Chapter 1

 Defining Group
 Types of Groups
 Value of groups for individuals

Defining Groups
“an entity comprised of individuals who come together for a common purpose and whose
behaviors in the group are guided by a set of shared values and norms,” (Haynes, 1998).
Two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships.
Groups come in a staggering assortment of shapes and sizes, from dyads (two members) and
triads (three members) to huge crowds, mobs, and assemblies (Simmel, 1902).

Still others suggest that a shared purpose or goal is what turns a mere aggregate of
individuals into a bona fide group. Even the minimal number of members needed for a true
group is debated, with some definitions requiring three members but others only two
(Moreland, 2010; Williams, 2010).

Categorization: “Two or more individuals … [who] perceive themselves to

be members of the same social category” (Turner, 1982, p. 15).
Communication: “Three or more people…who (a) think of themselves as a
group, (b) are interdependent (e.g., with regard to shared goals or
behaviors that affect one another), and (c) communicate (interact) with one
another (via face-to-face or technological means)” (Frey & Konieczka, 2010,
p. 317).
Influence: “Two or more persons who are interacting with one another in
such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other
person” (Shaw, 1981, p. 454).
Interdependence: “A dynamic whole based on interdependence rather than
similarity” (Lewin, 1948, p. 184).
Interrelations: “An aggregation of two or more people who are to some
degree in dynamic interrelation with one another” (McGrath, 1984, p. 8).
Psychological significance: “A psychological group is any number of people
who interact with each other, are psychologically aware of each other, and
perceive themselves to be in a group” (Pennington, 2002, p. 3).
Relations: “Individuals who stand in certain relations to each other, for
example, as sharing a common purpose or having a common intentionality,
or acting together, or at least having a common interest” (Gould, 2004, p.
119).
Shared identity: “Two or more people possessing a common social
identification and whose existence as a group is recognized by a third party”
(Brown, 2000, p. 19).
Shared tasks and goals: “Three or more people who work together
interdependently on an agreed-upon activity or goal” (Keyton, 2002, p. 5).
Size: “Two or more people” (Williams, 2010, p. 269).
Social unit: “Persons who recognize that they constitute a meaningful social
unit, interact on that basis, and are committed to that social unity” (Fine,
2012, p. 21; Kerr & Tindale, 2014).
Structure: “A social unit which consists of a number of individuals who
stand in (more or less) definite status and role relationships to one another
and which possesses a set of values or norms of its own regulating the
behavior of individual members, at least in matters of consequence to the
group” (Sherif & Sherif, 1956, p. 144).
Systems: “An intact social system, complete with boundaries,
interdependence for some shared purpose, and differentiated member
roles” (Hackman & Katz, 2010, p. 1210).
Varieties of Group
Primary Group -A small, long-term group characterized by frequent interaction, solidarity, and high
levels of interdependence among members that substantially influences the attitudes, values, and
social outcomes of its members.

These groups profoundly influence the behavior, feelings, and judgments of their members, for
members spend much of their time interacting with one another, usually in face-to-face settings with
many of the other members present. Even when the group is dispersed, members nonetheless feel
they are still “in” the group, and they consider the group to be a very important part of their lives.

Social Group-A relatively small number of individuals who interact with one another over an
extended period of time, such as work groups, clubs, and congregations.

Social groups are larger and more formally organized than primary groups, and
memberships tend to be shorter in duration and less emotionally involving. Their boundaries are
also more permeable, so members can leave old groups behind and join new ones, for they do not
demand the level of commitment that primary groups do.

Collective-A relatively large aggregation or group of individuals who display similarities in actions
and outlook. A street crowd, a line of people (a queue), and a panicked group escaping a fire are
examples of collectives, as are more widely dispersed groups (e.g., listeners who respond similarly to
a public service announcement).

A list of examples of collectives would include crowds watching a building burn, audiences seated in
a movie theater, line (queues) of people waiting to purchase tickets, gatherings of college students
protesting a government policy, and panicked mobs fleeing from danger.
But the list would also include social movements of individuals who, though dispersed over a wide
area, display common shifts in opinion or actions. The members of collectives are joined by their
common interest or shared actions, but they often owe little allegiance to the group.

Category
 Social category A perceptual grouping of people who are assumed to be similar to one
another in some ways but different in one or more ways, such as all women, the elderly,
college students, or all the citizens of a specific country.
 Social identity An individual’s sense of self derived from relationships and memberships in
groups; also, those aspects of the self that are assumed to be common to most or all of the
members of the same group or social category.

Elements of Group

Common purpose means that the members of the group are participating in the group activities to
achieve similar goals. They are motivated to participate in the group process and dynamics by a
shared set of desired outcomes.

Shared values mean that the members of the group share certain core beliefs about what the
structure and essence of the group is and strive to maintain the group’s integrity.

Shared norms mean that the members of the group agree on certain
overarching principles that direct or influence the manner in which the group members behave and
interact with one another in the context of the group. In children’s groups these are referred to as
rules.

Myths and Misconception of a group

Myth 1: "The effectiveness of groups depends on leadership."

While leadership is an important element in almost all groups, the
effectiveness of a group is a combination of many factors. In summarizing
 the research, Capuzzi and Gross (1992) state that group members have an
impact on each other regardless of the leader, and "the most effective group
leaders are those who help the group develop so that members are primary
sources of help for one another" (p. 18). While it is helpful and advantageous
to have a caring, committed, and competent leader for a group, it is not
essential.

Myth 2: "Groups are only effective when they focus on the present."

It is beneficial for many people to attend to their thoughts, behaviors, and

feelings as they occur in a group setting. However, the effectiveness of the
group and its members is also a product of the past. Therefore, effective
groups deal with "there-and-then experiences as well as the here-and-now"
(Capuzzi & Gross, 1992, p. 19). In this integrated way, members inform
themselves and others about lessons learned from personal history as well
as those gleaned from the present.

Myth 3: "Group members must be open and honest at all times."

This myth implies that people ingroups should "tell all" and confess all of
their shameful acts to others (Yalom, 1985). It is a major reason many
people resist joining groups of any type. Complete openness and honesty are
not appropriate in every situation. For instance, if a group member has a
history of failures or does not like someone else's speech, the
communication of these facts will probably not be helpful to others.
Unfiltered self-disclosing or feedback per se may do more damage than good
(Martin & Jacobs, 1980). However, a sense of trust within the group may be
established or enhanced when group members are open and honest with
each other on a selective and constructive basis. As a general principle, such
behaviors are valued and appropriate.

Myth 4: "Groups force people to lose their identity."

The idea behind this myth is that a group is overwhelming and that within
cais related to stories of poorly run or unregulated groups where people
have been attacked, ridiculed, or humiliated when they did not agree with
the group as a whole or with its leader. Stories of brainwashing experiences
from prisoners of war have also fed the idea that groups are not helpful to
individuals. A third factor that has led to this myth is the behaves large and
anonymous groups, such as mobs (Zimbardo, 1969). In reality, most
individuals develop a stronger personal identity or interests as a result of
their interactions with others.

Myth 5: "Groups are artificial."

This belief is precipitated by the fact that all group experiences are unique.
As a result, many people doubt that what they learn in a group setting can be
transferred to other life events. This belief may be less prevalent among task
groups because key members of a work team may actually be present in the
group. In therapeutic groups, however, members may question the validity
of their group experience more because of their diverse backgrounds. In
actuality, any experience in which one learns more about oneself and how to
interrelate effectively with others has a lasting and realistically pervasive
influence.

Overcoming Myths and Misconceptions

There are a number of strategies leaders can use to dispel and overcome myths and
misconceptions about groups (Childers & Couch, 1989). Among these are the following:

Utilizing a pre-group interview to identify any fears related to the group and
to correct them.
Providing factual information (psycho-didactic) to group members about the
effects of groups (Selby & Calhoun, 1980).
Addressing group members' concerns early in the group process by giving
the group as a whole low-intensity responses that address cur-rent thoughts
and feelings (Cohen & Smith,1976).

Types of Group
There are many different types of groups. For the purpose of discussion, groups have been
classified into two broad categories: functional groups and identity groups.
Functional Groups are groups that are classified on the basis of what they are designed to do
and accomplish. They are defined by their purpose.
1. T-Groups: The “T” is for training. T-Groups are sensitivity groups that are designed to
increase participants’ self-awareness, promote self-growth, enhance sensitivity to the
feelings of others and improve one’s effectiveness as a group participant. The concepts of
training and sensitivity are combined in the notion of “T” groups because the training
centers on helping individuals increase their sensitivity to the emotional needs of others in
their interpersonal interactions and to their own emotional needs. One may say that these
groups are designed to enhance intra-personal intelligence (self-awareness and self-
regulation) and interpersonal intelligence (awareness of and interactions with others). A
specific type of sensitivity group is the Encounter Group that uses verbal or physical
confrontation or encounters to promote personal growth.

2. Counseling Groups: These groups are designed to help members address specific physical,
social, psychological, emotional or behavioral issues. Through the group process, including
active listening and feedback, group members are able to confront and address the issues of
concern. The desired outcome is usually to change the existing situation to one that is more
adaptive and healthier for each member of the group. Examples of counseling groups are an
anger management group and a group for children of divorced parents.

3. Therapy Groups: These groups are similar to counseling groups except that the issues
tend to be more serious and require a much more experienced and knowledgeable group
facilitator. Examples of therapy groups are a group for individuals with eating disorders and
a group for individuals with anxiety disorders.

4. Work Groups: These groups are designed to accomplish specific tasks on fixed timelines
and deliver a clearly expected product at the end of the specified time frame. The group is
evaluated on the basis of the quality of the product. Most teams would be classified as work
groups. Specific examples of team that are work groups are: a grant writing team where the
product would be a grant proposal, a planning and placement team (PPT) in a school where
the product would be a an individual education plan (IEP) for a student, or a sports team
where the product would be the record at the end of the season.

5. Focus Groups: These groups are designed to generate data on the basis of which informed
decisions are made. Usually a small group of individuals is convened to discuss a particular
topic and to address focused questions on that topic. The responses to the questions, as well
as the passion and emotional reactions to the questions and the interactions among group
members, are all considered to be important data for decision makers. Examples of focus
groups are the group that is convened by a politician to gauge constituents’ reactions to a
proposed piece of legislation and the group that is assembled by the marketing department
of a company to assess consumers’ reactions to a product or advertising campaign.

6. Support Groups: These are groups that are designed as opportunities for individuals
facing similar physical, social, psychological or emotional issues to come together to offer
and receive support from one another. Sharing experiences and offering support, serves to
inspire hope as members realize that they are not alone and others have faced or are facing
similar issues. Members are able learn from the experiences of one another. These groups
differ from counseling and therapy groups in that there is no targeted physical, social,
psychological or emotional change expected for any member of the group, although a by-
product of the support one receives might be such a change. Support groups tend to be
more member-directed and led than counseling and therapy groups. Examples of support
groups related to alcohol addiction are: Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Al-Anon and Al-A-teen.
Other support groups in school settings may include groups for children of divorced parents
and groups for students who have lost a close friend or family member.

7. Psycho-educational groups: These are groups that are designed to address students’
school-related behaviors and their academic achievement. These groups are focused
specifically on identified issues that may be affecting students’ achievement motivation
leading to underachievement and school failure. A psycho-educational group process called
the Interest, Achievement and Motivation, “I AM” group process is described in chapter ten
and an overview of the evaluation of this psycho-educational group process is provided.

Identity Groups are groups that are classified by the nature of the affiliation that
members of the groups share with one another.

1. Membership Groups: These are groups that involve some form of officially recognized
status as a member. Usually these groups require that the participant be inducted or receive
official acknowledgement as a member and may, but not necessarily, require a membership
fee or membership dues. Additionally, there is often an official membership roster that is
revised and updated after a specified period of time. Renewal of membership after a
specified period of time is usually also required. Examples of membership groups are:
sororities, fraternities and athletic teams.

2. Reference Groups: These are groups that do not require official recognition or induction as
a member, rather they are groups with whose values, purpose and goals individuals
identify. A reference group for some individuals may be a membership group for others. A
good example of this would be football or basketball fans, who are not officially members of
sports teams but identify with the sports teams. Therefore, the sports teams may be
considered reference groups. Other examples of reference groups include different
advocacy groups such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) and Green Peace with
whose mission and goals many people who are not card-carrying members identify.

3. Open Groups: These are groups whose memberships are fluid, and where people are free
to join or leave as they choose. There are usually no specific attendance requirements.
Support groups are usually open groups.

4. Closed Groups: These are groups whose memberships are fixed, and where people are not
free to join or leave as they choose. There are usually clear and strict attendance
requirements. Counseling and therapy groups are usually closed groups.
5. In-Groups: These are groups that are considered to include the most popular individuals.
It is considered desirable to belong to these groups. Among school-aged children, in-groups
tend to wield a great deal of influence and power. They often exclude individuals whom the
members of the in-group consider to lack certain traits that they feel important for
membership. These groups are said to be the popular groups or the groups with the popular
people.

6. Out-Groups: These groups include individuals who are excluded or denied membership by
members of the in-group. Members of this group are considered to be less popular and are
deemed to occupy a lower status in the social hierarchy. Sometimes members of this group
suffer ridicule, rejection, ostracism and even bullying by members of the in-group. This is a
particularly challenging issue among school-age children.

7. Family Groups: These are groups that include individuals who are related by blood,
adoption or election. These groups are usually divided into nuclear, primary, and extended
family groups. Nuclear family groups usually include parents and children. Primary family
groups typically include family members who share the same household or, if they do not
share the same household, are deemed to play a significant role in the daily lives of family
members. Extended family groups usually include family members who are not nuclear or
primary family members.

8. Friendship Groups: These are groups that include individuals who are friends and who
may share time, activities, interests and actual or virtual space regularly or periodically.
Social networking websites such as MySpace, Face book, Blogosphere and Twitter have
considerably expanded the reach of friendship groups. In fact, it may be that these internet
connections may deserve a separate group classification, such as Internet Networking
Groups, but for now they are being included as friendship groups.

VALUE OF GROUPS FOR INDIVIDUALS

Some of the positive experiences that individuals have through their participation in groups
are that individuals:

Receive support, encouragement and validation during self-exploration and growth;

Learn by observing the behaviors and consequences of the actions of others;
Achieve a sense of belonging and connectedness;
Share common problems; and
Receive feedback that can help in personal growth and development.

The benefits that individuals receive from groups are supported through the following
group factors or processes:

Support for Catharsis: Groups provide an opportunity for an individual to “emote” or

express his or her deep and true feelings about issues, among group members who
listen and empathize. As a result, the individual experiences release, relief and
freedom from emotional and psychological pain, enabling the individual to
experience personal grow.
Sharing of Information: Group members share information which expands the
perspective, knowledge, awareness and interests of individuals in the group.
Providing Hope: As group members share their stories and provide feedback and
support to one another, they come to demonstrate resilience, determination,
strength and optimism. Individuals who may otherwise despair may become
hopeful and more determined than ever to succeed.
Giving of Feedback: Feedback allows group members to become more aware of their
interpersonal interactions, and to see themselves as others in the group may see
them. This may lead to helpful changes in attitudes and behaviors.
Promoting Bonding: Group members may experience a feeling of connectedness,
togetherness and cohesion. This allows individuals in the group to derive a sense of
affiliation and identification with members of the group, perhaps filling a personal
need by reducing feelings of isolation and aloneness.
Promoting Interpersonal Skills: Groups help individual members develop or refine
their social interaction skills by learning how to read and respond appropriately to
social cues.
Promoting Intrapersonal Skills: Groups help individuals develop or refine their self-
awareness and self-regulation skills by identifying internal emotional cues and
learning how to regulate, manage and express their emotions appropriately.
Allowing Re-enactment: Some groups provide the opportunity for group members to
re-enact family dynamics, as well other relationships outside of the family. This
enables individuals to achieve catharsis and therapeutic release.
Disclosing of Universality: Groups help members realize that they are not alone in
experiencing certain issues and that others share these issues as well. Thus,
members can learn coping strategies and problem solving approaches from others
who are in the same or similar predicament.