ENHANCEMENT OF HEAT AND DROUGHT

STRESS TOLERANCE IN RICE BY GENETIC

MANIPULATION: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

(A Published Research Paper)

 ABSTRACT

(ELIJAH AND JABI)

Heat and drought are two abiotic stresses that plants are increasingly exposed

to as a result of global warming. Due to water evaporation, heat stress and drought

stress frequently coexist. These pressures have negative impacts on crop productivity,

which has an impact on the food security of humans. An important food source, rice

is farmed all over the world in crop-producing regions. However, growing regions are

experiencing more frequent heat and drought stresses, which can negatively affect

seedling morphogenesis, the establishment of reproductive organs, total yield, and

excellence. The responses of rice to heat and drought stress are the main focus of this

review. A summary of what is currently known about molecular regulation

mechanisms is given. Our focus is on strategies to manage heat and drought stress,

both from a genetic standpoint and from the standpoint of agricultural practices. This

review provides a foundation for enhancing rice's ability to withstand stress, grain yield

and quality for human use.

Molecular regulation mechanism

 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

(ELIJAH AND JABI)

More hot and dry temperature are predicted as a result of climate change,

and by the end of the century, global temperatures are predicted to have increased

by 7°C. This will have a substantial effect on agricultural productivity and ecosystem

processes; crops in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa may see yield reductions of 15–

35%. Sophisticated studies on crop enhancements are required to tackle these issues.

The competition for environmental resources may get more intense as the human

population grows, especially in the rice industry. Because high temperatures affect

early floral meristem growth, gametogenesis, flowering, and grain filling, they have the

potential to reduce rice production by 40% in the future. Research is required to

create mitigation plans for the harm that elevated temperatures do to rice and the

scarcity of water in plant agriculture.

HEAT STRESS

(AILAH AND GRACE ANNE)

Since rice is native to tropical or subtropical regions, it does best in warm, humid

climates. However, high temperatures during flowering can impede the absorption of

water and decrease the vitality of pollen, which can lower the rate of germination,

stop the elongation of filament tubes, and make it difficult for pellets to form, all of

which can lower yield.

S
 THE INFLUENCE OF HEAT STRESS ON RICE PRODUCTION AND QUALITY

(AILAH AND GRACE ANNE)

Rice needs the right temperature for growth and development, with heat stress

affecting different stages such as seedling, heading, flowering, and booting. Heat

stress can affect seed setting, seed yield, and spikelet count, with the greatest effect

occurring before flowering. Heat-tolerant cultivars have higher values for cracking

coefficient, pollen grains on stigma, pollen vigor, and stigma vigor. Genetic factors

also affect rice quality, with brief heat stress at booting affecting panicle size, amylose

content, and milling properties. Elevated temperatures can significantly impact grain

weight and yield. Rice's economic value is heavily influenced by grain quality, with

customer preferences and milling breakage affecting its value.

THE INFLUENCE OF HEAT STRESS ON RICE PHYCHOLOGY

(DANIELLA AND MARK NATHANIEL)

Elevated temperatures have an adverse effect on rice yield by impeding

photosynthesis, which is necessary for the assimilation of carbon dioxide, transfer of

electrons, and absorption of light. The most heat-sensitive component of the

photosynthetic apparatus is the PSII oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), and elevated

temperatures induce activated Rubisco expression to compensate for heat stress-

induced inhibition of Rubisco enzymes. Additionally, heat stress hinders photosynthesis

by lowering protein synthesis because of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and directly

harming machinery. High temperatures can cause lipid peroxidation, oxidative stress,

and impaired photosynthesis, all of which can lower photosynthetic efficiency. To

prevent damage, antioxidant mechanisms like glutathione reductase, peroxidase,

catalase, and superoxide dismutase neutralize active oxygen. Plant hormones are

also impacted by high temperatures, which can have an impact on rice yield and

growth during grain filling.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

HEAT-RELATED GENES AND REGULATION MECHANISMS

(DANIELLA AND MARK NATHANIEL)

Plants adjust their cellular, physiological, biochemical, and molecular

properties under stressful circumstances. To comprehend damage mechanisms and

transcriptional mechanisms of plant adaptation, it is essential to comprehend the

relationship between pivotal functional genes and stress resilience. Plant stress

tolerance can only be enhanced by overexpressing heat shock proteins (Hsps), which

also boost resistance to UV-B and heat. Heat shock factors (Hsfs) bind to heat shock

elements (HSE) to activate Hsps at the transcriptional level, thereby mediating the

expression of heat shock genes. Rice's reaction to heat stress is greatly influenced by

the Hsf family, which consists of more than 20 members. By stimulating Hsp expression

and preventing oxidative damage, high temperatures can activate Hsf through ROS.
 DROUGHT STRESS

(DANIELLA AND MARK NATHANIEL)

Raising global temperatures, population growth, agricultural development,

and industrialization are all contributing to growing water scarcity, which has an

impact on rice production. Rice responds differently to drought stress and has varying

water requirements at different growth stages. Significant inhibition occurs in

insensitive stages, resulting in low quality and low yield. By comprehending the

mechanisms underlying drought stress, rice production can make better use of its

water resources.

THE INFLUENCE OF DROUGHT STRESS ON RICE GROWTH

(JHAMES AND LUKE)

Rice growth and development are greatly impacted by water deficits at every

stage. Leaf area index, plant height, root length, and effective panicle number are

all impacted by drought stress. The first symptom is rolling of the leaves, which

minimizes water loss by decreasing leaf area. Because severe drought prevents

mesophyll cells from growing, less photosynthesis and material accumulation occur

on leaves. Plant height is also significantly reduced by drought stress, and at the early
stage of panicle differentiation, plant height is increased by water control treatment.

In times of drought, roots become more dense and long-haired, and they are essential

structures for supplying water and nutrients. In addition to impeding the growth of

reproductive organs, drought also lengthens flowering times, decreases the amount

of fertile pollen grains, and causes abnormal anther cracking.

THE INFLUENCE OF DROUGHT STRESS ON RICE PRODUCTION

AND QUALITY

(JHAMES AND LUKE)

Treatments for drought stress on rice at different stages of growth have varying

effects on yield, but they all lead to a decrease. Rice dry matter distribution and

accumulation—the cornerstones of yield formation—are impacted by drought. A

brief period of drought stress dramatically lowers the dry matter content of different

organs. Drought stress can occur at varying stages of growth or severity, with the

biggest effect on a plant's effective panicles occurring during the tillering stage. While

flowering stage causes a significant decrease in 1000-seed weight and seed setting
rate, which lowers per-plant yield, mild drought stress increases the number of

effective panicles and grains as well as the rate of seed setting.

THE INFLUENCE OF DROUGHT STRESS ON RICE PSYCHOLOGY

(JHAMES AND LUKE)

Rice under drought stress experiences reduced rates of photosynthesis

because of stomatal and non-stomatal limitations. One important measure of drought

resistance is chlorophyll content, where higher ratios correspond to greater resistance.

Increased production of malondialdehyde (MDA) and free proline (Pro) can result

from the destruction of membrane lipid structure caused by reactive oxygen species

(ROS) accumulation in rice. The antioxidant system needs to be controlled in order to

keep ROS in balance. Rice cultivars that can withstand drought are better able to

control the antioxidant system and get rid of extra MDA. Additionally, phytohormones

influence how plants develop, grow, and react to stress. By increasing the amount of

CTK in leaves and grains through moderate drought treatment and re-irrigation, one

can enhance photosynthetic capacity, nitrogen absorption, endosperm cell

proliferation, and grain yield. Growth, development, morphogenesis, and adversity

responses are all influenced by polyamines (PAs).

DROUGHT RELATED GENES AND REGULATION MECHANISMS

(WELANIE AND KELVIN)

Through transcriptional regulation, drought stress triggers the expression of

many genes, many of which have been identified as potential drought stress

tolerance candidates. Certain rice genes have been investigated in vivo by means

of overexpression and suppression. The transmission and reaction of drought stress

signals are significantly influenced by transcription factor families, including bZIP, ERF,
WRKY, and NAC. OsbZIP23 overexpression improves drought resistance and raises ABA

sensitivity. Rice drought resistance is impacted by the zinc finger transcription factor

DST, which also upregulates genes linked to ROS. Drought resistance can be improved

by increasing the root growth angle when DRO1 expression levels are high during

drought stress. Wax synthesis-related genes, like OsGL1, when overexpressed, thicken

the cuticle and alter leaf water uptake and loss. Late embryogenesis abundant

proteins protect plants against stresses, and the gene LP2 plays a negative regulator

of drought response by adjusting stomatal density and closure in ROS metabolism

pathways.

RESPONSES TO COMBINED HEAT AND DROUGHT STRESS

(WELANIE AND KELVIN)

Climate change frequently causes crops to suffer from abiotic stresses like heat and

drought. The crop variety, stage of plant growth, and duration and intensity of stress

are some of the environmental factors that can have a major effect on yield. Because

rice cultivar N22 has improved dehiscence, pollen number, and pollen viability, it

shows tolerance to heat and drought. But during the flowing stage, temperatures

frequently rise above 36.5°C, which causes a water deficit. Rapid water loss causes

plants to close their stomata, which can raise tissue temperatures because
transpiration is hindered. Through evapotranspiration, high temperatures can cause

drought stress, which can cause unique physiological and molecular responses.
 THE GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF NEW HEAT AND DROUGHT-TOLERANT VARIETIES

BREEDING NEW HEAT- AND DROUGHT-TOLERANT VARIETIES

(FRANZ AND DALE)

Due to the high genetic diversity among rice varieties, rice breeders encounter

difficulties in enhancing complex traits. In order to characterize resources and

determine which ones are best for breeding, molecular marker technology can be

used to evaluate the diversity of heat- and drought-tolerant germplasm. Breeding with

molecular markers can be aided by a high-density quantitative trait locus (QTL) map

for traits related to heat and drought resistance. Through gene modification, genetic

engineering can improve a plant's ability to withstand stress and produce more

offspring. Functions have been confirmed by developing transgenic rice, which is

produced by repeatable Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer and gene editing

methods.

IMPROVEMENT IN FIELD MANAGEMENT

(FRANZ AND DALE)

The cultivation of rice depends on methods that reduce the harm that drought

and high temperatures can do. These effects can be mitigated by adjusting the

sowing intervals during the flowering and fruiting periods. Additionally important is

drought-resistant cultivation technology; well-managed field production is more

resilient to stress. A straightforward method that can be applied to dry, rainless regions,

dry direct seeding reduces production costs and preserves irrigation water. The water-

saving potential of rice can be increased by controlling the relationship between rice

growth and water supply at each growth stage and by implementing a combination

of cultivation and irrigation control measures. When exposed to high temperatures,

nitrogen panicle fertilizer can greatly improve the 1000-grain weight, yield, and seed
setting rate. Optimal timing of water and fertilizer application can save water, stabilize

yield, and improve grain quality.

CHEMICAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

(FRANZ AND DALE)

Rice can benefit from exogenous materials such as brassinolide and boron

fertilizer, which help lessen the negative effects of high temperatures. These

compounds enhance rice yield, spikelet fertility, pollen vigor, and antioxidant enzyme

activity. Early rice filling with foliar sprayed Spd preserves osmotic balance and boosts

POD and SOD activity. Combining four plant growth regulators improves the

photosynthesis, spikelet fertility, grain filling, and mitigation of high temperature

damage in rice. Large-scale agricultural production is not appropriate for these

chemicals due to their high production costs. In the future, cultivation control

strategies should encourage crops to use their own physiological mechanisms for

tolerance and resistance.

 CONCLUSION

(JABI)

Heat and drought are common abiotic stresses in rice plants, affecting growth,

development, yield, and physiological characteristics. These responses are mediated

by a complex web of signaling pathways, including ion transporters, free radical

scavengers, signaling cascades, and transcriptional control of proteins and elements.

Transcription factors play a crucial role in heat- and drought-resistant signal

transduction, regulating the expression of downstream genes and causing plant

resistance responses. The ability of rice to withstand these stresses depends on the

expression and control of numerous genes, many of which protect cells from harmful

stresses. Understanding these genes and improving stress-tolerant materials will be

valuable for food production. Future research should focus on identifying new, high-

yield, resistant rice varieties, gathering resources of tolerable rice germplasm, and

screening heat- and drought-resistant varieties.

 ABBREVIATIONS AND ITS DEFINITION

ABA: Abscisic acid;

The hormone known as abscisic acid (ABA) is essential to many aspects of plant

development, such as stomatal closure, organ size regulation, and dormancy in

seeds and buds. When it comes to how plants react to environmental stressors like

drought, salinity in the soil, freezing and cold tolerance, heat stress, and heavy metal

ion tolerance, it is particularly crucial 1.

ASA: Ascorbic acid;

Accompanying citrus fruits and vegetables, ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, is a water-

soluble vitamin that can also be purchased as a dietary supplement and as a

topical serum ingredient in skin care products . An important nutrient, ascorbic acid

is involved in collagen formation, tissue repair, and the enzymatic synthesis of some

neurotransmitters. It is also necessary for the operation of multiple enzymes and

plays a significant role in immune system function .

CRISPR: Clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats;

Clustered Regularly Interspersed Short Palindromic Repeats is what CRISPR stands

for. Since it has the ability to alter genes, this technology is probably going to alter

the course of history . CRISPR is essentially just a method for locating a particular

DNA fragment within a cell. Usually, the next step in CRISPR gene editing is to modify

that specific DNA sequence. But CRISPR can also be used to do other tasks, like

turning on or off genes without changing their sequence .

CTK: Cytokinin;

One of the primary regulators of nitrogen absorption, transport, and metabolism is

cytokinin (CTK), which also has a significant regulatory impact on plant morphology,
physiology, and yield.
 ER: Endoplasmic reticulum;

Within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells lies a continuous system known as the

endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which is a network of tubes and sacs bound by

membranes. The two subunits of the ER are the smooth ER, which is involved in lipid

synthesis, metabolism, and detoxification, and the rough ER, which is involved in

protein synthesis and modification and has ribosomes on its surface. The ER performs

a variety of tasks and is linked to the outer nuclear envelope. It is crucial for the

synthesis, folding, modification, and transportation of proteins, among other things.

GA: Gibberellic acid;

Plants and fungi contain a hormone called gibberellic acid (GA). C19H22O61 is the

chemical formula for it. GA is a pentacyclic diterpene acid that promotes cell

growth and elongation. It is a simple gibberellin. When applied sparingly, it

influences plant breakdown and promotes growth, but over time, plants become

tolerant of it.

GR: Glutathione reductase;

An essential enzyme for preserving the reducing environment of the cell and

fending off oxidative stress is glutathione reductase (GR). With the help of NADPH

and a FAD prosthetic group, it changes glutathione disulfide (GSSG) into

glutathione (GSH). Nucleobase-containing small molecule interconversion, the

glutathione metabolic process, cell redox homeostasis, oxidant detoxification, and

the cellular response to oxidative stress are just a few of the biological processes in

which GR is involved. Hemolytic anemia may result from a deficiency.

Hsfs: Heat shock factors;

All organisms depend on heat shock factors (HSFs) to withstand stress exposures

because HSFs bind heat shock elements and trigger the transcription of heat shock

proteins (HSPs). Furthermore, the HSFs play a significant role as regulators in

development, longevity, and illness, connecting the pathways of stress responses

with regular physiology.

Hsps: Heat shock proteins;

A family of proteins known as heat shock proteins (HSP) is created by cells in reaction

to stressful environments 1. Although they were initially identified in connection with

heat shock, it is now understood that they are also expressed in response to various

stresses, such as exposure to cold, UV light, wound healing, or tissue remodeling 1.

Numerous individuals in this category carry out chaperone functions by aiding in the

refolding of proteins that have been harmed by cell stress or stabilizing newly

formed proteins to guarantee proper folding.

IAA: Indoleacetic acid;

An auxin class plant hormone is called indoleacetic acid (IAA). It is the most

prevalent hormone found in plants that occurs naturally and is known to cause cell

division and elongation, which promotes plant growth.

MDA: Malondialdehyde

Among eukaryotes, malondialdehyde (MDA) is a small, reactive organic molecule

that is found everywhere1. It is produced when polyunsaturated fatty acids

peroxide and is used as a biomarker to assess oxidative stress in a variety of

biological samples from patients with a variety of illnesses.

NILs: Near isogenic lines

Near isogenic lines are frequently the product of plant breeding programs where

the objective has been the introgression of a desirable character or trait (gene)

from a donor parent into an otherwise agronomically acceptable cultivar

(recurrent parent).

PAs: Polyamines

The metabolomes of bacteria and plants contain polyamines (PAs), which are

essential for plant immunity. Despite their diverse roles in plant-pathogen

interactions, they modulate cell redox status, enhancing the oxidative burst and

synthesis of antimicrobial compounds.

POD: Peroxidase;

The enzyme peroxidase is present in many different organisms and serves a variety

of purposes. Peroxidase is present in a wide variety of organisms, including simple

bacteria, humans, and even plants.

Pro: Proline;

An amino acid, or the building block of protein, is proline. Proline is not only

produced by the body but also gets consumed through food. A normal diet

includes roughly 5 grams of proline per day. Foods high in protein, such as dairy, fish,

and meat, are the main sources. Additionally, proline is available as a supplement.

PSI: Photosystem I

One of the biggest bioenergetic complexes known is Photosystem I (PSI), the

plastocyanin-ferredoxin oxidoreductase of the photosynthetic electron transport

chain. Since its subunits are encoded in both the nuclear and chloroplast genomes,

assembling it necessitates careful synchronization of gene expression and close

communication between the two compartments.

PSII: Photosystem II
Water-plastoquinone oxidoreductase, also known as photosystem II, is the initial

protein complex involved in the light-dependent processes of oxygenic

photosynthesis. It can be found in the thylakoid membrane of cyanobacteria,

algae, and plants. Enzymes in the photosystem use light photons to energize

electrons, which are subsequently transferred to plastoquinone through a series of

coenzymes and cofactors, resulting in plastoquinol. Oxidizing water replaces the

energized electrons, forming hydrogen ions and molecular oxygen.

Put: Putrescine;

The chemical compound putrescine has the formula (CH2)4(NH2)2. It melts at

almost room temperature and is a colorless solid. It falls under the diamine category.

It is mostly to blame, along with cadaverine, for the repulsive smell of decaying flesh,

but it also contributes to other disagreeable smells.

QTL: Quantitative trait locus;

A DNA region known as a quantitative trait locus (QTL) is linked to specific

phenotypic traits that vary in degree and are caused by polygenic effects, or the

result of two or more genes acting together, as well as their environment. These QTLs

are frequently located on various chromosomes. The genetic makeup of a trait is

indicated by the quantity of QTLs that account for variation in the phenotypic trait.

It might suggest that a small number of highly influential genes regulate plant height,

or that many genes have a minor influence.

ROS: Reactive oxygen species;

Diatomic oxygen (O2), water, and hydrogen peroxide combine to form highly

reactive compounds known as reactive oxygen species (ROS). Singlet oxygen,

hydroxyl radical (OH), superoxide (O2), and hydroperoxide (O2H) are a few
common ROS. ROS are significant in a variety of contexts, both positive and

negative. ROS serve as signals that activate and deactivate biological processes.

SA: Salicylic acid;

A chemical exfoliator and anti-inflammatory, salicylic acid is used to treat a number

of skin disorders, including dandruff, psoriasis, acne, and warts. Additionally, it can

lessen dark spots and wrinkles. Salicylic acid is an ingredient found in many over-

the-counter (OTC) skin care products.

SOD: superoxide dismutase;

All living cells contain the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD), which is

produced by the body naturally. It is essential for decreasing inflammation and

oxidative stress because it degrades toxic oxygen molecules within cells. Many

human and animal pathologies have been linked to SOD deficiency.

Spd: Spermidine;

Spermidine is a polyamine compound that is present in living tissues and ribosomes

and is used by various organisms for different metabolic processes. At first, it was

kept apart from semen.

Spm: Spermine

All eukaryotic cells contain spermine, a polyamine that is involved in cellular

metabolism. Ornithine is an amino acid that is needed to make spermine. It also

serves as a crucial growth factor for certain bacteria. Spermine is associated with

nucleic acids and is thought to stabilize helical structure, especially in viruses. It is

found as a polycation at physiological pH. It scavenges intracellular free radicals to

shield DNA from damage caused by free radicals. The primary chemical that gives

semen its distinct smell is spermine.