring of the great captain. “Let us hasten
into action. I promise you victory, and, the gods willing, I will make
my promise good.” Two days later Hannibal offered Æmilius battle.
But Æmilius declined it, and Hannibal sent his Numidians to the
other side to annoy the Roman foragers. The succeeding day,
knowing Varro to be in command, Hannibal again offered battle,
aware that the hot-tempered Roman would be burning to avenge the
yesterday’s taunt. He left eight thousand men to guard his camp.
There has been much discussion as to which bank of the Aufidus
was the scene of the battle. It seems to me that the plan in the
diagram comes nearest to fitting all the statements, however
conflicting, of the several authorities. Near Hannibal’s camp the
Aufidus makes a bold, southerly sweep. Here Hannibal forded the
stream in two columns, drew up his army, and leaned his flanks on
the river-banks so as to prevent the Romans, with their numerical
superiority, from overlapping them. His front he covered with archers
and slingers, so as to hide his formation from the Roman generals.
Varro, as Hannibal anticipated, thought the Carthaginians were
crossing to attack the lesser camp, and leaving eleven thousand
men to guard the larger one, with orders to attack Hannibal’s camp
during the battle, he also crossed and drew up in the plain opposite
the Carthaginians, he and every Roman in the ranks craving to come
to blows with the hated invaders.
Varro also threw out his light troops in advance. He had sixty-five
thousand foot and seven thousand horse, to Hannibal’s thirty-two
thousand foot and ten thousand horse. He could not overlap
Hannibal’s flanks, so he determined to make his line heavier, and
seek to crush him at the first impact. He changed the formation of
the maniples so as to make them sixteen men deep and ten men
front, instead of sixteen men front by ten deep, as usual. This was a
grievous error. His men were unapt to manœuvre or fight well in this
unwonted form. He should have employed his surplus, say twenty-
five thousand men, as a reserve for emergencies. His army was in
the usual three lines, fifteen legions in all, the Roman on the right,
the allied on the left. The intervals between the maniples always
equalled their front, and the distance between the lines the depth of
the maniples. The Roman cavalry, twenty-four hundred strong, was
on the right. The allied, forty-eight hundred strong, on the left. It
would have been better massed in one body. But such was the only
formation then known. Æmilius commanded the right, Varro the left
wing.
Hannibal placed on his left, opposite the Roman cavalry, his
heavy Spanish and Gallic horse, eight thousand strong, two-thirds in
a first, and one-third in a second line. This body was strong enough
to crush the Roman horse, and thus cut off the retreat of the legions
to their camps and towards Rome. In other words, Hannibal’s
fighting was to be forced on the Romans’ strategic flank. He had a
perfectly lucid idea of the value of a blow from this direction. On his
right, facing the allied cavalry, were his Numidians, two thousand
strong. Of the infantry, the Spaniards and Gauls were in the centre in
alternate bodies. His best troops, the African foot, he placed on their
either flank. He expected these veterans to leaven the whole lump.
The foot was all in phalanxes of one thousand and twenty-four men
each, the African foot in sixteen ranks, as usual, the Spaniards and
Gauls in ten. Hannibal had been obliged thus to make his centre
thin, from lack of men, but he had seething in his brain a manœuvre
by which he proposed to make this very weakness a factor of
success. He had been on the ground and had seen Varro strengthen
the Roman centre. This confirmed him in his plan.
Hannibal commanded the centre in person, Hanno the right,
Hasdrubal the left, Maharbal the cavalry of the left. Hannibal relied
on Maharbal to beat the Roman cavalry, and then, riding by the rear
of the Roman army, to join the Numidians on the Carthaginian right,
like Coenus at the Hydaspes. His cavalry was superior in numbers,
and vastly outranked in effectiveness the Roman horse.
Hannibal was, no doubt, familiar with Marathon. He proposed to
better the tactics of that day. Remember that Miltiades had opposed
to him Orientals; Hannibal faced Roman legions. His general plan
was to withdraw his centre before the heavy Roman line,—to allow
them to push it in,—and then to enclose them in his wings and fall on
their flanks. This was a highly dangerous manœuvre, unless the
withdrawal of the centre could be checked at the proper time; but his
men had the greatest confidence in him; the river in his rear would
be an aid, if he could but keep his men steady; and in war no
decisive result can be compassed without corresponding risk.
Hannibal had fully prepared his army for this tactical evolution, and
rehearsed its details with all his subordinates. He not only had the
knack of making his lieutenants comprehend him, but proposed to
see to the execution of the work himself.
The Carthaginians faced north, the Romans south. The rising
sun was on the flank of either. The wind was southerly, and blew the
dust into the faces of the Romans. The light troops on either side
opened the action, and fiercely contested the ground for some time.
During the preliminary fighting, Hannibal advanced his centre, the
Spanish and Gallic foot, in a salient or convex order from the main
line, the phalanxes on the right and left of the central one being, it is
presumed, in echelon to it. The wings, of African foot, kept their
place.
While this was being done, Hannibal ordered the heavy horse on
his left to charge down on the Roman horse in their front. This they
did with their accustomed spirit, but met a gallant resistance. The
Roman knights fought for every inch with the greatest obstinacy,
when dismounted, continuing the contest on foot. The fighting was
not by shocks, it was rather hand to hand. But the weight and
superior training of the Carthaginian horse soon told. They rode
down the Romans and crushed them out of existence. Æmilius was
badly wounded, but escaped the ensuing massacre and made his
way to the help of the Roman centre, hoping there to retrieve the
day. On the Carthaginian right the Numidians had received orders to
skirmish with the allied horse and not come to a decisive combat till
they should be joined by the heavy horse from the Carthaginian left.
This they did in their own peculiar style, by riding around their
opponents, squadron by squadron, and by making numberless
feigned attacks. The battle in the centre had not yet developed
results, when Maharbal, having destroyed the Roman cavalry, and
ridden around the Roman army, appeared in the rear of the allied
horse. The Numidians now attacked seriously, and between them, in
a few minutes, there was not a Roman horseman left upon the field
alive. The Numidians were then sent in pursuit, Maharbal remaining
upon the field.
While this was going on, the light troops of both sides had been
withdrawn through the intervals, and had formed in the rear and on
the flanks of legion and phalanx, ready to fill gaps and supply the
heavy foot with weapons. This had uncovered Hannibal’s salient.
Varro had committed still another blunder. In the effort to make his
line so strong as to be irresistible, he had ordered his maniples of
principes from the second line forward into the intervals of the
maniples of hastati in first line, thus making one solid wall and
robbing the legionaries of their accustomed mobility, as well as
lending them a feeling of uncertainty in their novel formation. Still,
with its wonted spirit, the heavy Roman line advanced on Hannibal’s
salient. The Carthaginian wings could not yet be reached, being so
much refused. Striking the apex, the fighting became furious.
Hannibal’s salient, as proposed, began to withdraw, holding its own
in good style. Varro, far too eager, and seeing, as he thought,
speedy victory before him, was again guilty of the folly of ordering
the third line, the triarii, and even the light troops, up to the support of
the already overcrowded first and second lines. The Carthaginian
centre, supported by its skirmishers, held the ground with just
enough tenacity to whet the determination of the Romans to crush it.
Varro now insanely ordered still more forces in from his wings to
reënforce his centre, already a mass so crowded as to be unable to
retain its organization, but pressing back the Carthaginians by mere
weight of mass. He could not better have played into Hannibal’s
hands. The Romans—three men in the place of one—struggled
onward, but became every moment a more and more jumbled body.
Its maniple formation, and consequent ease of movement, was quite
lost. Still, it pushed forward, as if to certain victory, and still the
Carthaginian salient fell back, till from a salient it became a line, from
a line a reëntering angle or crescent. Hannibal, by great personal
exertions, had in an extraordinary manner preserved the steadiness
and formation of his centre, though outnumbered four to one. The
Carthaginian wings he now ordered slowly to advance, which all the
more edged the Roman centre into the cul-de-sac Hannibal had
prepared. The Roman legionaries were already shouting their eager
cry of victory; but so herded together had they got that there was no
room to use their weapons. Hannibal had kept the Carthaginian
centre free from any feeling of demoralization, and ready at his
command to turn and face the enemy. The wings, by their advance,
had hustled the Roman legions into the form of a wedge without a
vestige of maniple formation left. The decisive moment had come.
Hannibal seized it with the eye of the born soldier. Arresting the
backward movement of the centre, which still had elbow-room to
fight, as the Romans had not, he gave the orders to the wings which
they were impatiently awaiting. These veteran troops, in perfect
order, wheeled inward to right and left, on the flanks of the struggling
mass of legionaries. The Roman army was lost beyond a ray of
hope, for, at the same instant, Maharbal, having finished the
destruction of the cavalry, rode down upon its rear. The cry of victory
changed to a cry of terror. Defeat degenerated into mere slaughter.
The Carthaginian cavalry divided into small troops and rode into the
midst of the Roman soldiers, sabring right and left. Some squadrons
galloped around to the flanks and lent a hand to the African phalanx
in its butchery. No quarter was given, or indeed asked. The Romans
died with their faces to the foe. The bloody work continued till but a
handful was left. Livy and Polybius place the killed at from forty to
seventy thousand men. Varro had already escaped with a mere
squad of horse. Æmilius Paullus died, sword in hand, seeking to
stem the tide of disaster. Three proconsuls, two quæstors, twenty-
one military tribunes, a number of ex-consuls, prætors, and ædiles,
and eighty senators, perished with the army.
Battle of Cannæ B.C. 216, II
Hannibal’s loss had been barely six thousand men, but he had
annihilated the splendid army of eighty-seven thousand men—the
flower of Rome. It had vanished as if swallowed up in an earthquake.
The battle had been won by crisp tactical skill and the most effective
use of cavalry,—as fine as that at the Hydaspes. It was, indeed, the
gorgeous handling of the cavalry which made the infantry manœuvre
possible.
Few battles in history are more marked by ability on the one side
and crass blundering on the other than the battle of Cannæ. The
handling of the cavalry was quite beyond praise. The manner in
which the far from reliable Spanish and Gallic foot was advanced in
a wedge in echelon, and, under the mettlesome attack of the Roman
legions, was first held there, and then withdrawn step by step, until it
had reached the converse position of a reëntering angle and was
then steadied in place by ordering up the light troops into its
intervals,—all this being done under the exultant Roman shouts of
victory—is a simple chef d’œuvre of battle-tactics, due solely to
Hannibal’s magnificent personality; and the advance at the decisive
instant of the African infantry, and its wheel right and left upon the
flanks of the disordered and overcrowded legionaries, caps the
master-stroke. The whole battle, from the Carthaginian standpoint, is
a consummate piece of art, having no superior, few equals in the
history of war.
It is usual for historians to blame Hannibal for not at once
marching on Rome after this victory. Let us see what his chances
were. We have no hint of what he himself thought, of what his
reasons were for not so doing. We must content ourselves with
collecting a few guesswork items, and endeavoring to argue as he
did.
Two facts are peculiarly prominent in Hannibal’s campaign in
Italy. First, he had opposed to him the troops of the strongest and
most intelligent military power of the world, some of which were, to
be sure, comparatively raw in active duty, but yet trained to war from
their youth, mixed with legionaries of many campaigns, and instinct
with the ardor of fighting for their household gods. It is often
assumed that Hannibal’s troops were veterans, the Romans levies of
a day. During the first three years this was in part true, and defeat
had somewhat drawn the temper of the Roman blade; but
throughout the rest of Hannibal’s campaigns the Roman army was
much superior to his own in all but one quality,—that strange
influence which a great man exercises over men. It will be noticed
that whenever the fighting was on equal terms, from the beginning
the Roman soldier gave a good account of himself. But Hannibal’s
victories were won by stratagem, or by tactical genius and skilful use
of his cavalry arm, not by brute fighting. In the latter act the legionary
was fully the equal of the phalangite. One cannot compare the task
of any other great captain with that of Hannibal. No one ever faced
such odds. Secondly, Hannibal had calculated absolutely upon being
able to detach the allies—the socii—from their fealty. We cannot
imagine him to have set out on his marvellous expedition without
having made this the prime factor in his calculations. Hannibal was
no madman. He was a keen, close calculator. But he would have
been insane, indeed, if he had undertaken his hazardous campaign
without such expectation. He was well justified in reckoning on such
defection. There had always been a good deal of opposition to high-
handed Rome among all her allies, municipal cities, and colonies,
and it was a fair assumption that many, if not most, of them would be
glad to free themselves and humble their proud conqueror and
mistress. In this expectation Hannibal had been entirely
disappointed. None of the socii, who were the brawn of the Roman
body, had shown any disposition to meet him otherwise than with the
sword; none of the colonies, except in distant Gaul, had met him
even half way. He had captured towns and territory and had
garrisoned citadels. But the aid he received was not that which
enables a conqueror to hold what he takes except with the strong
hand. And without just such aid, Hannibal could not only not win, but
could not be otherwise than defeated, in his contest with the mighty
republic. To assume that Hannibal did not see all this, and that he
was not fighting against hope almost from the second year, is to
underrate this man’s intellectual ability. No one ever fathomed
Hannibal’s purpose. He was so singularly reticent that Roman
historians called him perfidious, because no one could, from his face
or conduct, gauge either his thought or intention, or calculate upon
his acts. He had no Hephæstion as had Alexander. But no doubt he
was keenly alive to the failure, so far, of his calculation on the
disaffection of the allies.
And now, after the overwhelming victory of Cannæ, he had to
weigh not only the strategic and tactical difficulties, but the still more
serious political ones. If the allies, or a good part of them, could be
induced to join his cause, Rome would fall sooner or later. If not, he
could never take Rome, nor permanently injure the Roman cause.
The chances were, in a military sense, all against his capturing
Rome by a coup de main. Rome was over two hundred miles distant,
well walled, and with a large force which could be quietly gathered to
protect it. If he failed, the game was lost. It was far wiser for him to
still try to influence the allies, which he could now do with a record of
wonderful victories such as the world had not yet seen. Hannibal
was not a military gambler. He never risked his all on a bare chance,
as some other soldiers have done. He always reckoned his chances
closely. And every reason prompted him not to risk the loss of his all
on the chances of a brilliant march on the enemy’s capital, which had
only its boldness to commend it, and every military reason as well as
the stanch Roman heart to promise failure as its result; for there was
no obsequious satrap to open its gates and welcome the conquering
hero, as it had been Alexander’s fortune to meet. If Hannibal
marched on Rome, he must be prepared to besiege the city; and he
had neither siege equipment, nor were sieges consonant with his
peculiar ability. If the story be true that Maharbal asked of Hannibal,
after Cannæ, that he might march on Rome with five thousand
horse, promising that he should sup in the Capitol in four days, and
that on Hannibal’s declining, Maharbal exclaimed, “Truly, Hannibal,
thou knowest how to win a victory, but knowest not how to use one!”
it may tend to show that Maharbal possessed indeed the daring
recklessness of a true general of cavalry, but it also proves that
Hannibal had the discretion, as he had shown in abundant measure
the enterprise, of the great captain.
Hannibal probably at this time harbored the hope that, after this
fourth and overwhelming defeat of the Romans, the allies would
finally see that their interests lay with him. In fact, Capua, the
Samnites, Lucanians, and many cities of Lower Italy did join his
cause, and the unexplained time which he spent in the vicinity of his
late battle-field was no doubt devoted to political questions, the
favorable solution of which could be better brought about by not for
the moment risking his now unquestioned military supremacy.
The institutions and laws which gave Rome strength never
demonstrated her greatness so well as now. The people which had
created these institutions, which had made these laws, never rose
superior to disaster, never exhibited the strength of character of
which the whole world bears the impress, so well as now. The
horrible disaster to both state and society—for there was not a house
in which there was not one dead—by no means changed the
determination of the Roman people, however horrified the cool-
headed, however frightened the many. Not that among the ignorant
there was not fear and trembling; but it was not the ignorant who had
made or ruled Rome. The more intelligent and courageous element
spoke with a single voice. The prætors at once called the Senate
together to devise means of defence, and it remained in constant

Original PDF Counselling and Psychotherapy Reflections On Practice PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Original PDF Counselling and Psychotherapy Reflections On Practice PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Original PDF) Counselling and

Psychotherapy Reflections on Practice

visit us at: oup.com.au or

NOB_PAC_00685_CVR_SI.indd 1 cyan magenta yellow black 17/08/15 4:27 PM

Mary Goslet is a qualified and experienced psychotherapist, a clinical member of

Rob Hadfield is a counselling psychologist active in an independent school setting and

Graeme James CMCAPA, MSCAPE is a therapist, supervisor, and educator working in

Sandra Kay Lauffenburger B.Ed. M.Sc. B.Soc.Sci.(Hons)(Psych) DTAA ASPA is

Jillian Lynch PhD is a psychotherapist, counsellor and supervisor in private practice in

Frankie Merritt PhD is a registered psychologist and a member of the Australian

00_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 6 14/08/15 12:59 PM

Consultant at the Statewide Behaviour Intervention Service; Ageing, Disability

Michelle Morris MA Transpersonal Psychology, Diploma of Family Therapy, Australian

Vivienne Mountain PhD, MA – Philosophy, MA – Art Therapy, BTh, Bed is an

Kylie Pidgeon BA, BSocSci(Psych)(Hons), GradDip Th, GradDip Psych is a provisional

Michael Reed PhD is a registered psychologist, accredited clinical social worker,

Elizabeth Anne Riley PhD MA Couns BSc is a Sydney-based counsellor,

00_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 7 14/08/15 12:59 PM

Amanda Stuart is a counsellor and psychotherapist in private practice. Her book

00_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 8 14/08/15 12:59 PM

00_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 9 14/08/15 12:59 PM

00_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 10 14/08/15 12:59 PM

00_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 11 14/08/15 12:59 PM

00_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 12 14/08/15 12:59 PM

largely belonging to psychotherapeutic practice, the integrative approaches adopted in

00_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 13 14/08/15 12:59 PM

Carolyn Noble Elizabeth Day

00_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 14 14/08/15 12:59 PM

WHAT DO PSYCHOTHERAPISTS AND

Therapeutic work is conducted in various physical and temporal contexts. It takes

Carolyn Noble and Elizabeth Day

01_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 1 14/08/15 1:00 PM

PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELLING

01_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 2 14/08/15 1:00 PM

THE DISCIPLINARY BASES OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

Carolyn Noble and Elizabeth Day

01_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 3 14/08/15 1:00 PM

PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELLING

01_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 4 14/08/15 1:00 PM

DEFINING PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELLING

Carolyn Noble and Elizabeth Day

01_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 5 14/08/15 1:00 PM

Because registered psychotherapists and counsellors meet the PACFA requirements

WHO COMES TO THERAPY AND WHY?

PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELLING

01_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 6 14/08/15 1:00 PM

range of ways. Consider a client presenting to therapy with stress-related concerns.

THE COMMON FACTORS OF THERAPEUTIC

Carolyn Noble and Elizabeth Day

01_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 7 14/08/15 1:00 PM

THE AIMS AND CONTENTS OF THE BOOK

PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELLING

01_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 8 14/08/15 1:00 PM

Carolyn Noble and Elizabeth Day

01_NOB_PC_00685_TXT_SI.indd 9 14/08/15 1:00 PM

TWO generations after the death of Alexander, the power of the

Battle of Cannæ B.C. 216, I

You might also like