GRAMMAR

WORKBOOK

Route 4
ABOVE and BEYOND

Name & Surname: ______________

Section : ______________
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Input UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4
1 Sentence Structure: Perfect Modals Passives If clauses: Type 3
Simple, Complex & (pp. 37-40) (pp. 69-71) & Mixed Type
Compound Sentences (p.97)
(pp. 2-5) Passives If Clauses
(pp. 41-45) (pp. 71-74)
Articles (pp. 6-13)

2 Defining Relative Compare & Contrast Cause & Effect Participle Clauses
Clauses (pp. 13-18) Language Language (pp. 98-100)
(pp. 46-50) (pp. 75-80)
If Clauses type
Purpose (pp. 19-21) 1,2,3 & mixed
type
(pp. 100-102)

3 Present Modals Perfect Modals Cause & Effect Revision

(pp. 22-28) (p. 51) Language (pp. 103-106)
(pp. 80-82)
Passives
(pp. 52- 57) Noun Clauses
(pp. 83-85)
Compare & Contrast
Language
(p. 57)

4 Subject-verb Comparative & Cause & Effect Revision

Agreement Superlative Language (pp. 106 -111)
(pp. 29-32) Structures (pp. 85-90)
(pp. 58- 62)
Noun Clauses Relative Clauses
(pp. 63-65) (pp. 91-93)

5 Relative Clauses Run-on Sentences Noun Clauses Revision

(pp. 33-36) (pp. 66-68) (pp. 94-96) (pp. 112-114)

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UNIT 1 INPUT 1
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Practice 1. Underline the subject and circle the main verb in each sentence.
1. Intelligence is a subjective term.
2. Different people value different aspects of intelligence.
3. Our definition of intelligence might change depending on the time period or context.
4. The first and the most important factor that underlies all individual differences in test scores is the
general mental capability.
5. People who performed poorly on one of the tests also tended to perform poorly on others.
6. A big conflict arises.
7. The level of education of the general public is increasing in many countries.
8. Your cognitive strengths and weaknesses can be different.
9. Many things have changed since then.
10. These contribute to a person’s intelligence.

Practice 2. Read the following sentences carefully. Write (D) next to dependent clauses and (F) next to full
sentences.
____ 1. If a student is highly intelligent
____ 2. When there are many different theories about what constitutes intelligence and what does not
____ 3. People who are highly intelligent have some characteristics that make them different from others
____ 4. The intelligence test that most of the people have taken so far
____ 5. Although many people do not believe that intelligence tests are reliable, a large number of people do
take intelligence tests
____ 6. As if he is the only person who had a high score
____ 7. Because intelligence tests have been used for a long time for a wide range of reasons from
employment to school admission
____ 8. While I was reading an article on intelligence, I realised that intelligence might be a more
complex subject than I thought

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Practice 3. Complete the compound sentences below with the following conjunctions. Be careful with the
punctuation in each sentence. More than one option may be possible.

but and yet so however or therefore

1.
There is a growing body of research linking musical instrument playing to greater cognitive abilities in
children, __________________ many parents want their children to start playing a musical instrument.
2. Different people value different aspects of intelligence; ____________________, there are different
definitions of intelligence.
3. We can look for, ______________________ find a brand new environment by using our intelligence.
4. IQ, intelligence quotient, is the total score received in a standardised test that measures a person’s
intelligence; ____________________, this number does not show all aspects of a person’s intelligence
such as memory, reasoning, attention and verbal skills.
5. Intelligence tests are not considered to be reliable, _________________ many people take these tests
all over the world.
6. We will give a presentation on one of these topics. We can focus on how intelligence affects personal
relationships, ___________________ how much it affects work life.

Practice 4. Fill in the gaps in the complex sentences below using the conjunctions in the box.

because although as soon as if who when which

1.
Most parents want their children to take an intelligence test ___________________ they have doubts
about intelligence tests.
2. The psychologist informed the parents about the test results _____________________ she found out
that their son was a genius. She called them immediately.
3. _________________ Spearman put forward his categorisation of abilities, most psychologists thought
this categorisation was too narrow.
4. There is a need for an intelligence test that reflects all our current knowledge about the brain __________
the majority of the tests which were developed in the 50s and 60s seem to be outdated.
5. ______________ you want to understand intelligence better, you can read this book explaining Charles
Spearman’s ideas.
6. There are so many variables ______________ contribute to a person’s intelligence such as their learning
style, personality, or even their mood.

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Practice 5. There is a mistake in each sentence below. The mistake might be a comma splice, an incomplete
sentence or a run-on sentence. Write the corrected version below. You might add so, also, but, therefore, and.

1. Intelligence tests which may not be reliable can cost a lot of money. So taking an intelligence test might
be a waste of money.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Some test takers may perform poorly because they are not good at multiple choice questions it is
questionable to what extent the results are reliable.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Some cultures value social skills over academic abilities, people from these cultures will always
underperform in these intelligence tests.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

4. Intelligence tests can’t predict how intelligence will be used, they don’t predict future success in life.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

5. A person might score high in an intelligence test that values academic skills. But he may not be good at
establishing successful relationships.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

6. In intelligence tests, test takers need to answer the questions correctly, they need to answer quickly as
time matters in an intelligence test.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

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Practice 6. Read the paragraph that was written by a student. Correct the underlined mistakes with

compound, complex and run-on sentences. Be careful with punctuation. There are 12 mistakes.

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Prompt: Write a short biography of a genius who is still alive today.
Ruth Lawrence 1.
Ruth Lawrence, 1. whom was born in 1971, was a child prodigy. She was home- ________________
schooled by her father especially in mathematics. She was only 10 years old 2.
after she was admitted to Oxford University in 1981. She was the youngest 2.
person ever to enter this university. She completed her bachelor’s degree in ________________
mathematics in two years, 3. therefore she was in the British news as an 3.
unprecedented child prodigy. She got another degree in physics in 1986 4. , ________________
completed her Doctor of Philosophy in mathematics from Oxford, aged 17. 5. 4.
Then she had worked as a junior fellow at Harvard, she took an associate ________________
professorship at the University of Michigan in 1990. She is currently working at 5.
the Hebrew University of Jerusalem’s Einstein Institute of Mathematics. She is ________________
investigating algebraic topology and knot theory, 6. that is too complicated for
many people to understand. Many experts say that it will be years 7. so 6.
technology and science advance enough to make any practical use of her ________________
studies.
Her father was a maths and science teacher who started to work in computing 7.
later in his life. Then, he focused on his daughter’s education. Her father ________________
followed her when she went to the U.S first to Harvard and then to the
University of Michigan, 8. which he always spent his time with his daughter. 8.
Ruth had fallen in love with a mathematician from Israel 9. ; because, she left ________________
her father and went to Jerusalem. Now, she has 4 kids and leads a quiet 9.
ordinary life. ________________
Ruth said that she had always wanted her children to grow up naturally. Her 10.
father didn’t allow her to spend time with children of her own age 10. even if _______________
he was afraid that trivial conversations and pointless playing would hold her 11.
back. Her father’s approach to her education has been criticised since many _______________
people find it too strict. Many people think that her father is not satisfied with
her life today. 11. Although, he says that he has always been proud of her. She 12.
is still influencing the lives of many young people who will become _______________
mathematicians and physicists 12. , these people will make big contributions to
the world.

ARTICLES

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Read the following sentences and answer the questions below.
What do we mean when we say a person is intelligent? There is an article which was published two
years ago. It explains the points related to intelligence.

1. Underline the articles in the sentences.

2. Explain the differences between them in terms of their meaning and use.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

Indefinite Articles: A and AN

‘A’ and ‘an’ are used before singular countable nouns. We use ‘a’ before consonant sounds (e.g. b, c, d, g, h,…)
and ‘an’ before vowel sounds (e.g. a, e, i, o, u).
E.g. a book, an interview
The meaning is any book, one book in general or any interview, one interview in general.

TIP

We use ‘a’ before u or eu when they sound like /j/ (as in you): a university, a uniform, a

euphemism.

We use ‘an’ before words that begin with a silent h: an hour, an honour

This rule also applies to acronyms and initials: a UK-based company, an HR department
Definite Article: THE
‘The’ is used before singular and plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.
E.g. The article on intelligence is interesting.
I read almost all the articles on intelligence.
The advice I received was helpful.
When we talk about something specific and something that we know, we use ‘the’. It is the most common
article in academic writing.
NO ARTICLE:
We do not use an article before countable plural nouns or uncountable nouns when they refer to something
in general.
E.g. Apples are good for heart.
I ask for advice when I can’t decide on something.

Read the following sentences and explanations to see the different uses.

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1. Is there a restaurant in this building? (Any restaurant/one restaurant)
2. The restaurant is on the first floor. (There is only one restaurant / a specific one)
3. Restaurants might be too expensive. (No article: restaurants in general / all restaurants)
4. The restaurants in this area are often cheap. (Only the restaurants in this area)
4. Information means facts or details that tell you something about a topic, situation or person. (No
article: information in general)
5. The information about intelligence is limited. (The information about intelligence, not information in
general. The prepositional phrase that follows the noun makes it known)

TIP

‘The’ is used with a singular noun to generalise about a group or species in formal contexts.

E.g. The tiger shark has marks on its skin. (More formal. The meaning is all tiger sharks)

Tiger sharks have marks on their skins. (Correct but less formal)

‘A/an’ is only used when we refer to one example in a group or species.

I saw a tiger shark two days ago. (one tiger shark)

Practice 1. Read the following sentences paying attention to the words in bold and write (G) if the words are
used in general or (S) if they refer to something specific or (E) if they refer to one example in a group.
______ 1. It is a good idea to express fear. When it is shared, it will be easier to deal with it.
______ 2. I can’t describe the fear I felt when I saw that huge dog late at night.
______ 3. The engineers in this company are all experienced.
______ 4. Engineers are believed to be good at problem solving.
______ 5. We haven’t decided where to meet yet. We will meet at a café and go over the preparations for
the event.
______ 6. The café where I met him for the first time is not far away from here.
______ 7. I don’t like food in restaurants. I always prefer to have meals at home as it is healthier to eat
home-cooked meals.
______ 8. Many people pursue happiness but most of them think that money will bring happiness.
______ 9. The happiness of a country might be determined by looking at the economic development.
______ 10. Red squirrels used to be common in British forests.
______ 11. The red squirrel lives high up in trees.
______ 12. A red squirrel might die if it has the parapox virus.
New information vs. known information:

8
 We use a/an before a singular countable noun and no article before a plural countable noun or an
uncountable noun when we mention something for the first time. When we mention it for the second
time, we use ‘the’.
E.g. I have bought a book. The book is on intelligence. (The first time we mention the book makes it known)
I have bought apples and put them in the fridge. The apples in the fridge are fresh. (The prepositional
phrase that follows the noun makes it known. They are also mentioned in the previous sentence.)
I asked Judy for help. The help I received from her was very useful. (The reduced relative clause that
follows the noun makes it known.)

Some Common Uses of Articles

A/an is used before jobs I am a doctor.

She is a lawyer.
A/an is used to describe a person, an object or a
place. Sabancı University is a prestigious academic institution.
a/an+ adjective+ noun Prof. Gregory is a knowledgeable person.
*a/an is used based on the adjective. If the This is an interesting opinion.
adjective starts with a vowel sound, use ‘an’. If it
starts with a consonant sound, use ‘a’.

The/a/an is used before an institution if we
think of the building.
The is not used before an institution if we think
of the purpose of this institution.
Examples of institutions: school, college,
university, prison, hospital
There is a college near my house. (The building)
When I was at college, I made a lot of new friends.
(Purpose: a place for learning)
The hospital is not far away. (The building)
My friend is still in hospital. (Purpose: a place to receive
treatment)

When the is used before some adjectives such The disabled need support. (All the people who are
as young, old, elderly, rich, poor, sick, homeless, disabled)
unemployed, blind, deaf, disabled, dead, injured,
etc., they refer to a group of people. The homeless will be given food. (All the people who are
homeless)
When the is used before nationality adjectives, it The Japanese are hardworking. (All the Japanese people)
refers to a group of people. The Spanish are voting tomorrow. (All the Spanish
people)
A / an is used to mean one with fractions and a hundred
large numbers. two and a half
half a kilo

A / an is used with some expressions to show once a year

frequency and measurements. 50 kilometres an hour

Tip: Abstract nouns and articles

A common mistake made with abstract nouns is the use of articles.
-Abstract nouns are regarded as uncountable nouns so they do NOT take the articles a/an
when used on their own:
A knowledge is power. 9
-When they refer to a concept in general, abstract nouns do NOT take any articles:
‘The true sign of intelligence is not knowledge, but imagination.’ Einstein
-When they refer to a specific concept, abstract nouns take the article the.
 Common uses of THE
parts of a building the entrance, the ground floor
times of the day in the morning, in the afternoon, during the day
meals (when we refer to a specific meal) The dinner we had last night was wonderful.

oceans, seas, rivers, mountain ranges The Pacific Ocean, the Mediterranean, the Nile, the Alps
countries with plural names, Republic, The Netherlands, The United States, The Republic of
Kingdom, etc. China, the United Kingdom
Organisations The United Nations, The World Bank, The International
Monetary Fund
Locations on the right/left, in the middle, at the end,
in the north/south/east/west
musical instruments the piano, the guitar
historical periods the 1970s, the Middle Ages, the Muromachi Period
noun + of The University of Nottingham, the Isle of Wight
places in a town the bank, the hospital, the supermarket, the post office
names of museums, cinemas, theatres, The British Museum, The Odeon Cinema, The Arts
hotels Theatre, The Hilton
the media Let’s listen to the radio. / I want to go to the cinema.
ordinal numbers the first, the second, the last
superlative adjectives the best, the most important problem
unique, only one of something the capital, the manager, the library

Common uses of NO ARTICLE

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 names and titles Jack, Mrs. Jones, Professor Gregory
times, days, months at noon, at night, at midday, on Tuesday, in October
meals Shall we meet after dinner?
I usually have eggs for breakfast.
Languages English, Turkish, Japanese
countries, continents, cities, towns, Turkey, Spain, Asia, Europe, Istanbul, Paris, Kadıköy,
states, most roads, streets, parks, etc. Virginia, Oxford Street, Hyde Park
mountains, hills, lakes Mount Ağrı, Çamlıca Hill, Lake Como
means of transport and communication by bus, by train, by email, by phone
named airports and stations Gatwick Airport, Nottingham Bus Station
schools and universities Sabancı University, Brighton Cooking School
school subjects math, science
Sports tennis, squash, basketball
materials, liquids, gases silk, plastic, oxygen
Illnesses cancer, mumps, measles
some places I go to school at 7 o’clock every day.
I work at home.
planets Jupiter, Mars, Venus

TIP
Before Earth (the planet we live on), we can use ‘the’ or ‘no article’. Using ‘the’ is more common. We
use a capital letter with Earth.
E.g. The Earth revolves around the Sun. / Earth revolves around the Sun.

When earth means the surface of the world, we can use ‘the’ or ‘no article’. Using ‘no article’ is more
common. We do not use a capital letter.
E.g. The earth was shaking.
The kite fall back to earth.
What is the most serious problem facing earth?

‘The’ is often used with ‘world’

E.g. in the world, around the world, all over the world
‘The’ is used before sun and moon as they are unique. We might use a capital letter.
The sun is the central body of the solar system.
The first man on the Moon was Neil Armstrong.

Practice 2. Read the following sentences. If all the articles in a sentence are correct, put a tick (√) next to
the sentence. If there are any articles that are incorrect, write the correct articles below.
______ 1. Intelligence is influenced by a number of factors such as genes and education.

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______ 2. Studies show that a loving family environment affects a child’s IQ a lot.

______ 3. Place where children live affects their intelligence as culture which they are exposed to plays a
role in their intelligence.

______ 4. Chinese give importance to the education of their children so families provide different
opportunities for them.
_______ 5. According to research done at University of London, a group of children who were deprived of
the attention of their families had significant decreases in their IQ levels.

_______ 6. In United States, a less successful person can go to the university if the family values education
and is willing to pay.

_______ 7. The professor Jones believes that first-born children have higher IQs due to the attention they
receive from their parents.

_______ 8. In Middle Ages, most parents were not aware of how to raise a child. They didn’t even know
importance of having the dinner together as a family.

Practice 3. Read the following paragraph written by a student to answer the following question. There are
15 mistakes about the use of articles. Find the mistakes and correct them.

What is one factor that leads to a higher IQ?

There are many factors that affect intelligence of a child. One of them is growing up in an educated
household. Although it is true that DNA affects intelligence considerably, environment in which a child
grows up also plays significant role in cognitive ability. According to research conducted by scientists at
University of Virginia and the Lund University in Sweden, young adults who were raised in educated
households have higher IQ levels than those who were brought up by less educated parents. A study
compared the cognitive ability of 436 Swedish male siblings. One of siblings grew up with the biological
parents and the other with adoptive parents. The IQ of the adopted children, which was measured at ages
18 through 20, was 4.4 points higher than their siblings who were brought up by their biological parents.
Adoptive parents in the study were more educated and lived in better socioeconomic conditions. There
are other studies that support these findings. One reason why educated parents help to increase IQ levels
is what they do with their kids. For example, educated parents are more likely to talk during the dinner,
take their children to the museums and read stories to their kids before they go to bed. According to
many studies, even number of books at the home has a significant impact on the intelligence levels of a
child. Another factor is providing better nutrition. When parents are more educated, they tend to be

12
more careful about what their children eat. Eating the healthy food and staying away from unhealthy food
also contribute to the level of IQ. Thirdly, a better educated mother or father seems to have higher
income. That means being able to buy books and toys that will stimulate the development of child’s brain.

Practice 4. Read the following notes taken by a student. By using these notes or doing a quick search on
the Internet, write a paragraph to explain some of the characteristics of the human brain in comparison to
some animal brains. Make sure that you:
- use the articles a, an, the or no article (NA) correctly.
- have compound and complex structures.
- do not have run-on sentences.
Empathy:
Humans: √
The humpback whale: √ E.g. one humpback whale saved a seal’s life
Conscious thought / self-awareness:
An experiment: a little paint on animal’s face, in front of mirror try to rub it off 🡪recognising its
reflection
Humans: developing this around 18 months old
Some animals: almost when they were born E.g. bonobos, gorillas, dolphins
Artistic taste: ability to recognise art & enjoy it
Humans: even if no experience, little training 🡪artistic taste
Animals: no artistic taste
Brain size: Human brain: bigger compared to many animal brains
Results:
1. Efficiency:
Human brain: Process all at once, multitask
Honey bee’s brain: while searching a place, considering each object one by one
2. Memory:
Human brain: Better memory, can remember many associations
E.g. a memory champion: sequence of Pi to thousands of decimal places
Honey bee’s brain: only a few associations between signs & understand location of food

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Unit 1 Input 2
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
Practice 1. Combine the following sentences by using a suitable relative pronoun and/or by following
the instruction in parentheses.
1. Students are perceived to be intelligent. These students get the highest scores in a math class.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. A science class might be challenging. Students might find it difficult to find solutions in a science class.
(Prepositional object clause)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. The assistant interviewed more than 100 students to learn more about their mindsets. Dweck was
working with this assistant. (Prepositional object clause)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Students focused on learning and were resilient to challenges. These students were in the first group.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

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5. In this study, these students are in this group based on their math skills. Their math skills were
declining.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. The parents seemed to have fixed mindsets. The researchers talked to these parents during the study.
(Prepositional object clause)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. The questions tested students’ fear of failure. Researchers prepared these questions to determine
various aspects of a student’s life. (Omit the object relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 2. Error Correction

Read the following paragraph. If the underlined parts are correct, put a tick (√). If they are wrong, correct
them. There are 5 mistakes about relative clauses.

Carol Dweck and her colleagues have defined two mindsets 1.which is 1. ________________
fixed and growth. When students think that intelligence is fixed, they have
a harder time dealing with failure than when they think intelligence can be
improved with hard work. Dweck and her colleagues believe that helping
students to think of intelligence as a capacity 2. that can be enhanced 2. ________________
makes them better at overcoming challenges 3. they face in school. The 3. ________________
important question is where children’s beliefs about intelligence 4. that 4. ________________
come from. The main beliefs of a child 5. which is shaped even before they 5. ________________
start learning about intelligence explicitly determine how they approach
tasks at school. This is one of the points 6. Haimovitz and Dweck discussed 6. ________________
in their article in 2016. Parents influence the way 7. which their children 7. ________________
think about intelligence. However, this influence does not come from
parent’s beliefs about intelligence, it comes from their beliefs about
failure. These two researchers point out that parents 8. whom think that 8. ________________
failure is a terrible thing and that it can be devastating for children want to
protect their children from failure. Other parents 9. that think failure is an 9. ________________
important part of learning want to help their children to recover from

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failure by helping them to learn from it.

Practice 3. Error Correction

Find and correct the error in each sentence. The errors are all related to the relative clause in the
sentence.
1. Many psychologists continue to view intelligence as an overall measure which it is comprised of a wide
variety of skills.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. In the early 1980s, Howard Gardner put forward the idea that a person who he may be intelligent in
one area may not be intelligent in another area.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. The laboratory in where the scientists do experiments to find out more about the human brain is one of
the biggest in the world.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. The researchers are aiming at completing the interviews in October when they are planning to start the
analysis then.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. The students realised that the day which they were supposed to submit their assignments about
intelligence was yesterday.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. The school where is famous for research on intelligence was established almost 50 years ago.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 4. Unscramble the following words and chunks to make meaningful sentences with relative
clauses.

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1. Parents / in this study / surveys / which / about intelligence / their mindset / and / about failure / their
beliefs / assess / filled out
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. their effort / were praised / for / Students / to / were given / the next set of questions / whom
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. the harder test / Nearly 90% / chose / of the students / their effort / who / praise / received / for
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. whose / from their errors / interested in / are / learning / for hard work / parents / Children / are /
praise / likely to
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. the key to success / effort / as / have shown / The results / a variety of methods / found out /
scientists / by using
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 5. Writing a paragraph

1. Read the following paragraph and take notes below.

Dweck’s mindset concept continues to be studied inside and outside the classroom. Rheinberg, a
researcher in Germany, measured teacher’s mindsets and their effects on students. He monitored the
student’s achievements over the school year. He found that students who had a teacher with a fixed
mindset, the belief that students had fixed intelligence and that they had no influence on their
students’ intellectual skills, did not improve over the year. If they entered as low achievers, they
remained low achievers. When teachers had a growth mindset, their low achieving students tended to
improve their grades to become moderate or even high achievers. Rheinberg’s study shows that
teachers, who believe their students can learn, and are committed to finding a way to ensure they
continue to learn, can influence not only test scores but overall attitudes towards learning.
In 1998 Dweck and Mueller noted that there can be negative effects of praising student’s intelligence
as opposed to praising their effort. In this study, Dweck and Mueller gave over 400 fifth graders a
relatively easy test consisting of nonverbal puzzles. After the students finished the test, the researchers

17
told the students their score and gave them a single line of praise. Half the students were praised on
their intelligence, the other half on their effort. The students were then allowed to choose between
two different subsequent tests – one more difficult than the other. Nearly 90% of the students that
received praise for their effort chose the harder test. Next, Dweck and Mueller tested the students’
fear of failure and gave the students yet another test that was designed to be extremely difficult.
During this test, the students who received praise for their effort worked hard to figure out the puzzle
while their counterparts became quickly discouraged. The study continued with the students being
giving the option of either looking at the exams of students who performed better or worse. Once
again, the students who received praise for their hard work were interested in the higher scoring
exams; they wanted to see their mistakes and learn from their errors so that they may excel next time.

Lastly, Dweck and Mueller readministered the initial test. Students who were praised for their effort
exhibited an improvement, raising their score by an average of 30%. Students who were praised for
their intelligence scored an average of 20% lower than their first time – the students regressed.
This study shows that when teachers and parents praise natural intelligence or skill over performance,
they are sending a fixed mindset message. On the contrary, adults who praise effort or the strategies it
took to achieve something, are building up students through a growth mindset. This taught students to
learn from their mistakes and challenge themselves, essentially, creating the mindset to succeed.

Your notes:

2. Answer the following prompt by using your notes. Do not look at the text and make sure that you use
different types of relative clauses you have learned so far.

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How do teachers’ beliefs and attitudes affect students’ success? Explain by giving examples.

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3. Editing: Read your answer again and check:
a. What are the different types of relative clauses you have used in your paragraph?
b. Are there any mistakes in your use of relative clauses? You might ask one of your friends or teachers for
feedback.
PURPOSE
Read the following sentences and answer the questions below.
Students with growth mindsets work hard to solve difficult problems. They know that even geniuses

19
work hard to develop their abilities and to contribute to society.

1. Underline the infinitives (to + verb) in the sentences.

2. Why are they used in these sentences?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE
Infinitive of purpose (to + verb) is used to express purpose. It explains why something is done. After saying
what is done, this structure is often used to express why it is done in the same sentence.
E.g. This button is used to delete words. (Infinitive of purpose answers the question ‘Why is this button
used?’)
I bought a graded reader to improve my English. (Infinitive of purpose answers the question ‘Why did
you buy a graded reader?’)
Negative Form: I took the earlier shuttle not to be late to class.
I completed my assignment two days ago not to miss the deadline.
*While giving instructions, we often put the infinitive of purpose part at the beginning of the sentence.
To upload your essay, go to the assignment page.

Practice 1. Combine the following sentences by using an infinitive of purpose. You might need to make
some changes.
1. Students with fixed mindsets tend to avoid challenges. They want to look smart all the time.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Dweck contemplated the reason why a capable child gives up in the face of failure. Therefore, Dweck
and her assistants ran an experiment on elementary school children.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. With her colleagues, Carol Dweck measured the students’ mindsets and monitored their grades. By
looking at these, they thought they would see how they coped with challenges.
______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
IN ORDER TO / SO AS TO

20
‘In order to + V’ and ‘so as to + V’ are used to express purpose. They explain why something is done. In
academic writing, after saying what is done, these structures are often used to express why it is done in
the same sentence. They are more common in writing than in speaking.
E.g. I read the text three times in order to understand it better.
Negative Form: I took an umbrella in order not to get wet. (introduces a possible negative result)
E.g. They try to produce more energy so as to meet the high demand.
Negative form: They try to produce more energy so as not to have an energy crisis. (introduces a possible
negative result)
Practice 2. Combine the following sentences by using the structure in parentheses. You might need to
make some changes. Be careful with negative forms.
1. If you lived in a desert, you would have to be very good at finding water or plants. This would be key to
your survival. (in order to)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Adaptation to the environment can be achieved by changing oneself. Coping with the environment
more effectively requires this. (so as to)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. Psychologists don’t want to ignore the importance of time in an intelligence test. Therefore, they give a
limited time to the test-takers. (so as to)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Many parents try to spend more time with their small children. They do not want to deprive them of
love and attention which play an important role in improving their IQs. (in order to)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
IN ORDER THAT / SO THAT
‘In order that’ and ‘so that’ are also used to express purpose. They explain why something is done. They
are followed by a full sentence which often has modals such as can, will, would or could. ‘In order that’ is
more formal than ‘so that’.
E.g. I read the text three times in order that /so that I can understand it better.
Negative form: I read the text three times in order that / so that I wouldn’t miss any important ideas.
(introduces a possible negative result)

21
Practice 3. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words in the box. There might be more than one
possible answer. Be careful with the negative forms.

so that in order that in order to so as to

1. There are many studies done on twins who were separated right after their birth ______________
understand the effect of genes on IQ.
2. Many people encourage their children to join a chess club or solve harder math problems _______
__________ raise their IQ scores.
3. Most countries have lowered the school starting age to 3 or 4 ________________ children will get
formal education for a longer time, which is an important factor in rising IQ levels all over the world.
4. Today, schools try to increase the number of cognitively demanding tasks in their programmes
____________ their students will not fall behind students in other schools in terms of their IQ levels.
5. It is important for children to avoid unhealthy food in their diet ______________ affect their brain
development negatively.

Practice 4. Read the following sentences. Some of them have a mistake about the use of to /in order to
/so as to /so that /in order that. If the sentence is correct, put a tick (√). If there is a mistake, correct it.

________ 1. Most pregnant women take vitamins and minerals during their pregnancy so that their
babies can have higher IQs when they are born.
______________________________________________________________________________________

________ 2. Intelligence tests are designed in order to they can assess various abilities through a variety
of tasks.
______________________________________________________________________________________

________ 3. Intelligence tests should include different types of questions rather than multiple choice
questions so as to make it possible for the test-takers to guess the answers.
______________________________________________________________________________________

________ 4. Intelligence tests are updated frequently so that reflect our current knowledge about the
brain and cognition.
______________________________________________________________________________________

22
Unit 1 Input 3
MODALS
Read the following sentences and answer the questions below.
1. The human brain can process different types of information at the same time.
2. We may cover all the main ideas today. If we do not have enough time, we will continue
tomorrow.
3. We have to read all four articles before the exam.
4. You should watch these two videos before coming to class tomorrow. They summarise the main
points of our lecture tomorrow.

1. What do these structures add to the meaning of the sentence?

The underlined words express meanings such as permission, possibility, certainty and necessity.

A MODAL VERB
A modal verb is used to express ability, advice, possibility, permission, necessity and so on. A modal verb
is followed by the bare infinitive. Please refer to the chart showing modal verbs at the end of this input.
The human brain can process different types of information at the same time.
Subject + Modal verb + the bare infinitive

ABILITY
Present and Future Ability:

⮚ When we want to talk about a future ability, we use ‘be able to’ not ‘can’.

Ex. Our students will be able to write a paragraph well by the end of this month. CORRECT
Our students can write a paragraph well by the end of this month. INCORRECT

⮚ Although both ‘can’ and ‘be able to’ are used for ability, ‘be able to’ is preferred when there is

some difficulty involved.

Ex. Despite his illness, he can / is able to lead a normal life. (both forms are correct but ‘is able to’ is
often preferred)

⮚ ‘Be able to’ can be used in different situations where it may not be possible to use ‘can’ or ‘could’.

Ex. I would like to be able to speak at least two foreign languages.

I love being able to help students who have difficulty understanding difficult concepts.
I haven’t been able to reply emails from my students since yesterday.

23
Past Ability:

⮚ ‘Could’ is often used to express past ability. However, in a specific situation when we managed to

do something, we use ‘was/were able to’ in positive sentences.

Ex. I was able to read all the articles although I had a limited time. CORRECT
I could read all the articles although I had a limited time. INCORRECT

⮚ When it is a negative or question sentence, we can use both ‘could’ and ‘was/were able to’.

Ex. The professor couldn’t / wasn’t able to explain the difference between these two concepts.
Could you / Were you able to complete the report yesterday?

Practice 1. Fill in the blanks with can, could or be able to in the correct form. You might use them in
positive or negative form. More than one answer might be possible for some of the blanks.
1. In the past, it was thought that the brain _________________could__ change except during some
developmental periods in childhood.
2. Despite the lack of technology and equipment to do research fifty years ago, scientists ____can______
____________ determine some of the significant functions of the brain.
3. Human brains are malleable. In other words, we __________can___________ shape and reform our
brains through neuroplasticity.
4. The professor would like _______to be able to __________ help people to improve their memory in the
future by doing this research.
5. I am sure that we _______can___________________ discover the genetic causes of Alzheimer’s
disease in the near future in order to target our treatments better.

POSSIBILITY

⮚ ‘May’ is more common in academic and scientific English.

Ex. Attention deficit is a problem that may start at an early age. The symptoms may be observed even at
the age of 3.

⮚ If we want to ask about possibility, the question often starts with ‘Do you think…’

Ex. Do you think the lecture might finish soon?

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 ⮚ If something is not possible, we use ‘might not / may not’. We can’t use ‘could not’ to say that it

is not possible.
Ex. You may not / might not have a tutorial today because the professor seems to be busy. CORRECT
You couldn’t have a tutorial today because the professor seems to be busy. INCORRECT

⮚ If something is impossible, we use ‘can’t’.

Ex. You really can’t complete the experiment in a week. (I am sure that it is impossible)

⮚ When we believe that something is certain, we use ‘will’.

Ex. Scientists will find a way to solve problems related to memory. They have been working on this for a
long time and they have many findings.

SPECULATION

⮚ When we have evidence and strongly believe that something is true, we use ‘must’.

Ex. Some people say that it is impossible to change our brain. This must be incorrect. There is a lot of
research showing that the human brain is malleable.

⮚ When we have evidence and strongly believe that something is NOT true, we use ‘can’t’.

Ex. The professor can’t be at the conference in London now. He is working in his office.

Practice 2. Fill in the blanks with may / may not / might / might not /could / can’t / must / will. More than
one answer might be possible for some of the blanks.
1. When children are praised for being smart, they ______could______ be willing to take on challenges.
This is possible because they do not want to fail and look unintelligent.
2. Although it is not definite, a study shows that moving in reverse _______will______ help with short-
term memory. You ________must____ try walking backwards to see if it improves your memory.
3. According to the same study, even imagining walking backwards _____might_____ result in better
recall of past events. Some scientists think that you ____can________ recall past events better by doing
this as it is impossible to have a real effect without actually doing it.
4. Scientists at Harvard University are certain that the future research ______will__________ uncover
why backward technique seems to improve memory recall.
5. The famous professor _______may not________ attend the conference about the recent brain
research. Nowadays, he is spending all his time in his laboratory as he is about to complete his
experiments. He wants to publish his results as soon as possible.

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OBLIGATION & NECESSITY:

⮚ ‘Must’ and ‘Have to’ are used to express obligation. ‘Have to’ is used in situations when it is

grammatically impossible to use ‘must’.

Ex. It is difficult to have to see a family member suffering from a fatal disease.
Having to go through the whole data once again was quite challenging for everyone in the research
team.

⮚ When there is no obligation, we use ‘don’t/doesn’t have to’ or ‘don’t/doesn’t need to’.

We do not use ‘mustn’t’ to show that there is no obligation.

Ex. When we are good at driving, we don’t have to/don’t need to put any mental effort into it. CORRECT
When we are good at driving, we mustn’t put any mental effort into it. INCORRECT

⮚ ‘Mustn’t’ is used for prohibition.

Ex. A doctor mustn’t share any information about a patient’s illness with others without getting permission
from the patient. It is the patient’s right to decide.

⮚ ‘Need to’, ‘must’ and ‘have to’ can be used to say that something is important and necessary.

Ex. We need to / must / have to acquire new abilities in order to create new neural pathways.

Practice 3. Fill in the blanks with must / have to / need to in the correct form. You might use them in
positive or negative form. More than one answer might be possible for some of the blanks.
1. When we master a skill, we do most of the things without __having to_______________________
think. In other words, we _________have to________________ engage mentally.
2. When areas of the brain are damaged, the brain _________needs to________________ move
functions from the damaged parts of the brain to the undamaged parts of the brain.
3. Researchers _______have to __________________ involve anyone in their research without getting
consent because it is against research ethics.
4. We ________need to___________ pay attention to details today. For example, we _____need to
___________ know the important telephone numbers by heart thanks to technological devices that we
use today.
5. In order to boost our brain power, the activities we engage in ____must______________ have certain
characteristics. For example, the task _______must __________ be important, meaningful and interesting
for the person.

26
6. _______Need to_____________ find directions on our own challenges our brain in many ways.
Therefore, many people do not want to use navigation gadgets today.

Practice 4. Rewrite the following sentences by using a suitable modal verb. You might be using more than
one modal verb in the same sentence.

1. Many scientists recommend eating more fruits and vegetables as it is likely to reduce the risk of
memory loss.
We must eat vegetables and fruits as it will likely to boost our memory, hence why scientists recommend
it. _________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. It is possible that antioxidants and vitamins such as vitamin A, B, C and E found in fruit and vegetables
reduce brain oxidative stress, which means preventing memory loss.
_Vitamins like vitamin A, B, C, and E found in fruit and vegetables are likely to reduce brain oxidative
stress; preventing memory loss.
______________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. It is necessary for us to adopt heart-healthy habits such as losing weight and not smoking in order to
prevent memory loss.
We have to adopt heart-healthy habits for preventing memory loss, by losing weight and not smoking.
________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4. It is a good idea for people who have difficulty in completing daily tasks such as cooking and paying bills
to see a doctor immediately.
If one experiences difficulty in basic activities such as cooking or handling financial responsibilities, it is
recommended to consult as soon as
possible._______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______
5. It is not necessary to see a doctor if you forget something minor from time to time as this is probably
normal.
Forgetting minor details is considered normal, so there is no need to seek doctors in these
situations.______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

27
6. Scientists are certain that age-related chemical and structural changes affect the parts of the brain
which are involved in retrieval.
According to the scientists, parts of the brain which are involved in retrieval are affected by structural
changes and age-related chemicals.
______________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
7. Although there was a limited number of resources in the past, many people managed to learn foreign
languages.
Many people managed to learn different languages despite of limited sources in the past.
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
8. It is impossible for an average person to process a big amount of information whereas a savant has the
ability to do it.
__Unlike savants, it is impossible for an average person to process big amount of information.
______________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
9. The students promise to put in more effort and try several times next time they are given a challenging
task.
_Next time when given a challenging task, students promised to put more effort and try to several times
more._________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
10. Researchers have found that reading books regularly probably leads to a 20% lower risk of dying.
Researchers have found that the risk of dying decreases by 20% when one reads books regularly.
______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 5. Read the following paragraph and correct the mistakes about modal verbs.

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Improving Memory
Last week, I 1. wasn’t able to remember even my best friend’s name. When my 1. ___x___________
colleague whom I have been working with for a few years in the same laboratory
said ‘2. Must I help you to improve your memory?’, I accepted his offer at once. 2. _____Can_______
He suggested we 3. should try some techniques he had learned from a course. 3. ____x__________
There are many interesting ones such as walking backwards.
In the past, we 4. can remember more easily as we didn’t use to rely on 4. _____could______
technological devices, our brains used to perform much better. However, today
we 5. mustn’t remember even our family members’ phone numbers thanks to 5. __cant_________
our mobile phones. In general, age-related memory loss 6. might represent a 6. ____x__________
loss of self. It 7. may also affect the practical side of life, like getting around the 7. ______x________
neighbourhood or remembering how to contact a loved one. It's certain that
concerns about declining thinking and memory skills 8. could rank among the 8. ______x________
top fears people have as they age. However, it is not only about the elderly, it
concerns everyone in the society. Parents think that their children 9. must have 9. ______x________
better functioning brains in order to be successful in today’s world. They think
that it is a requirement to cope with the changes today. Young adults and the
middle-aged population want to have a better memory so that they 10. have to 10. _____can____
perform better in their workplace. Therefore, it is not surprising to see articles
on improving memory and brain functions every day in the newspaper,
magazines and on the Internet. I am sure there 11. might be one if you check 11. ___x__________
any newspapers today. Experts agree that we 12. should live a mentally active 12. _______x______
life. Just as muscles grow stronger with use, by regular mental exercise, we 13.
will able to keep mental skills and memory in tone. 13. __will be able to
Are certain kinds of "brain work" more effective than others? Any brain exercise _________
is better than being a mental couch potato but if you want to benefit more, the
activities 14. must require you to work beyond what is easy and comfortable.
Playing endless rounds of solitaire and watching the latest documentary 14. ________x_____
marathon on the History Channel 15. must not be enough. Learning a new
language, volunteering, and other activities that strain your brain 16. could be 15. _____cant_____
better choices. I 17. have to start with the techniques my friend suggested and 16. ____x_________
read more on other techniques since I want a better memory. 17. _______x______

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 MODAL VERBS
MODAL VERB MEANING EXAMPLE SENTENCE

CAN present ability I can prepare a presentation on an academic topic in a short

COULD past ability time.
I could read 50 pages of articles in a week when I was at
university.
COULD / MAY / MIGHT possibility We may/might/could finish the input on human brain today as
we have only one final part.
NEED TO / MUST / HAVE Necessity / You need to/ must / have to read all the articles on human
TO Obligation brain by next week.
MUSTN’T Prohibition You mustn’t bring your notes to the exam.
MUST / COULD / MAY / Speculation This professor must be an expert in neuroscience. He has done
MIGHT / CAN’T a lot of research on the human brain.
The professor can’t be in the laboratory. I saw him leaving the
building an hour ago.
This part could / may / might be more difficult to understand
as the concepts such as neuroplasticity is unfamiliar.
SHOULD / OUGHT TO Advice You should definitely check this website while preparing your
assignment. I think it is one of the best to explain
neuroplasticity.
WILL Predictions / This exam is worth 30% of your overall course grade. It will be
decisions a challenging exam as it covers all the topics in the book.
made at the A: This website is a really good one. You should all check the
time of articles there.
speaking B: I will definitely start reading these articles tonight.
WILL Promise Don’t worry! I will go over all the slides before the
presentation.
MAY / COULD Permission May I join the lecture on neuroplasticity tomorrow?
Could I ask a question about one of the main functions of the
human brain?
MAY / COULD Offers / May I explain the term ‘neuroplasticity’ before we move on?
Requests Could you please explain the main differences between human
intelligence and artificial intelligence briefly?

30
Unit 1 Input 4
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Read the following sentences and answer the questions below.
Pair 1
One of the distinguishing characteristics of genius is immense productivity.
One of the distinguishing characteristics of genius are immense productivity.
Pair 2
More than six hundred pieces of music was produced by Mozart.
More than six hundred pieces of music were produced by Mozart.
1. Underline the subject and the verb in the sentences in each pair.
2. Identify which sentence in each pair is correct and which one has a mistake in terms of subject –
verb agreement.

Tip:
3. Editing your grammar in writing
4. you complete a piece of writing, revision is an important next step. During this step, aside
When
5.
from checking the content and organisation of your work, spare some time to go over your
6.
grammar. Subject – verb agreement mistakes can easily be identified and corrected at this stage.
7.
If8.
you are in an exam setting, develop a habit of sparing a few minutes at the end to revise your
content,
9. organisation and use of language.

Practice 1a. Read the following text taken from Unit 1 Input 4 and circle the subject and underline the
main verb in each sentence.

Geniuses think productively, not reproductively. When confronted with a problem, they ask "How
many different ways can I look at it?", "How can I rethink the way I see it?", and "How many
different ways can I solve it?" instead of "What have I been taught by someone else on how to
solve this?" There are many different responses that they may come up with. Some of these are
unconventional and possibly unique. A productive thinker often says that there are many different
ways to express "thirteen" and many different ways to halve something. With productive thinking,
one generates as many alternative approaches as one can. Each one is not always obvious but all
of them are likely approaches. It is the willingness to explore all approaches that is important, even
after one has found a promising one. Einstein was once asked what the difference was between
him and the average person. He said that if you asked the average person to find a needle in the
haystack, the person would stop when he or she found a needle. He, on the other hand, would
tear through the entire haystack looking for all the possible needles.

31
Practice 1b. Read the following text and circle the subject and underline the main verb in each sentence.

Creative geniuses generate so many alternatives. If neither the first alternative nor the second one
works, they find a third one. When both work, they still continue to search for another. One of the
alternatives is not enough for a genius. The "blind" variations that lead to the original are
produced by geniuses.
A growing cadre of scholars are offering evidence that one can characterise the way geniuses
think. By studying the notebooks, correspondence, conversations and ideas of the world's greatest
thinkers, they have teased out particular common thinking strategies and styles of thought that
enabled geniuses to generate a prodigious variety of novel and original ideas.

SUMMARY CHART
Common Rules about Subject-Verb Agreement
Singular subjects take singular verbs
Plural subjects take plural verbs.
The prepositional phrase that comes after ONE
does not affect the verb. ‘One of….’ takes a
singular verb.
The prepositional phrase that comes after the
words such as result, reason, effect,
consequence and quality does not affect the
verb. The verb agrees with these words.
The following subjects always take a singular
verb:
Each Somebody/ Something
Every Nobody / Nothing
Either Everybody / Everything
Neither
Most, any and all might take singular or plural
verbs depending on the noun that comes after
them.
When subjects are combined with ‘nor’ or ‘or’,
the verb agrees with the second subject.
A productive thinker often says …
Geniuses think…
One of the alternatives is not …
The result of the study is …
The results of the study are …
Neither is the correct.
Nobody has answered my question.
Each one is …
All of them are likely approaches.
All of the news is bad.
Most of the ideas were new.
Most of the water is dirty.
Neither the previous alternatives nor the last
one works

32
 Neither Einstein nor other scientists are …
When subjects are joined with ‘and’, the verb is Both the first alternative and the second one
plural. work…
When the sentence starts with ‘there’, ‘here’ or There are many different ways …
‘following’ the verb agrees with the noun that Here is the book.
comes after the verb. Here are the examples.
Collective nouns such as army, group, team, A growing cadre of scholars are offering
class often take singular verbs when we evidence. (separate individuals)
consider these as one single unit. When we A growing cadre of scholars is offering evidence.
consider them as separate individuals, the verb (one single unit)
is plural.
When there is a relative clause that comes after The "blind" variations that lead to the original
the main verb, the verb agrees with the subject are produced by geniuses.
of the main sentence not the last word of the A genius whose ideas are followed by many
relative clause. scientists comes up with more than one
solution.

Practice 2. Choose the correct option that refers to each rule. You can refer to the example sentences
based on the ‘How Geniuses Think’ article to figure out the rules.

1. Subjects combined with (both)….. and are usually

a) plural b) singular
In terms of IQ points, both Albert Einstein and Marilyn vos Savant are considered geniuses.
2. When subjects are combined with nor or or, the verb agrees with
a) the first subject of the sentence b) the subject closest to it
In a debate about creativity, neither J. P. Guilford nor the other psychologists were of the view
that creativity is the same as intelligence.
Either outstanding creative thinking skills or a high level of intelligence is perceived as a sign of genius.
3. Abstract nouns such as love, hope or honesty refer to concepts that cannot be experienced with
the five senses. On their own, abstract nouns take
a) a singular verb b) a plural verb
Creativity was conveyed through a language of drawings, graphs and diagrams during the
Renaissance.
4. Indefinite pronouns such as each, every, everybody, nobody, something take
a) a singular verb b) a plural verb

33
 When confronted with problems, we fixate on something in our past that has worked before.
5. The structure ‘one of ……’ takes
a) a singular verb b) a plural verb
One of the distinguishing characteristics of genius is immense productivity.
6. When faced with a problem, the responses of a genius…
a) is usually unconventional b) are usually unconventional

Practice 3. Identify and correct the mistakes on subject – verb agreement in the sentences below. Some
sentences do not have any mistakes in them.
1. Formed in England in 1946, Mensa is considered to be the oldest and biggest high IQ society in
the world.
2. One of the Mensa founders were Dr Lance Ware, a scientist.
3. He met Roland Berrill, who was an Australian attorney on a train and together they founded Mensa.
4. The members of this high IQ society lives in over 100 countries around the globe.
5. The activities of this organisation include lectures, discussions and local and international meetings.
6. Mensa is both the oldest and largest high IQ society in the world.
7. Each candidate who wishes to join Mesa have to score in the top two percent of the population in
an approved IQ test.
8. The Mensa website offers two ways to practise for this IQ test.
9. Candidates can either complete the online Mensa Workout quiz or take a pre-test that is available
in some countries.

Practice 4. Read the paragraph below. Find and correct the subject – verb agreement mistakes. There are
12 mistakes.
Dean Keith Simonton, in his books, suggest that geniuses are geniuses because they form more novel
combinations than the merely talented. If one particular style of thought stand out about creative
genius, this is the ability to make juxtapositions between dissimilar subjects. Call it a facility to connect
the unconnected that enable them to see things to which others is blind. Geniuses in the past was able
to think different thoughts because they could tolerate ambivalence between opposites or two
incompatible subjects. If opposites are held together, you suspend your thoughts and your mind moves
to a new level. The suspension of thoughts allow an intelligence beyond thought to act and create a
new form. The swirling of opposites create the conditions for a new point of view to bubble freely from
your mind. One of the inventions of Thomas Edison, a practical system of lighting, were about
combining wiring in parallel circuits with high resistance filaments in his bulbs, two things that was not
considered possible by conventional thinkers, in fact was not considered at all because of an assumed

34
incompatibility. The reason why Edison could make inventions were his ability to tolerate the
ambivalence between two incompatible things, he could see the relationships that led to his
breakthroughs. These common thinking strategies of a creative genius also makes ordinary people
more creative in their work and personal life.

Unit 1 Input 5
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Practice 1. Read the following paragraph. If the underlined part is correct put a (√) and if it is wrong,
correct the mistakes. The mistakes might be about defining or non-defining relative clauses.

Acquired savant syndrome is a condition 1. that occurs as a result of a brain 1. ______________

injury. People 2. having this condition acquire extraordinary abilities after having 2. ______________
the brain injury. This syndrome indicates that there is a great potential 3. is 3. ______________
hidden in all of us. All normal people have an inactive, sleeping genius inside 4. ______________
them, 4. that is amazing. There are typically six main areas of savant skills 5. 5. ______________
which including calendar calculations, artistic abilities, musical abilities,
memorisation and lightning calculation 6. which means doing complex 6. ______________
calculations such as square roots etc. in seconds. The most common savant skill is 7. ______________
musical ability, 7. that is followed by artistic ability, especially drawing or
sculpting. Another group of savant skills is language ability, 8. which is the rarest 8. ______________
of all skills. There was one savant 9. whose could read, write and translate 15 to 9. ______________
20 languages. There are differences between a classical savant and the acquired
or accidental savants. A classical savant is someone 10. which is born with these 10. ______________
extraordinary abilities. On the other hand, accidental savants are people 11. who 11. ______________
get their abilities even at a very old age. Although accidents are the most
common trigger, there are many accidental savants 12. with superhuman skills 12. ______________
13. acquiring after a brain disease, like dementia. Accidental savants may get 13. ______________
their gifts after an accident or some kind of disease with their brain whereas
classical savants usually have a genetic problem like autism.

Practice 2. Combine the following sentences by using the clues given in parentheses.
1. A classical savant has severe brain damage. A classical savant needs assistance. (with)

35
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Many acquired savants do not need assistance. They can lead a healthy life. (Relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Derek Amato started to play the piano after an accident in the pool. He had never played the piano
before. (Relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

4. Orlando Serrell appeared in some documentaries. He acquired skills without suffering from any
complaints. (Relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

5. Researchers try to find out whether it is possible to artificially cause some superhuman skills. This
would make all of us extremely happy. (Relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

6. There are various theories. These theories explain what exactly causes these skills to suddenly appear.
(-ing)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

7. Most scientists attribute this enhanced brain activity to neuroplasticity. It’s the capacity of the neurons
and neural networks in the brain to develop and change throughout life. (Relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

36
8. Miller argues that the skills emerge because of the right brain. It is associated with creativity. (Relative
pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

9. Today, many scientists support the idea of genetic transmission of knowledge. It seems more plausible.
(Relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

10. By creating links between neurons in the brain, meditation can stimulate abilities. These abilities are
hidden in the genetic memory. ( -ed )
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

11. A savant might memorise the maps in the front of telephone books and can tell you how to get around
in a city street by street. This is admired by many people. (Relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

12. Autistic savants are more commonly known by people. They have superhuman skills. ( -ed )
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

13. In a math class, students are perceived to be intelligent. These students get the highest scores. (with)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

37
14. Students who have difficulty in doing more challenging tasks often give up easily. (-ing)

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

15. In this study, they divided the students into two groups. These students’ math skills were declining.
(with)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

16. Hard work is given as the major contributor to long-term success. It can be taught. (-
ed)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

17. Two sets of questions tested students’ fear of failure. The second one was extremely difficult.
(Infinitive)
The second set of questions _______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

18. Students were praised for their effort. These students exhibited an improvement, raising their score
by an average of 30%. (-
ed)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

19. Praising effort is the best approach. Teachers need to adopt this approach while students are working
on a challenging task such as doing a puzzle.
(Infinitive)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

38
20. Students receive praise for their hard work. They are interested in learning from their errors. (-ing)
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 2 Input 1

PERFECT MODALS
Practice 1. PROBABILITY & POSSIBILTY IN THE PAST
Deep Blue is the name of the computer program that played chess with the world champion
Kasparov. In 1996, Deep Blue won a chess game against Kasparov. In just 11 more moves, white had
built a position so strong that black had no option but to concede defeat. The loser reacted with a
cry of foul play, which ignited an international conspiracy theory that is still questioned.

Below are some reactions. Rewrite them using an appropriate modal verb. Make any necessary changes
to the sentences. There may be more than one modal verb that fits the sentence. You might use must,
can’t, couldn’t, may, might, could, may not, might not + have.

1. At first, many people were sure that a real grand master controlled Deep Blue during the game.
A real grand master ___________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Others were positive that artificial intelligence had reached a higher level which meant being able to
outsmart human intelligence.
Artificial intelligence ____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. Most people were positive that chess was too complex for Deep Blue to play.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

4. It is possible that Deep Blue’s victory was due to its unhumanlike commitment to cold, hard logic in the
face of Kasparov’s emotional behaviour.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

39
5. When Deep Blue made an exceptional move during the game, Kasparov probably became so worried
that he made an error that led to his demise in the final game.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

6. Some people are not certain but may be IBM didn’t adapt the programming to Kasparov’s style of play.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

7. Perhaps Deep Blue only triumphed because of a bug in the code during the first game.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

8. It is possible that the bug forced the computer to make a random move that Kasparov misinterpreted
as a deeper strategy.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

9. Although Kasparov managed to win this first game, I am certain that he wasn’t able to keep calm from
that random move onwards.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

10. I am sure Deep Blue gave scientists and engineers significant insight into the multi-chip systems that
have made complex computer models possible in cars, aeroplanes, banks and so on.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 2. Criticism and Regret about the Past

Read the situations below and write two responses to each situation by expressing criticism, regret and/or
missed opportunities. Use a variety of modal verbs in your responses.

1. Yesterday, you had an important business meeting at a company where you hadn’t been before. You
were late for the meeting.
a. __________________________________________________________________________________

b. __________________________________________________________________________________

40
2. The 2016 pound flash crash was triggered by a trading algorithm malfunction.
a. __________________________________________________________________________________

b. __________________________________________________________________________________

3. A university student used a translation app while he was writing his essay on AI and his essay was
completely incomprehensible.
a. ________________________________________________________________________________

b. ________________________________________________________________________________

4. When I called the bank last night to check my balance, I had difficulty explaining my question to the
chatbot.
a. ________________________________________________________________________________

b. ________________________________________________________________________________

5. The famous CEO had serious problems about his schedule yesterday as his mobile phone crashed and
he couldn’t reach his virtual personal assistant.
a. ________________________________________________________________________________

b. ________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 3. Error Correction

The following sentences are about the Go game, which was between AlphaGo and Lee Sedol. AlphaGo is
an algorithm designed by Deepmind to play the game of Go and Lee Sedol is one of the best Go players of
all time. Correct the mistakes about perfect, present, future or past modals in each sentence below.

1. After losing 3 games in a row, Lee Sidol made a move which was the cornerstone of his victory. Many
commentators think that he should made this move earlier.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

2. The designers called this move ‘the one in ten thousands move’. They may not have trained AlphaGo
for this move. It wasn’t possible at all.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

41
3. This surprising move might lead AlphaGo to make wrong decisions later in that game.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

4. Computers can to make better decisions than humans when the decision involves assessing all the

different possibilities of an environment.

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

5. In order to defeat AlphaGo, Lee Sedol must have decide to make an unexpected move that the
computer didn’t even consider a possibility.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

6. AlphaGo’s defeat in this game shed light on some of the flaws of the algorithm. Designers of AlphaGo
will able to work on redesigning a better algorithm in the future.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

7. We have gained more insight into AI thanks to AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol game. Based on this knowledge,
it is possible to say that integrating AI in our daily lives more must help us improve our decision making in
many different contexts.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

8. Some commentators think that Lee Sedol mustn’t have been anxious when AlphaGo started to make
surprising moves. This was so unfortunate.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

9. In order to understand how AlphaGo won the game against Lee Sedol, you don’t have to understand
how DeepMind team trained AlphaGo. Otherwise, you can’t understand it.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

42
10. Many people think that everyone might watch the documentary about the match between AlphaGo
and Lee Sedol. They highly recommend watching it.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

PASSIVES
Read the following sentences and choose the best option for each explanation below.
1. The professor explained AI last week.
2. AI was explained by the professor last week.
1. In which sentence, is the doer of the action (the professor) highlighted?
A. Sentence 1 B. Sentence 2
2. In which sentence, is the action (explaining AI) more important than the doer of the action?
A. Sentence 1 B. Sentence 2
3. What is the difference between sentence 1 and sentence 2 in terms of the verb forms used?
A. In sentence 1, the verb is in the simple past form. In sentence 2, ‘was’ and the past participle are used.
B. Both sentences have a verb in the simple past form.

USE
What is done is more important than who does it.
The doer of the action is obvious.
The doer of the action is unknown or we do not
want to acknowledge the doer.
General feelings or beliefs are shared.
EXAMPLES
The causes will be identified at the end of the study.
(the identification of the causes is more important
than who identifies them)
The experiment was completed yesterday.
(obviously by a scientist)
A chatbot has been developed to help customers.
(we don’t know who has developed it or we don’t
want to say that)
Eliza is considered to be the first chatbot in history.
(Many people consider Eliza to be the first chatbot in
history)

HOW TO TURN AN ACTIVE SENTENCE INTO A EXAMPLES

PASSIVE SENTENCE
1. Find the object of the active sentence. The professor explained AI. (ACTIVE)
Subject Verb Object
2. The object of the active sentence becomes the AI was explained by the professor. (PASSIVE)

43
subject of the passive sentence.
Subject Verb By agent
3. Add a form of ‘be’ + past participle (V3) AI was explained by the professor. (PASSIVE)
Forms of ‘be’: Subject Verb By agent
1. Present Simple Tense: am / is / are
2. Past Simple Tense: was/were
3. Present Perfect & Past Perfect Tenses: been
4. Present & Past Continuous Tense: am/is/are +
being & was /were + being
5. Modal verbs: Modal + be
4. Add ‘by’ + subject of the active sentence to the AI was explained by the professor. (PASSIVE)
end of the sentence Subject Verb By agent

TIP

If the verb in the active sentence does not take or need an object (an intransitive verb), we
cannot make passives. Some examples of these verbs are arrive, come, occur, happen and live.

E.g. An accident was occurred. WRONG

An accident occurred. CORRECT

Fill in the missing parts of the following chart by adding the correct forms of the verbs.
PASSIVE FORM OF DIFFERENT TENSES
TENSES ACTIVE PASSIVE
The Simple Present Scientists invent new technologies New technologies are invented by
Tense everyday. scientists every day.
The Simple Past Joseph Weizenbaum created the first The first chatbot, Eliza 1. ________
Tense chatbot, Eliza in 1966. _____ by Joseph
Weizenbaum in 1966.
The Present The scientist 2. ___________________ A new model is being designed at
Continuous Tense a new model at the moment. the moment by the scientist.
The Past Continuous They were discussing the solutions The solutions were being discussed
Tense during the meeting. during the meeting.
The Present Perfect People have asked an important An important question about ethics

44
Tense question about ethics. 3. ________________________.
The Past Perfect After the engineers 4. ____________ After a computer programme had
Tense ________________ a computer been developed, they started using
programme, they started using it in it in different areas.
different areas.
Be going to Future The researcher is going to analyse the The answers 5. ________________
Tense answers. ____________________ .
Will and modals Another scientist 6. ________________ The research will be conducted by
_______________ the research. another scientist.
People can read the article online for The article 7. __________________
free. online for free.
Scientists must determine the The problem 8. _______________
problem. _______________.
Infinitives Scientists need to understand the The problem needs 9. ___________
problem. _____________________ .
-ing forms I hate people 10. _________________ I hate being asked about the details
about the details of my research. of my research.

SOME USES OF PASSIVE EXAMPLES

Academic writing
Instructions and rules
News reports
Describing a process
The differences will be explained in the next chapter.
This room is locked during the weekend.
This assignment must be submitted by next Monday.
The decision was announced yesterday.
The suspect has been arrested.
These are mixed and the mixture is kept in the fridge. Then, the
result is recorded.

Practice 1. Change the following sentences into active or passive. Some of the sentences cannot be
turned into passive. Write ‘No passive form’ next to these sentences.

1. Writers use many technical terms related to AI even in the simplest newspaper articles.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

45
2. The lecturer will explain the history of AI and the Turing test in the third part of the lecture.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Artificial Intelligence can simply be defined as the capability of a machine to imitate human behaviour.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

4. Many people consider Artificial Narrow Intelligence to be the safest form of AI.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

5. A flash crash happened as a result of a trading algorithm malfunction.

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

6. Some issues may be triggered by a Narrow AI going wrong.

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

7. We have observed examples of problems caused by AI in the economy.

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

8. During the project last year, computer programmes analysed a vast amount of information more quickly.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

9. Data is being collected by AI from multiple sources in order to be analysed.

46
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

10. After the French president’s comments, the value of the pound dropped.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 2. Read the following text which has mistakes related to tenses either in active or passive form. If
the underlined part is correct, put a tick (√). If it is incorrect, correct the mistake.

47
 Artificial Intelligence Applications
What happens if an algorithm 1. builds solely for the purpose of marketing a 1. ______________
brand or a company? In the early 2000s, when a product 2. searched for in an 2. ______________
online store without knowing its exact name, it 3. was a nightmare to find the 3. ______________
product. But now when an item 4. search for on any e-commerce store, all 4. ______________
possible results 5. are present related to the item. For example, the right 5. ______________
movies 6. is listed on Netflix in a few seconds. One reason why Netflix 7. 6. ______________
prefers for relaxation is because Netflix 8. provides highly accurate predictive 7. ______________
technology based on customer’s reactions to films. It 9. examine millions of 8. ______________
records to suggest shows and films that you might like based on your previous 9. ______________
actions and choices of films. As the data set grows, this technology 10. get 10. ______________
smarter and smarter every day. With the growing advancement in AI, in the
near future, products 11. may buy on the web by snapping a photo of it. 11. ______________
Another area is agriculture. As 50 percent more food 12. will be needed in the 12. ______________
world by 2050. The only way this can be possible is if we use our resources
more carefully. Resources 13. use more sustainably when AI 14. help farmers 13. ______________
to get more from the land. 14. ______________
Recently, issues such as climate change, population growth and food security
15. has pushed the industry into seeking more innovative approaches to 15. ______________
improve crop yield. At present, automation and robotics 16. are being used by 16. ______________
organisations to protect crops from weeds. A robot called See & Spray 17. has 17. ______________
developed recently. This robot uses computer vision technologies like object 18. ______________
detection. Weeds 18. monitor and weedicide 19. is precisely sprayed. 19. ______________
Herbicide resistance 20. can prevent by precision spraying. Apart from this, 20. ______________
lately an application called Plantix 21. had been designed to identify potential 21. ______________
defects and nutrient deficiencies in soil through the use of images.
Adapted from https://www.edureka.co/blog/artificial-intelligence-applications/

Unit 2 Input 2

48
COMPARE CONTRAST STRUCTURES: The following is a summary of compare contrast structures for your
reference.
DIFFERENCES
a. Comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs The past decade has seen more important
are used when two things/aspects/areas are advancements in computer science than in
compared. previous decades.
b. Superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs
are used when more than two things are The cost of not developing artificial
compared. intelligence or developing it more slowly will
be enormous.

Computers in the past were not as capable as

the ones we have today. However, computers
in the future will be the most capable.

c. Comparative and superlative adjectives are

formed in three ways:
1. one or two-syllable adjectives take –er for
comparatives and the –est for superlatives at the
end.
2. three or more syllable adjectives take more for
comparatives and the most for superlatives
before them.
3. Irregular adjectives: E.g. good – better – the
best, bad- worse-the worst, far – further/farther-
the furthest/the farthest
AI is faster than human doctors in diagnosis of
an illness.
AI is more reliable than human doctors in
diagnosis of an illness.
AI is better than humans at playing many
games including chess.

d. Comparative and superlative adverbs are

formed in two ways:
1. Regular forms take more for comparatives and
the most for superlatives before them.
2. Irregular adverbs: well – better – the best,
badly – worse – the worst, far – further/farther –
the furthest/the farthest
It is a tool in the service of humans, making
our lives vastly better.
Sooner than we think, AI will lead to more
significant changes in our lives.

49
Adverbs with the same form as an adjective A robot designed by MIT solves Rubik’s cube
early – earlier – earliest the fastest.
fast – faster – fastest
hard- harder - hardest
high – higher – highest
late – later – latest
long – longer – longest
low – lower – lowest
near – nearer – nearest
soon – sooner – soonest

Contrast linkers are used to show the difference Without artificial intelligence (AI), computing
between two things. is something that ‘computes’ whereas with AI,
X is …., whereas Y is …. computing is something that effectively
while reasons, thinks, and learns.
but
X is… On the other hand, Y is … Human intelligence can provide information
In contrast, Y is … on interpersonal relationships. However, AI
Conversely, Y is … does not have the ability to do so.
However, Y is …
Although X is …., Y is ...
Despite ….,
While X is.., Y is…

Other structures to show differences:

Compared to X, Y is … Compared to 20 or 30 years ago, the past
If you compare it to X, Y is … decade has seen more important
advancements in computer science.
X is different from Y with respect to …
X differs from Y in terms of … AI is unlike human intelligence in their ability
X is unlike Y in that X ….. but Y …. to do more than one task at a time.
X and Y differ as far as …is concerned
regarding

50
 SIMILARITIES
X is like Y with respect to … AI is like a shovel.
X and Y are similar in terms of … Artificial intelligence is a part of computer science
X is similar to Y in that ….is the same devoted to creating computing machines and
X resembles Y as far as …is concerned systems that perform operations similar to
regarding … human learning and decision-making.

Both X and Y ... Both computer scientists and ordinary people

X is as adj. as Y. have doubts about the future of AI.

X … Similarly, Y... Computer scientists think that AI might bring

Likewise, Y… about some negative consequences. Similarly,
Also, Y… many people believe AI will change our lives for
the worse.

Practice 1. Read the paragraph below. If the bold parts are correct, put a tick. If they are wrong, correct
the mistakes in bold with compare and contrast language. There are 9 mistakes.
Rather than rational discussions about AI, most of the commentary has
involved a lot of hype, and it has even been apocalyptic. John Markoff
writes that some say it is possible that “these powerful and productive
technologies, rather than freeing humanity, will instead facilitate a 1. far 1. _____________
concentration of wealth, causing 2. serious waves of technological 2. _____________
unemployment than before, casting an inescapable surveillance net
around the globe, while unleashing a new generation of autonomous
super weapons.” 3. In contrast, Nick Bostrom writes that a world with 3. _____________
advanced AI would produce “economic miracles and technological
awesomeness, with nobody there to benefit,” like “a Disneyland without 4. _____________
children,” because the AI would first kill us all. 4. However, reality is 5. 5. _____________
much more prosaic: AI will likely continue improving gradually, under
human control, providing important economic and societal benefits in the
process.
There are some key reasons why people make extreme claims about AI 6. _____________
and why the claims draw 6. most widespread attention 7. in terms of 7. _____________
similar comments in the past. For example, humans have had a

51
longstanding attraction-repulsion relationship with the idea that non-
humans might challenge us. From the Hebrew myth of golem, to Mary
Shelley’s Frankenstein, to movies such as Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space
Odyssey, The Terminator, and Ex Machina, to video commentary pieces 8. _____________
with titles such as “We should be 8. most afraid of computers than we
are,” it has been common to view technology as a threat.
It is important to note that risk potential does not provide a reason for 9. ______________
slowing AI development. Cutting funding for AI research will mean 9. less
research on reducing risks. We need funding agencies to devote even 10. _____________
10. less attention to these risks as AI continues to grow. 11. But no 11. _____________
technology is an unalloyed good, virtually all technologies that emerge in
the marketplace produce benefits vastly in excess of their costs. AI is and 12. _____________
will continue to be no different. However, it will emerge 12. much more
slow if we do not think rationally about it.

Practice 2a. Study the following chart and answer the following questions according to the chart.

1. What is the overall trend according to the chart?

Machines will spend _____________ time on each task type.

52
2. What is the projected increase in time that machines will spend on the following task types between
2018 and 2022? There are two examples for you.
a. reasoning & decision making: 28% - 19% = 9%
b. coordinating, developing, managing and advising:
c. communicating & interacting:
d. administering:
e. performing physical and manual work activities:
f. identifying and evaluating job-relevant information:
g. performing complex and technical activities:
h. looking for & receiving job-related information: 55% - 36% = 19%
i. information & data processing:

Practice 2b. Fill in the blanks in the following paragraph which was written to answer the following
question according to the chart above. You will use different compare and contrast structures.

Describe the changes in machine working hours in terms of the task types in 2018 and 2022.

When machine working hours in 2018 and those projected for 2022 1.
_____________________________, it can be clearly seen that machine working hours are expected to
increase in all task types. 2. ___________ ____________________ increase will be in looking for and
receiving job-related information as it will increase by 19%. 3. ____________________________ increase
will be in communicating and interacting as it will increase by 8%. This will be followed by reasoning and
decision-making since it will go up by 9% in 2022. The machine working hours in performing physical and
manual work activities are predicted to increase 4. ___________________________ those in performing
complex and technical activities. The increase in administering will be 5.
______________________________ the increase in communicating and interacting. 6.
_______________________________ machine working hours in information and data processing are 47%
in 2018, it will grow by 15% and become 62%. If administering and information and data processing 7.
____________________________, it appears that there will a 8. _______________________ increase in
both task types.

53
Unit 2 Input 3
PERFECT MODALS
Below are some problems that occurred when an algorithm went wrong. Fill in the blanks by using an
appropriate modal verb. Sometimes there may be more than one modal verb that fits the sentence. You
can use must, can’t, couldn’t, may, might, could, may not, might not, should, should not + have.

1. A self-driving car operated by Uber killed a pedestrian in 2017. It was the first time an automobile
driven by a computer killed a human. The car was travelling at 38 miles per hour. It is hard to know what
exactly happened. The initial police investigation indicated that the pedestrian __________________ (be)
at fault.
2. In 2016, a Tesla operating in autopilot mode crashed into a tractor-trailer that made a left turn in front
of the vehicle, killing the Tesla’s driver. At the time, it was the first known fatality from a self-driving
vehicle but the car had been warning its driver to disengage the autopilot mode. The driver
______________________________ (take) control of the vehicle.
3. Last year, there was a decrease in the number of accidents caused by driver error. It is likely that using
fully or partially autonomous cars ______________________ (reduce) the number of accidents.
4. The experts clearly explained that the accident _____________________ (happen) because the
machine failed to interpret the signals its sensors received so it ______________________ (avert) the
collision.
5. The company __________________________________ (test) the self-driving car fully before they
started selling it. Many people think that they were too quick to introduce it.
6. After the accident that involved an autonomous vehicle, many people thought that the manufacturer of
the vehicle __________________________________ (hold) responsible.
7. An autonomous shuttle in Las Vegas had an accident on its first day. According to the manufacturer, the
sensors ______________________ (cause) the problem. It is impossible because they checked the
sensors and saw that they were perfectly fine. In fact, its sensors stopped the vehicle when it noticed the
truck was backing up. If the truck had had similar sensors, the crash ___________________ (avoid).
8. German police broke into an apartment after neighbours reported loud music early in the morning. It
was Amazon Echo that was randomly playing music when the resident was out. The neighbours
_________________________________ (think) that there was a party.

54
9. In San Francisco where they use self-driving delivery robots widely, there have been many problems.
For example, last month many customers had to wait for a long time to receive their packages. They said
that they __________________________________ (order) from a company using robots.
10. A new company started using a self-driving delivery service with fully driverless vehicles. The first try
was problematic and an accident occurred. They believed they ________________________________
(have) human monitors in another vehicle.
PASSIVES
Practice 1. Change the following sentences into active or passive. Some of the sentences cannot be
turned into passive. Write ‘No passive form’ next to these sentences.
1. Companies have to find and analyse the data very quickly in order to survive in the extremely
competitive business world.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. We create 2.3 trillion gigabytes of data every day and we created ninety percent of the world’s digital
data just over the past two years.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. The amount of data is almost inconceivable, and it just keeps growing considerably every day.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. When you record digital footprints, you can make predictions about what will happen in the future.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. By using and comparing a wider range and bigger size of data, we can now see new links and
relationships between data that we could not see previously.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Big data is a collection of data from both traditional and digital sources and appears hard to follow.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 2a. Fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs either in active or passive form. The parts
in bold (time expressions, subjects and objects) will help you decide on the correct tense in either active
or passive form. There are also clues or information about the verbs on the right.

55
 The Trouble with Big Data? Clues / Information
You may be familiar with the statistic that 90% of the world’s
data 1. ____________________ (create) in the last few years. 1. Who created 90% of the
One of the first mentions of this particular formulation dates world’s data?
back to May 2013, but the trend 2. ____________________ 2. remain: used without an object
(remain) remarkably constant. Indeed, every two years for
about the last three decades the amount of data in the world 3. Who has increased the amount
3. ____________________ (increase) by about 10 times. Much of data?
of the world’s data increase is due to more sources of increase: (used without an
information that 4. ___________________ (create) by more object) to become greater as in
people at the moment, along with far larger and more detailed number, size or quality
formats. But the point about proportionality stands. If you 4. Who is creating more sources
5. _________________________ (look back) over a record, or of information?
6. _________________________ (try) to analyse it, the more
distant past shrivels into meaningless insignificance. How could
it not, with so many times less information available?
Here’s the problem with much of the big data that
7. ___________________ and ______________ (currently /
gather / analyse). The moment you start looking backwards to
seek the longer view, you have far too much of the recent stuff
and far too little of the old. Short-sightedness 8.
_____________ (build) into the structure, in the form of an 8. Who builds short-sightedness?
overwhelming tendency to over-estimate short-term trends at build: (used with an object) to
the expense of history. To understand why this matters, establish
consider the findings from social science about ‘recency bias’,
which describes the tendency to assume that future events 9.
________________ (closely/ resemble) recent experience. 9. resemble: (used with an object)

Practice 2b. The same text ‘The Trouble with Big Data?’ continues in the second part. Fill in the blanks
with the correct forms of the verbs either in active or passive form. The parts in bold (time expressions,
subjects and objects) will help you decide on the correct tense in either active or passive form. There are
also clues or information about the verbs on the right.

‘Recency bias’ is a version of what 10. 10. Who knows recency bias as the

56
________________________ (also /know) as the availability availability heuristic?
heuristic: the tendency to base your thinking disproportionately on
11. If something comes to mind,
whatever 11. __________________ (come) most easily to mind. If you immediately think of it.
12. Who has experienced cold
during the last few years exceptionally cold summers 12.
summers?
_________________ (experience) where you live, for example, 13. tempt: used with an object
tempt someone to do something:
you 13. _________________________ (might / tempt) to state
to encourage someone to want to
that summers 14. ____________________ (get) colder. In fact, do something esp. sth. wrong
14. get: (used without an object)
you should not read anything whatsoever into the data. To learn
become, start to be
anything meaningful about climate trends, a far longer view 15.
______________________ (have to / take). In the short term,
you’d be best not speculating at all – but who among us can 16. tend: used without an object
manage that? The same 16. _______________________ (tend) to
be true of most complex phenomena in real life: stock markets,
economies, the success or failure of companies, war and peace,
relationships, the rise and fall of empires. Short-term analyses 17.
___________________ (not/be) only invalid – they 18.
________________ (be) actively unhelpful and misleading. Just 19. line up: (used without an
look at the legions of economists who 19. ________________ object)
(line up) to pronounce events like the 2009 financial crisis to take a position in a line
unthinkable right until it 20. _____________________ (happen). 20. happen: used without an object
The very notion that valid predictions 21. ____________________
(could / make) on that kind of scale was itself part of the problem.
What’s needed is “intelligent forgetting”: teaching our tools to
become better at letting go of the immediate past in order to keep
its larger continuities in view. It’s an act of curation akin to
organising a photograph album – albeit with more maths. Another
crucial sense is the availability of human time and attention. More
information 22. __________________ (receive) by corporations,
individuals and governments today compared to the information
that 23. _________________ (receive) a few years ago. Yet not
enough attention or hours 24. _______________ (can/give) by
board members, chief executives, elected officials in the day.
Meaningful questions about the data available 25.
_____________ (must/ask) by decision-makers. Mere

57
accumulation is no kind of answer. In an era of bigger and bigger
data, what you choose not to know matters just as much as what
you do.

Adapted from http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20160605-the-trouble-

with-big-data-its-called-the-recency-bias

Practice 3. Read the following text which has mistakes about tenses in active and passive forms. If the
underlined part is correct, put a tick (√). If it is incorrect, correct the mistake. Don’t forget to look at the
time expressions, subjects and objects to make your decisions.
Evolution of AI: Past, Present, Future
Although the concept of artificial intelligence 1. is around for centuries it 1. ______________
2. wasn’t until the 1950’s that the true possibility of it 3. explored. A generation 2. ______________
of scientists, mathematicians and philosophers all 4. have the concept of AI but it 3. ______________
was Alan Turing, who 5. was suggested that if humans use available information, 4. ______________
as well as reason, to solve problems and make decisions — then why can’t 5. ______________
machines do the same thing? Although machines and how to test their
intelligence 6. were outlined in Turing’s paper Computing Machinery and 6. ______________
Intelligence in 1950, his findings 7. did not advance. By 1974 computers 7. ______________
flourished. They 8. become faster, more affordable and were able to store more 8. ______________
information. Early demonstrations such as Allen Newell and Herbert Simon’s
General Problem Solver and Joseph Weizenbaum’s ELIZA, which 9. funded by The 9. ______________
Research and Development Corporation (RAND), 10. showed promise toward the 10. _____________
goals of problem-solving and the interpretations of spoken language in machines,
and yet there 11.were still a long way to go before machines could think 11. _____________
abstractly, self-recognize and achieve natural language processing.
In the 1980s AI research 12. improves considerably with an expansion of funds 12. _____________
and algorithmic tools. John Hopfield and David Rumelhart popularized “deep
learning” techniques which allowed computers to learn using experience. On the
other hand, expert systems which mimicked decision making processes of a
human expert 13. was introduced by Edward Feigenbaum. But it was not until 13. _____________
the 2000’s that many of the landmark goals 14. achieved and AI 15. thrive 14. _____________
despite lack of government funds and public attention. 15. _____________
Today, AI research 16. has continued to grow. Over the last five years AI research 16. _____________
17. grew by 12.9% annually worldwide. Within the next four years China 18. is 17. _____________

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predicted to become the biggest global source of artificial intelligence. After 18. _____________
China and the United States, India is the third largest country in terms of AI
research output. Neural networks, machine learning, and probabilistic reasoning
and computer vision show the largest volume of research growth. There is so
much that artificial intelligence 19. being used for and so much more potential 19. _____________
that it is hard to picture our future without it.
A large amount of information 20. can be collected and organised by AI to make 20. _____________
insights and guesses that are beyond the human capabilities of manual
processing. Organisational efficiencies 21. also increased by the use of AI as the 21. _____________
likelihood of mistakes 22. are reduced and irregular patterns, like spam and fraud 22. _____________
23. detected to warn business in real time about a suspicious activity. Costs 24. 23. _____________
reduced lately by AI in many ways — for example, “training” machines to handle 24. _____________
incoming customer support calls and replacing many jobs in that way. It is also
clear that if your business doesn’t use AI it’s probably falling behind
competitively. So far, AI 25. become so important and advanced that a Japanese 25. _____________
Venture Capital firm made history by being the first company to nominate an AI
Board Member for its capabilities to predict market trends faster than a human.
Artificial intelligence 26. is a commonplace in every aspect of future life — like the 26. _____________
future of self-driving cars, more accurate weather predictions, or earlier health
diagnosis, just to name a few.
We are on the cusp of the Fourth Industrial Revolution — a revolution that is
completely different than the previous three. From steam and water power,
electricity and assembly lines, and computerization to now challenging ideas
about what it means to be human. According to Forbes, the Fourth Industrial
Revolution “describes the exponential changes to the way we live, work and
relate to one another due to the adoption of cyber-physical systems, the Internet
of Things and the Internet of Systems.”
Envisioning AI in the near future
2020–2025
· Between 70% and 90% of all initial customer interactions 27. likely to be 27. _____________
conducted or managed by AI
· Product development in a range of sectors from fashion items and consumer
goods to manufacturing equipment 28. could increasingly be undertook and 28. _____________
tested by AI.

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· Personalised products and services ranging from travel through to banking,
savings, and insurance 29. will design by individuals 29. _____________
· Autonomous vehicles will start appearing in many cities across the world
· Large parts of our lives from travel planning to compiling the information we
need prior to a meeting 30. might be manage by our intelligent assistants. 30. _____________
2026–2035
· Globally approved, smart crypto tokens 31. may be accepted alongside fiat 31. _____________
currencies as we edge towards a single global medium of exchange
· Artificial intelligence will have penetrated every commercial sector
· The emergence of a wide range of fully automated DAO businesses including
banks, travel agents, and insurance companies 32. will see. 32. _____________
· Artificial animal and ecosystem intelligence will be developed
· There is a reasonable possibility of achieving Artificial General Intelligence
· There is a small chance of creating Artificial SuperIntelligence
· The singularity remains an unlikely possibility in this timeframe.
Adapted from: https://medium.com/datadriveninvestor/evolution-of-ai-past-present-future-6f995d5f964a

COMPARE CONTRAST LANGUAGE

Read the short paragraphs below. If the parts in bold are correct, put a tick. If they are wrong, correct the
underlined mistakes about compare and contrast language.
A. The Internet of Things is on the rise for a number of reasons. First of all, the cost of technology and
internet connection are 1. cheap than they were in the past, and this means these technologies are 2.
more wide available. What’s more, 3. compared to the past, more devices are designed with sensors and
Wi-Fi capabilities today. In the past, we didn’t even know about these. 4. Similarly, today these play an
important role in our lives.
1. __________________ 3. ___________________
2. __________________ 4. ___________________
B. Big Data was described as a game changer for business life. 1. Like tech-savvy companies, companies
that do not invest in Big Data applications will not be able to compete in the near future. There are so
many benefits for companies, but overall, Big Data boosts production and efficiency. Secondly, 2. even
though the usually unpredictable nature of customers, Big Data can help companies predict future trends.
Another important advantage is 3. well targeting of consumers for advertisements. Companies can
identify their potential consumers and reach out to them in a more efficient and cost-effective way.
1. __________________ 3. ___________________
2. __________________ 4. ___________________

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C. Using big data within governmental processes allows efficiencies in terms of cost, productivity, and
innovation. 1. In contrast there have been many concerns, leading governments are investing on Big Data.
For example, In 2012, The U.S.A. announced a national "Big Data Initiative" for which they allocated a
budget of $200 million. 2. Whereas in the U.K., the founding of the Alan Turing Institute was announced
in 2014. The institute focuses on finding new ways to collect and analyse large data sets.
1. __________________ 2. __________________
Unit 2 Input 4
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE STRUCTURES
A. Parallel Comparatives
The comparative … the comparative The more research we do on AI, the more developed
structure is used to show that a change in it gets.
one thing leads to a change in another The more AI develops, the more people become
thing. afraid of it.

Practice 1. Rewrite the following sentences by using parallel comparatives.

1. When we understand AI more, we will prevent its risks better.
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. When the problem is smaller, the solution is easier.
__________________________________________________________________________________
3. When you try harder, you will learn more about AI.
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. Many AI dystopians think that when machines get more intelligent, we become dumber.
Many AI dystopians think that _________________________________________________________

B. Repeated Comparatives
Repeated comparative adjectives or adverbs
(comparative + and + comparative) are used to
emphasise the rate or amount of change.
They studied harder and harder in order to
improve the latest AI technology.
AI is becoming more and more common in our
lives.

Practice 2. Correct the mistakes in the underlined part.

1. As GPS has become more and most developed, people have lost their way-finding and map-reading
skills.

61
2. As AI technology develops more and more faster, it is not easy for many people to adapt to this
technology.

C. Superlatives with Present Perfect Tense

Superlatives are often used with the present This is the best technology I have ever seen.
perfect tense to emphasise the meaning. That is the most intelligent machine they have ever
developed.
Practice 3. Choose the best explanation for each sentence.
1. This is the most effective technology we have ever seen.
a. We have never seen a more effective technology.
b. This technology is as effective as the other technologies.
2. Computer-aided systems commit the fewest errors ever seen.
a. People have never seen another system that commits fewer errors.
b. There are systems that might commit fewer errors.

D. Phrases with Superlatives

Phrases such as ‘one of / some of / among’
are used with superlatives
One of the best technologies that is available today is GPS
technology.
Computer-aided detection systems are among the best
examples of technology radiologists use.
Shifting gears, scything grass, and reading paper maps are
some of the best examples of skills that have diminished.

Practice 4. Rewrite the following sentences with the phrases given in parentheses.
1. Ready availability of information online weakens memory.
One of the most significant factors ____________________________________________________ .
2. The new technology might help to detect the severest tumours.
Some of __________________________________________________________________________ .

E. Different structures with comparatives

We need to use similar structures in
both parts of a comparative sentence.
These can be infinitives, gerunds, noun
phrases, etc.
It is much better to use your memory than to become dumb
by using AI technologies.
Using GPS is easier than using your spatial intelligence.
The improvements in AI made a bigger difference in our
lives than the improvements in any other area.

62
 People are more concerned with AI replacing workers than
with losing talents.

Practice 5. Choose the best explanation for each sentence.

1. Getting advice from AI systems is much better than asking for help from a radiologist.
a. Advice from AI systems is as accurate as advice from a radiologist.
b. Advice from AI systems is more accurate than advice from a radiologist.
2. Most people are more worried about the privacy problems AI poses than the loss of skills AI causes.
a. The privacy problems are more important for most people.
b. The privacy problems are as important as the loss of skills.

F. ‘Rather than’ with comparatives

‘rather than’ is used to express
preference.
Most people are keen on following the improvements in AI
rather than ignoring AI.
Most people prefer driving their cars themselves rather than
having a self-driving car.
I would rather employ human workers than have machines to
carry out the tasks at work.

Practice 6. Choose the best explanation for each sentence.

1. Use autopilot systems rather than airline pilots as they will reduce accidents.
a. It is better to use autopilot systems.
b. Airline pilots are much better.
2. It is much better to look at AI rationally and calmly rather than approach it anxiously and fearfully.
a. It is important to be rational and calm when we consider AI.
b. We need to be anxious and afraid of AI.
3. Making sure that societies receive the full economic and social benefits that AI has to offer first and
foremost requires accelerating, rather than restricting technology’s development and adoption.
a. We need to restrict the technology’s development and adoption if we want to benefit from AI
b. We need to accelerate the technology’s development and adoption if we want to benefit from AI
4. When it comes to AI, policymakers should proceed on the assumption that AI will be fundamentally
good, and while it will present some risks, as every technology does, we should focus on addressing
these risks, rather than slowing or stopping the technology.
a. AI does not pose any major risks so there is no need to take any precautions.
b. We shouldn’t try to stop or slow the technology but we should address risks AI might pose.

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G. Comparative adjectives with ‘NO’ or ‘NOT ANY’
‘No’+ comparative adjective and ‘not any’ + Driving is no riskier than surgery; therefore, they may
comparative adjective are used to say that be the last to gain acceptance. (=Driving and surgery are
two things are equal. equally risky.)
Society is not any more willing to experiment with
machine learning in driving than in surgery. (=Society is
equally unwilling to experiment in these two areas.)
Practice 7. Choose the best explanation for each sentence.
1. Autopilot systems are not any more reliable than airline pilots as both might make mistakes.
a. Both of them are equally unreliable.
b. Airline pilots are slightly less reliable than autopilot systems.
2. Although there are many technological devices in our daily lives, we are not any happier than our
ancestors were.
a. We are happier than our ancestors.
b. Our levels of happiness are the same.
3. I am afraid life with AI is no more secure than life without it.
a. Both life with and without AI are equally unsecure.
b. Life with AI is more secure than life without it.

H. Intensifiers with comparatives and superlatives

In order to make comparatives and
superlatives stronger or weaker, we can
add certain words such as ‘a lot’, ‘much’,
‘a little’, ‘slightly’, ‘far’, ‘by far’, ‘not
nearly as’, ‘not quite as’, ‘nowhere near
as’, ‘a good deal’, etc.
Life with AI technologies is a lot more secure than life
without them. BOLD
Rich countries are far more involved in AI research than
poor countries.
AI technologies are by far the best technology we have
ever seen.
By using AI, unlike surgery, navigating is easier and not
nearly as dangerous.

Practice 8. Choose the best explanation for each sentence.

1. Voices from the AI community are much louder than the voices from most average people as the AI
community is far more concerned that AI will destroy jobs.
a. The AI community expresses their concerns about AI destroying jobs more seriously.
b. The AI community is as worried as the average person about AI destroying their jobs.

64
2. As far as jobs are concerned, some people are nowhere near as concerned as the AI community.
a. Some people are much less concerned than the AI community.
b. Some people are slightly less concerned than the AI community.
3. The privacy issues AI may lead to aren’t nearly as serious as we anticipated.
a. The privacy issues are a little less serious than we anticipated.
b. The privacy issues are much less serious than we anticipated.

Practice 9. Error Correction: Read the paragraph below. If the parts in bold are correct, put a tick. If they
are wrong, correct the underlined mistakes related to compare and contrast language. There are 7
mistakes.

Artificial Narrow Intelligence is considered to be 1. by far the safest form 1. safest*___

of AI. This is mainly because any issues that may be triggered by a
Narrow AI going wrong would be local and isolated. This means that
although narrow AI could also cause damage, at the very least, it is
possible to intervene as soon as a problem is detected. Examples of this
have been observed in the economy. For instance, the 2016 pound flash
crash is claimed to have been triggered by a trading algorithm
malfunction. Algorithmic trading is the use of computers to make large 2. _no need for no__
trades 2. no more effectively and efficiently – so basically, some software
makes trade – buys and sells automatically – without any human input. 3. accurately*____
We have such software because trading can be done faster and 3. 4. amongst humans*_
accurate by AI 4. among by a human. How can it be 5. much more 5. seems _correct___
accurate than humans? First of all, it removes human emotion from 6. seems _correct___
investing decisions. And secondly, 6. unlike humans, the program makes
these decisions based on data by analysing news headlines, social media,
and so on. It can analyse vast amounts of information 7. far quick 7. far more quicker__
compared to humans. And finally, these programmes save on labour
costs.
Although problems like the 2016 pound flash crash can be resolved in the 8. seems _correct___
end without too much damage, many people are 8. more willing to have
narrow AI than other types of AI. In fact, they seem to be equally
unwilling. It is true that we should still be very careful, because the more 9. _the more*__

65
technology advances, 9. more complex ecosystems of AI we create.
Banks, Stock Market, Cell phones… AI is all around us. We need to make
sure that each of these AI systems are secure and harmless. AI companies 10. _designing___
probably spend more time on ensuring their systems are secure than
they do on 10. design new systems.

NOUN CLAUSES
Practice 1.

● Underline all the noun clauses in the following sentences. There may be more than one noun

clause in some sentences.

● Identify and highlight the type of each noun clause: that, question words or if/whether.

● Circle the reporting verbs used in the sentences with noun clauses.

1. Many scientists agree that robots will be part of our lives and complete tedious chores at our command
in the near future.

2. More and more technology companies are trying to find out what will make our lives easier. For
example, they have made computers lighter and faster and recently they have improved AI assistants like
Alexa seems more tasks.

3. Whether AI assistants are changing our lives for the worst or whether they are helping us to have
better lives is the question.

4. Depending on how it is programmed, an AI assistant’s abilities will vary. For example, Alexa has over
50,000 skills including ordering food, calling an Uber and reading your kids a bedtime story.

5. As Siri is compatible with all Apple smart devices, you can get help from Siri regardless of which Apple
device you are using.

66
6. Scientists try to understand if people are becoming lazier as a result of the improvements in AI assistants.

7. What you want to do will determine which AI assistant is suitable for you.

8. Dr. Carter argues that we are accustomed to getting what we want without much effort by using AI
assistants these days.

9. Many scientists claim that letting your children interact with AI assistants from a young age has
negative effects on their social and emotional development.

10. How children can learn their lessons by using an AI assistant is not quite clear for many parents.

Practice 2. Read the sentences below. If the sentence is correct, you will put a tick (√). If there is a mistake
related to the noun clauses, correct them.
1. Despite the fact that artificial intelligence has made our lives easier, they may also be making us dumber.
_________________correct_______________________________________________________________
_________________________________
2. If you are a student, there is no need to open a book, no need to even type in a google search. What
you need to do are to activate your AI verbally and have your question answered.
__________is instead of are

3. AI makes us dumber because if you’re driving a car or walking around, there isn’t even a need to pay
attention to where are you going because GPS will speak out what exactly do you need to do.
__________________you need to do*

4. The belief artificial intelligence can do the thinking for us because we are storing information in artificial
intelligence instead of storing it in our brains may have a negative impact on us in the long term.
_the belief that*

5. The companies that develop AI assistants are sure that the privacy of each owner is safe as they deny
that AI assistants are capable of spying on their users.
___correct_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________

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6. New technology is always exciting to experience, but we need to be careful about how are we using it
and how might it affect our intelligence and productivity.
___________correct_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
7. It is possible to tell whether getting depressed by using programmes like Companion that let your
phone analyse your voice.
_______________________________________________________can instead of that
________________________________________________________________
8. There is a common belief that AI applications biased by race or gender.
__correct______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
Practice 3. Combine the following sentences using noun clauses. Make any necessary changes without
changing the meaning.
1. Many people talk about a fact. This fact is advances in cloud-based technologies, gaming, social media,
the Internet of Things all pose a threat to our privacy.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

2. For three reasons, AI is appealing to be used in information gathering. These are its speed, scale, and
automation.
What has made ________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. Most people are often unaware of this. Their software and devices generate, process, or share a large
amount of data.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

4. One of the reasons why privacy is such a concern is a fact. This fact is people are not sufficiently
acquainted with the measures they can use to protect it.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

5. Algorithms currently in use in the justice system in UK could have gender or race biases. This is not certain.
Whether ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

68
6. We need to find out this. Algorithms used in banks give loans to certain individuals based on their
gender and race.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. Algorithms are as good as the data fed into them so using historical data involving strong human bias
could produce algorithmic bias. This view is supported by many.
The view that __________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Crime-prediction software can accurately predict the likelihood of an individual to commit an offence.
Many people are doubtful about that.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Unit 2 Input 5
REVISION OF RUN-ON SENTENCES

Please see Unit 1 Input 1 Grammar part in the book.

What is the definition of a ‘run-on sentence’?
A run-on sentence is a grammatically incorrect
sentence in which two or more independent
clauses/sentences are joined without a linker
or a punctuation mark to separate them. It runs
on and on and this makes it hard to follow.
What is a ‘comma splice’?
A common type of a run-on sentence is called a
comma splice. It happens when two
independent clauses are connected by only a
comma.
How can it be corrected?
-It can be corrected by adding a conjunction
such as and, but, so, or, for, nor, yet.
-When there is not a conjunction or one other
than and, but, so, or, for, nor, yet between two
It’s not that AI will be hostile to humans they
will be indifferent to us. (Run-on sentence)
Corrected versions:
1. It’s not that AI will be hostile to humans.
They will be indifferent to us.
2. It’s not that AI will be hostile to humans; they
will be indifferent to us.
3. It’s not that AI will be hostile to humans but
they will be indifferent to us.
The singularity is near, be ready for it. (Comma
splice)
Corrected versions:
The singularity is near, so be ready for it.
Before we know it, AI will have become an
indispensable part of our lives, we must be
ready for any potential risks. (Comma splice)
Corrected version:
Before we know it, AI will have become an

69
independent clauses, it can be corrected by
adding a semicolon(;).
Strategies to avoid run-on sentences:
1. Try to have one idea in one sentence
2. Use linkers to show relationships between
the ideas of two sentences/clauses. E.g. cause
and effect, addition, contrast, purpose, etc.
3. Use correct punctuation between two
clauses. E.g. full stop, semicolon, etc.
*When we use a semicolon to link two
sentences, the ideas should be closely related,
and the relationship between two sentences
(addition, contrast, cause & effect, etc.) must be
understood by the reader.
indispensable part of our lives; we must be
ready for any potential risks.
1. It took from the 1950s to 1997 for a
computer to beat a human in chess.
2. It took from the 1950s to 1997 for a
computer to beat a human in chess, but in time,
progress will accelerate.
3. We fear AI as a concept. However, we are not
even aware that we are using it everywhere in
our lives.
We fear AI as a concept; however, we are not
even aware that we are using it everywhere in
our lives.
We fear AI as a concept; we are not even aware
that we are using it everywhere in our lives.

Practice 1. Read the text below and focus on the parts in bold. Correct the run-on sentences.

It is good that AI systems are becoming widespread therefore more things will be automated
through AI. With this increased levels of automation, AI will bring precision, order, and efficiency
in even more areas of life. We should still be cautious. AI will increase our efficiency in various
areas from banking to education. However, a lot of effort should be put into taking appropriate
measures to prevent AI from harming humanity. Many people think that AI does not pose any
major threats. They trust AI to be a major part of our lives. AI is used it in many areas including
banking, stock market and medicine we rely on AI to perform all sorts of medical procedures
from diagnosis to creation of new treatment methods or surgeries. These people trust AI with
our lives so the thought that AI could damage humanity seems like a far-fetched fantasy to most
people. Technology experts claim that around the middle of this century there will come a time
when the singularity will occur, this means AI will become self-programming, autonomous –
independent from any human input. It will re-design itself independently. This kind of super-
intelligence will surely lead to advances and breakthroughs in many aspects of life; in education,
science, medicine to name a few. But, there is also the other side of the coin. These super smart
machines will surpass human intelligence we will no longer be in charge. We can never know
what they will be capable of doing or what kind of threats they may pose to humankind. For this
reason, we need to think in advance, before AI outsmarts us, and our hands are tied. If we don’t

70
control the development of this super-intelligence now, we may be engineering our very own
extinction.

Practice 2. Read the sentences below. If they are grammatically correct, put a tick (√) next to it. If it is a
run-on sentence, correct it. There may be more than one way to correct them.
1. Humans have different types of intelligence that AI models are far from reaching. ____________
2. Another major advantage that humans have over machine thinking is that a lot of our actions stem
from instincts and reflexes these are automatic unconscious responses. ____________
3. Some of our decisions are rational some of them are irrational. ____________
4. Humans’ reactions are unpredictable a robot cannot fully copy human behaviour due to this
unpredictability. ____________
5. Since the first AI systems began to be developed, we have realised that things that we thought would
be very easy for AI to accomplish are actually extremely hard. ____________
6. Automation in factories is bad for low-level workers. However, the efficiency and precision this
automation brings means that we can use our time for more productive and interesting things. ________
7. Driverless cars will carefully calculate their speed and the distance between each other they will always
aim to protect their passengers. ____________
8. Even if driverless cars prove to be perfect, AI would bring inequality as only the rich will be able to pay
for these driverless cars. ____________
9. Only the rich will be able to pay for these driverless cars, the poor will continue to die in road accidents.
____________
10. In case of an accident, AI will sense what’s going to happen, and it will choose between protecting the
passengers versus protecting the pedestrians. ____________

Practice 3. Find ten run-on sentences in the text below and add the right punctuation to correct them.

Privacy of data has never been under greater threat AI gathers information about us from so many
different resources. The data collected about us can be moved easily or any personal data that is stolen
can easily be shared by third parties. It’s hard to know that data is stolen. When your money is stolen,
you know it’s stolen because it’s not there anymore however when your data is stolen, you have no
idea. This is very scary. Data theft is a major issue. With AI, every click sends some sort of message
about you all your “likes” and “retweets” and “clicks” are stored somewhere. It is true that you can
regulate AI through algorithms and you can have AI make only certain information public. You can’t
control people like hackers who steal data and use it for other purposes therefore all the problems such
as hacking or data theft can be countered by using AI again. There are extremely capable and intelligent
scientists so they can ensure that AI understands when it’s being attacked or hacked and takes

71
measures. In order to protect personal data of individuals, we still need to design international laws
that ensure privacy of personal data. Most of the misuse of data comes from applications that are
originally designed for innocent purposes, and allowed by laws. For instance, someone could write an
application to help people find their friends among crowds but this application can later become a part
of police surveillance. This might seem like a good thing as the police need to identify criminals to catch
them. You may argue that there was face recognition software that was used even before AI systems.
The police used to check a suspect’s photo against their database yet this is very different with AI. AI
combines data from multiple sources and this is the main difference. You will face constant surveillance
if your government is an authoritarian one.

Unit 3 Input 1
PASSIVE VOICE
Practice 1. Convert the first part of the following sentences into impersonal passive structures. Do not
change the tense of the original sentence. Then, write the rest of the sentence while listening.
1. Academics said that …
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Scientists hoped that …
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. The paper concludes that ...
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Experts have reported that ...
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Scientists emphasise that...
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Archaeologists have estimated that...
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. Many people think that ...

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______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. The researcher has found that …
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 2. Read the following sentences and correct the mistakes with the use of the passive voice.

1. It says that climate change is the biggest threat facing the Earth.
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. A large area of the Siberian forest damaged by a massive meteoroid in 1908.
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. We may wake up in a world where our lives are dominate by robots and we may not even know how
much we being controlled until it is too late.
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. The earth was bombarded asteroids for hundreds of millions of years after it was formed so it might
happen again and an asteroid might cause the end of the world.
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Bostrom highlights that a lethal synthetic virus might create and it will be killed many people on a
global scale.
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Attempts to manipulate the atmosphere to combat global warming might be triggered a global disaster.
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. The existential threats such as climate change and nuclear wars need to take more seriously.
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Humans are more likely to learn from direct experience. For example, nuclear reactors made safer after
the Chernobyl disaster in 1986.
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. One approach which might is be used to clarify the nature and extent of a potential danger involves
setting up a panel of experts to make an informed risk assessment.
______________________________________________________________________________________
10. It is believed that pandemics do not pose a great risk to humanity as humans are highly capable of
solving problems. If there is a pandemic, it is highly likely that it will be overcame.
______________________________________________________________________________________

73
Practice 3. Convert the following sentences from active to passive or from passive to active.
1. The whole population of a country might be wiped out by today’s nuclear weapons, which are
extremely powerful and destructive.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. The fires during a nuclear bombing will release massive amounts of smoke into the atmosphere.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. When the contents of chemical or biological weapons are considered by us, the same chemical and
biological agents can be used for different purposes by different people. (Convert both parts of the sentence)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. We haven’t regarded pandemics as a great risk to humanity because the human mind can solve
problems. (Convert both parts of the sentence)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Scientists have explained that outbreaks of infectious diseases occur when a micro-organism is able to
spread across the population. (impersonal passive)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

IF CLAUSES (CONDITIONALS)
Conditional sentences have two parts; an if-clause introducing the condition and a main clause
introducing the result.
Example: If CO2 emissions are not reduced, temperatures will rise substantially.
If-clause main clause
‘If CO2 emissions are not reduced’ introduces the condition and ‘temperatures will rise substantially’ part
introduces the result.
It is possible to put the ‘if clause’ after the main clause. Then, there will not be a comma between the if-
clause and the main clause.
Example: Temperatures will rise substantially if CO2 emissions are not reduced.

Type & Form Meaning Example sentence

74
Zero Conditional (Type 0)
If simple present, simple
present
To give instructions:
If simple present, imperative
Real situations that can happen
at any time, habits, facts
*When can be used instead of If
If I get up early, I always have
breakfast.
If you heat ice, it melts.
Instructions: If you want to order
food, press this button.

First Conditional (Type 1) Possible future conditions If he calls, I will tell him the news.
If simple present, If it rains, we might stay at home.
will/can/might/may + base
form of the verb

Second Conditional (Type 2)
If simple past,
would/could/may/might +
base form of the verb
Third Conditional (Type 3)
If past perfect,
would/could/may/might +
have + past participle of the
verb
Present unreal, imaginary
situations
To give advice
Past unreal situations
If I had time, I would read that book.
(Real situation: I don’t have time so I
can’t read the book.)
If I were you, I would read that book.
(I think you should read that book.)
If I had left home earlier, I would
have been at the airport on time.
(Real situation: I didn’t leave home
earlier so I wasn’t at the airport on
time.)

Practice 1. Read the sentences below and correct the mistakes with the use of if clauses in each sentence.

1. If we will not act immediately, we will not be able to deal with environmental problems that will cause
the end of the world.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. We have increased the capacity of renewable energy resources since 1992. In the future, this is likely to
continue. If we continue increasing the capacity of renewable energy resources, we meet the increasing
demand without harming the environment.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

75
3. It is a fact that people push Earth’s ecosystems beyond their capacities if mass extinctions happen.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. The first mass extinction would not happen if there hadn’t been a drastic drop in global temperatures.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. If the fifth mass extinction hadn’t taken place, dinosaurs wouldn’t have wiped out from the face of the
earth.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 2. Fill in the blanks in the following paragraph with the correct forms of the verbs either in active
or passive form. Be careful with the different types of if clauses.
PANDEMICS
There have been many different apocalyptic scenarios so far and one of these 1. clue: occur is used
is pandemics. Unlike an epidemic which is specific to one city, region or without an object.
country, a pandemic 1. _____________ (occur) if a disease 2. 2. clue: when spread
______________ (spread) across a wide geographical area. Therefore, if a means to extend over a
pandemic 3. _______________ (occur), it 4. ________________ (have) greater area, it is used
serious consequences as it is likely to affect a lot of people. A pandemic 5. without an object.
_______________________ (often/cause) by a new virus that can easily 5. cause is used with an
spread from one person to another or by bacteria that is resistant to antibiotic object.
treatment. Due to increased international travel, our world is highly
interconnected. For example, in 2003, a passenger on a flight from Hong Kong
to Toronto 6. _____________________ (infect) by SARS, which
7. ____________________ (first / see) in China. Shortly after the passenger 8. when arrive means to
8. ________________ (arrive) in Toronto, she died. Over 40 people on the reach one’s destination,
flight had the virus, some of whom 9. _________________ (travel) to other it is used without an
countries such as the Philippines, without knowing they were sick. Both in object.
Philippines and in Toronto, these passengers 10. _________________ (cause)
outbreaks. One of these people 11. _________________ (fly) to Singapore, 12. contain is used with
and another outbreak happened there. By the time the pandemic 12. an object. It means to
__________________ (finally / contain), over 8,000 people 13. succeed in preventing

76
________________ (already / infect). If this first person 14. the spread of sth.
___________________ (not/travel) internationally, many people from
different countries 15. _______________________ (not/affect). Although in
recent years we 16. _____________________ (reduce) the prevalence and
impact of other diseases such as malaria and cholera thanks to medical
advances and improvements, we can now alter the pathogens in a way that
we create new features that make them more dangerous so they can spread
much faster. If a terrorist group 17. ______________________ (create) a
vaccine-resistant infection that is unstoppable, that 18. __________________
(cause) the end of human civilisation. A new flu virus is the risk that experts
are worried about the most. If we 19. ______________________ (have) a new
flu virus, we 20. __________________ (need) more than six months to
develop a new medicine and produce enough of this medicine for all the
infected people. During this time, the disease would spread more and it
wouldn’t be possible to control it. And another concern is the use of
antibiotics which has increased the possibility of an apocalypse. As a result of
improper and excessive use of antibiotics, different types of bacteria have 22. continue is used
become resistant. These are called ‘superbugs’. If new medications 21. without an object.
______________ (not/develop), superbugs 22. _________________
(continue) to increase and kill millions. The problem is that in the last few
decades, very few new antibiotics 23. _______________ (develop). Recently,
it 24. ___________________ (report) that the more we use the current drugs,
the less effective they become. For certain infections, there are no effective
drugs left. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are responsible for an estimated
700,000 annual deaths. It 25. __________________ (estimate) that this
number will reach 10 million by 2050. Some experts are worried that one day
these bacteria might even cause the end of the human civilisation.

Practice 3. Write a paragraph to answer the following prompt. You might use the ideas mentioned in Unit
3 Input 1 or do a quick search on the Internet. Make sure that you use passives and different types of if
clauses in your paragraph. You might use the paragraph in practice 3 as a model.
Explain one possible way life on Earth could end.

77
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Unit 3 Input 2
CAUSE AND EFFECT LANGUAGE
1. a. Read the sentences below and highlight the cause and the effect in these sentences in different
colours.

● The temperatures are rising because the greenhouse gases have increased in the atmosphere.

● The population is increasing all over the world so there is an increased demand for energy.

● Greenhouse gases cause global warming.

● An increased demand for energy results from overpopulation.

● The global population is increasing rapidly. As a result, there is an increased demand for energy.

b. Underline the cause and effect language in each sentence above.

2. a. Read the following paragraph and fill in the cause and effect chain below.

Overpopulation leads to deforestation. This is because when there is an increase in population, there is
also an increasing need for food. In order to meet this need, people have to create areas for agriculture.

78
Therefore, they cut trees, which brings about flooding. Flooding has a great impact on soil erosion. The
loss of top soil means a decrease in soil fertility.

Overpopulation 🡪 _________________________________🡪_________________________________🡪
___________________________ 🡪 ___________________________ 🡪 ___________________________
🡪 decreasing soil fertility

b. Underline the cause and effect language in the paragraph above.

CAUSE AND EFFECT LANGUAGE

The cause and effect relationships can be expressed in many different ways.

A. Combining two sentences

When we have two sentences (one explaining the The temperatures are rising as / because / since
cause and the other explaining the effect), we can greenhouse gases have increased in the
use because / since / as to introduce the cause. atmosphere.

When we have two sentences (one explaining the
cause and the other explaining the effect), we can
use so / therefore / as a result / consequently /
thus / hence / that’s why / for this reason to
introduce the effect.
The greenhouse gases have increased in the
atmosphere ,so /.Therefore, /.As a result, /
.Consequently, /.Thus, / .Hence, / .That’s
why, /.For this reason, the temperatures are
rising.

B. Combining a sentence and a noun or a noun phrase

When we have a full sentence for the effect, we The temperatures are rising because of /
can use a noun or a noun phrase to introduce the due to /owing to /as a result of greenhouse
cause. gases.

B. Combining two nouns or noun phrases

When we have two nouns or noun phrases (one Global warming results from /stems from
explaining the cause and the other explaining the arises from / is caused by / is associated with
effect), we can use the following as the main verb greenhouse gases.
of the sentence: stem from / arise from / to be

79
caused by / to be associated with. These introduce
the cause.
When we have two nouns or noun phrases (one Greenhouse gases result in / bring about /
explaining the cause and the other explaining the cause / lead to / contribute to /give rise to
effect), we can use the following as the main verb /create global warming.
of the sentence: result in / bring about / cause /
lead to / contribute to / give rise to / create. These
introduce the effect.

Other structures to introduce cause and effect relationship. (The parts in bold are the cause and effect
structures.)

One cause of global warming is the increased emission of greenhouse gases.

The increased emission of greenhouse gases is one cause of global warming.
One effect/consequence of the increased emission of greenhouse gases is global warming.
Global warming is one effect/consequence of the increased emission of greenhouse gases.
Global warming is the result of the increased emission of greenhouse gases.
The reason why the temperatures are rising is because the greenhouse gases have increased in the
atmosphere.
The reason for global warming is the increased emission of greenhouse gases.
If there is an increased emission of greenhouse gases, there is an increase in temperatures.
The increased emission of greenhouse gases has a great impact/effect on global warming.
At present, human beings have a profound influence over Earth’s surface, atmosphere, oceans, and
biogeochemical nutrient cycling.

3. RESULT: The word ‘result’ can be used as a noun or a verb in a sentence. Read the following sentences
and decide whether ‘result’ is a verb or a noun in each sentence.
1. Accelerated climate change results (_______) from alterations to the carbon cycle.
2. Human activities often result (________) in an increase in CO2 emissions.
3. One result (________) of deforestation is the rapid extinction rate of species.
4. As a result (________), it is expected that there will be stark differences in the fossils found in
layers of rock deposited worldwide during preindustrial times and those that follow.
5. A unique signature in layers of rock is the result (________) of the changes that occur during the
Anthropocene Epoch.

80
4. CAUSE: The word ‘cause’ can also be used as a noun or a verb in a sentence. Read the following
sentences and decide whether ‘cause’ is a verb or a noun in each sentence.
1. One cause (_______) of deforestation is the exponential rise in the world’s human population.
2. Global warming have caused (_______) glaciers and polar ice to melt and seawater to expand.
3. By far the most significant evidence of the Anthropocene in rock strata will be caused (______) by
a dramatic increase in extinctions occurring during this period.
4. Widespread fossil-fuel use is the cause (_______) of an increase in CO2 emissions.

Practice 1. Fill in the blanks in each sentence with one of the words in the box. There might be more than
one correct answer for some of the blanks.
bring led as a result If results since effects as

1. ___________________ the human population grew, energy use increased, and energy derivation
from wood and easily obtained fossil fuels (i.e., petroleum, natural gas, and coal) expanded.
2. Many climatologists contend that the buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere has ______________ to a
global rise in average surface temperatures of 0.74 °C (1.3 °F) between 1906 and 2005.
3. More-frequent occurrence of extreme weather events in different parts of the world
___________________ from the buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere.
4. The oceans absorb much of the released CO2 into the atmosphere by human activities.
_________________, the process of ocean acidification is triggered.
5. Marine scientists fear that ________________ there are continued increases in ocean acidity, this
will slow, and possibly cease, the construction of reefs by corals in many parts of the world.
________________ coral reefs are hubs of biodiversity in the oceans, the loss of coral will
_________________ about the demise of multitudes of other marine species either directly,
through habitat loss, or indirectly, through changes in marine food chains.
6. Many scientists who support the formalization of the Anthropocene Epoch argue that the
________________ of some of the changes that have occurred so far will create unique
signatures in layers of rock.

Practice 2. Fill in the blanks in each sentence with one of the words in the box. There might be more than
one correct answer for some of the blanks.
resulting the reason why because consequently caused owing to

81
 1. The rapid extinction rate is ___________________ by the ongoing conversion of forests and other
natural areas to agriculture and urban land and accelerated climate change
___________________ from alterations to the carbon cycle. _____________________, it is
expected that there will be stark differences in the fossils found in layers of rock deposited
worldwide during preindustrial times and those that follow.
2. ____________________ human population has grown rapidly is because there have been a lot of
medical advances.
3. Some scientists, such as Crutzen, point to the year 1784 as the start date of the Anthropocene,
___________________ the device’s applicability to industrial production and transportation.
4. Several other scientists give 1800 as the commencement date of the Anthropocene
___________________ in that year, the steam engine began to power the Industrial Revolution
and set off the rush to obtain wood, coal, and petroleum to keep both the device, as well as the
rising pace of industrial production, running.

Practice 3. Fill in the blanks in each sentence with one of the words in the box. There are three extra
words in the box.
reason therefore affect cause due to result consequences

Humans 1. __________________ ecosystem vitality when they alter the balance of local biodiversity. An
example of how humans change the balance is overexploitation of certain species. For example, 2.
________________ overhunting of elephants, they are facing extinction.
Habitat loss is another way in which humans 3. __________________ extinction of species. Two hundred
species have become extinct in the past 100 years. In other words, we have lost these species at a rate of
two species per year. This rate is unprecedented, and it’s an indication that the 6 th mass extinction has
already started, and it will inevitably have 4. ____________________ for human species.

Practice 4. Rewrite the following sentences by using the words in parentheses.

1. The effect of radiation after the bombing of Hiroshima led to a huge increase in the incidence of
cancer and birth defects. (result from)
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. During a nuclear bombing, within a certain range, all flammable materials will catch fire due to
the explosions. (as a result)
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

82
 3. The reason why biological and chemical weapons worry most scientists is that they do not require
complex engineering. (since)
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. Pandemics have always resulted in many fatalities. (stem from)
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. The reason why pandemics have not been regarded as a great risk to humanity is because the
human mind is highly capable of solving problems. (because of)
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 5. Read the text below and if the underlined part is correct, put a tick (√), if it is wrong, correct
the mistakes. The mistakes are all about the use of cause and effect language.
Every now and then, some TV news features a doomsayer claim that the
end of the world is just around the corner. Each one of these doomsayers
puts forward 1. a different reason the end is near. Environmental hazards, 1. ___________________
alien invasions, meteor crashes, World War 3 ,just to name a few, are
some of the 2. causes they warn us against. We know that there have 2. ___________________
definitely been 5 mass extinctions in the history of Earth; 5 times when the
majority of species were wiped out. It appears that the most likely 3. 3. ___________________
reasons of mass extinctions can be narrowed down to volcanic eruptions,
asteroid collisions, and sea level falls - but there are several other known
events that clearly 4. ___________________
4. contribute mass extinctions over a longer period of time. The first mass
extinction killed about 86% of all species on Earth, and biologists believe 5. ___________________
this first mass extinction 5. resulted in a drastic drop in global
temperatures. The second one caused 75% of all living creatures to go 6. ___________________
extinct, probably 7. ___________________
6. because there were continuous meteor showers. The third extinction
was the biggest of all, and 95% of life perished 7. as a result massive 8. ___________________
droughts, lack of oxygen and acid rains. The fourth period of extinction
which happened around 210 million years ago 8. effected both marine life
and life on land, and killed 80% of all population. The last one took place 9. ___________________
approximately 65 million years ago, and was the fastest period of mass

83
extinction. It 9. led to the extinction of dinosaurs. A combination of a
meteor fall and some volcanic activity released very high amounts of 10. ___________________
carbon dioxide. 10. As a result of, the fifth mass extinction occurred. In all
mass extinctions, there was an almost total collapse of ecosystems
globally.

Unit 3 Input 3
CAUSE AND EFFECT LANGUAGE
Practice 1. Check the visual below and read the paragraph about rainwater harvesting. Choose the best
option to fill in the gaps.

Rainwater Harvesting
Water is an indispensable part of our lives 1. as a result of / lead to / since we need water for drinking,
cooking, cleaning and other daily needs. Unfortunately, there has been an increase in water shortages in
many parts of the world mainly 2. because / due to / so climate change and pollution. Rainwater
harvesting is a sustainable method which can be used for water conservation. It is a technique to collect
rainwater from rooftops and to store it for future use. Rainwater on the roof goes down the pipes 3. so /
in order that / in order to be collected in a tank. There is a filter in this tank 4. so that / causes / one
consequence the rainwater will be cleaned. When it is ready to be used, this clean water is sent to a
storage tank or reservoir where it can be stored for later use. This tank is connected to the building by
another pipe 5. result from / so / since water can be supplied to the building for domestic purposes. One
of the main advantages is that this method can reduce water bills 6. result in / hence/ as the rainwater
collected can be used for non-drinking purposes such as flushing toilets. Secondly, rainwater is free from

84
harmful chemicals. 7. Because / Therefore / Owing to, it is ideal for irrigation purposes. In addition, this
method is a solution in areas where there is enough rainfall but not enough supply of groundwater. For
example, in Bangalore there is quite a large amount of rainfall during the year. When this rainwater is
stored, it can 8. stems from / be caused by / provide water during the dry season. Increased demand for
water 9. give rise / leads / is associated to a search for different sources such as rainwater 10. in order
to / so as not to / so that rely on only groundwater. In Turkey, at Sabancı University rainwater harvesting
has been used since the university was founded. The rainwater on rooftops is collected in the artificial
lake. Then, it is used to water plants and flowers on campus. This system 11. results from / is caused by /
contributes to water conservation and sets a good example for many other institutions.

Practice 2. Check the visual below and make sentences about smart farming by using the words given in
parentheses. You might need to add words or make any other changes if necessary.

1. Using technology in farming 🡪 an increase in crop production (result from)

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

2. success in farming 🡪 rich fertile land and plenty of water for irrigation (two main reasons)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

3. drones survey the field to map weeds and soil variation 🡪 the most suitable varieties of crops are
grown (As a result)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Agribots can use fertilisers precisely 🡪 fertiliser costs are reduced (since)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

85
5. GPS controlled steering and optimised route planning with smart tractors 🡪 a reduction in both soil
erosion and fuel costs. (result in)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Sensors attached to livestock 🡪 monitoring of animal health and wellbeing. (as a result of)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. A cow goes into labour or develops infection 🡪 a text message is sent to farmers. (If)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Using technology in raising cows 🡪 herd survival and an increase in milk yields (contribute to)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. Smart farms use technology 🡪 a drastic increase in crop production recently (give rise to)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
10. Space technology and land-based observations in smart farms 🡪 data which help to achieve
sustainable agriculture (are produced)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
NOUN CLAUSES
Practice 1. Read the sentences below. If the sentence is correct, put a tick (√). If there is a mistake about
the noun clauses, correct them.

1. What benefits farmers and consumers are introducing genetic features like pest resistance and
increased nutrient content into the DNA of GM crops.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Most people are often unaware that a GM tomato has large amounts of antioxidants, vitamins and
dietary fibre.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. In order to prevent global food shortages, both developing and developed countries need to be careful
about what do they eat. They should not have a meat-based diet.

86
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Despite the fact a kilogram of beef is about 30-times more demanding on the environment than a
kilogram of plant protein, most nations continue to consume a lot of meat.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. We need to determine whether we are not producing enough food for everyone or we are not
distributing the food well. It is a fact that poor distribution means 805 million people are hungry while 1.4
billion people are overweight or obese.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

6. The view that eating locally sourced and seasonal food good for both your health and the environment
is supported by many people today.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. The question is not how can we boost production but how do we do it by minimising environmental
impact.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Many people are doubtful whether will there be enough farmers in the future as most young people
are not willing to become farmers.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. What can be done at schools to engage young people in agriculture and food security is to develop
educational programmes to increase food literacy skills by teaching gardening, food preserving and cooking.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
10. The scientists explain that just four crops – wheat, maize, rice and soybean – provide two-thirds of the
world’s food supply and this dependence will create food insecurity.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

87
Practice 2. Combine the following sentences by using noun clauses to show cause and effect relationships.
Make any necessary changes without changing the meaning.
Example: There isn’t enough research on the effects of GM crops. This fact leads to suspicion.
The fact that there isn’t enough research on the effects of GM crops leads to suspicion.
1. GM crops produce better yields. This fact results in an increased GM food production.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Genetic engineering has achieved a lot. This has led to the protection of crops from disease.
What genetic engineering ________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. One of the reasons why GM food production should be encouraged is a fact. This fact is that the global
food shortage can be solved.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. We should eat GM foods or avoid them. This has created many discussions in public.
Whether ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. GM food might have negative effects on human health in the long term. This view might affect GM food
research negatively.
The view ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. GM food production is a plausible solution to the global food crisis. This is because genetic
modification makes seeds more drought-tolerant, pest-resistant and vitamin-enhanced.
What makes ___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. Genetic modification started to be used in agriculture. This is as a result of our attempt to find out the
way we will be able to feed the world’s increasing population.
How we will ___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
8. We need to double global food production by 2050. This is because the population will then be an
estimated 9 billion people.
Why _________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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9. Reducing waste can help to solve the global food crisis. This is due to the fact that 30-50 percent of
food production which can feed 413 million people per year goes to waste.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
10. We are experiencing a global food crisis today. Climate change seems to be the cause.
What has led to _________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Unit 3 Input 4
CAUSE AND EFFECT LANGUAGE

SOME OTHER CAUSE AND EFFECT STRUCTURES

‘so + adjective + that’ and ‘such + a/an + adjective
+ noun+ that’ and ‘so + much/many + noun +
that’ are used to emphasise adjectives, adverbs
and nouns. These are used to give more
information about the cause and link it to the
result.
*In spoken English, that can be omitted.
1. ‘In order to’ / ‘so as to’ and ‘in order that’ / ‘so
that’ are used to express why we do something.
2. We can also use these structures to introduce
a negative result.
This assumption is so unreasonable that many
people object to it.
This is such a huge amount that it is difficult to
meet this demand.
There is so much energy needed in the
developed world that it is hard to meet this
demand.
1. … even though nations had to invent and then
build the enormous infrastructure needed in
order to extract, process, and transport oil, gas,
and electricity.
Since 1990, 1.1 billion people have escaped from
extreme poverty, with more than 140 million
entering the burgeoning middle class every year
so that they have better standards of living.
…it’s a safe bet that the great majority of people,
no matter where they were born, will continue to
work, vote, protest, and migrate in ways so as to
improve their standard of living over the long
run.
2. The mission of humanity has been to enrich

89

‘on condition that’ / ‘as long as’ / ‘provided that’
are used to introduce a condition. These are used
to emphasise that this condition is for the result.
These and ‘If’ can be used interchangeably.
In formal speech and writing, ‘Given that’ is used
to introduce a reason that is already known.
‘in case of + noun’ is used to describe what
should be done in a situation.
itself so as not to be affected by economic
downturns and periods of slow growth.
The mission of humanity has been to enrich itself
so that they are not affected by economic
downturns and periods of slow growth.
Provided that / As long as / On condition that
these upward trends, the steadily expanding
number of people on Earth and the rapid
increases in urbanisation and car ownership
continue, it’s a safe bet that the great majority of
people, no matter where they were born, will
continue to work, vote, protest, and migrate in
ways so as to improve their standard of living
over the long run.
Given that in this new century, technology,
information, and wealth speed around the planet
faster than ever before, most people might want
to have better standards of living.
In case of a failure, humanity will find another
way.
In case of an increase in prices, buy more now.

Practice 1. Fill in the blanks with the following cause and effect language. There are two extra words.
in case of – so as - in order to – so – due to – that – since – caused – led – stemmed – because of – so

The reasons for famines in the past were clear. In the 14 th century, the Great Famine in Ireland
1.________________ the death of many people. The Great Famine mainly 2.________________ from two
factors. One of them was the adverse weather conditions. For three consecutive years, the Irish suffered
from extremely cold winters, and summers with constant heavy rains, 3. _____________ the soil was wet
all the time. These conditions 4.________________ to a disease of plants, called blight. The famine
occurred also 5.___________________ a heavy reliance on just one or two kinds of potato that was
planted by the farmers. Instead of planting a variety of potato plants, farmers relied on only two varieties.
Unfortunately, both varieties they depended on were 6._______________ vulnerable to blight
7._______________ when the disease hit the potato crops, almost all produce was ruined.

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8.________________ the Irish relied heavily on the potato as their major source of nutrition, many died,
and the rest suffered from serious malnutrition. The Irish famine was 9.__________________ a natural
cause, extreme weather conditions that paved the way for a disease, as well as a major agricultural
mistake – overreliance on a limited crop variety. Farmers did not know what to do 10.________________
not to be affected by the famine.

Practice 2. Rewrite the following sentences by using the words in parentheses. Make sure that the
meaning does not change.
1. When there is a bigger population growth, there will be a much bigger demand for energy. (in case of)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

2. People who live in poorer parts of the world move to the city so as to have easier access to electricity,
gas for heating and cooking, roads, retail centres, and energy-intensive products such as computers and
services such as restaurants. (so that)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Although we are not certain, fertility rates might fall quickly. Then, population growth will slow down
more than expected. (so …. that)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Incomes, population and individual energy use all rise simultaneously in developing countries;
therefore, the biggest energy intake will happen in these countries. (as)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

5. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has calculated that an increase in overall carbon dioxide
emissions by less than 1 percent would result from extending universal access to electricity, heating and
cooking gases, and other modern forms of energy by 2030. (lead to)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

6. The trend toward increasing urbanisation will have big implications for energy use. (due to)

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______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

7. It is true that an average American consumes 9.5kW. Lifting all of humanity to the current US standard
of living by 2100 means generating more than 51 TW of energy on top of everything we already produce
today. (given that)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

8. On condition that we transform energy production systems to scalable emissions-free sources such as
solar, wind and nuclear, we will be able to control emission growth. (as long as)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

9. Mass migration of the rural poor into cities is not encouraged by the governments as they do not want
to boost individual energy use. (so as not to)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

10. Global population could hang at 10 billion or explode to nearly 13 billion by the end of this century.
These are big numbers so there will be a dramatic increase in demand for energy. (such … that)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Practice 3. Read the text below and if the underlined part is correct, put a tick (√), if it is wrong, correct
the mistakes. The mistakes are all about the use of cause and effect language.
Imagine that by the end of this century, everyone in the world will use
energy at the same rate per person that a typical American does today:
a steady stream of 9.5 kilowatts (kW), averaged over the year. This
assumption is 1. so unreasonable many people object to it. However, 1. _________________
this is what economic progress looks like. According to energy historian
Vaclav Smil, Americans used just one-fifteenth as much useful energy
per capita in 1860 as they do today. This is 2. such huge amount that it 2. _________________
is difficult to meet this demand. And during the twentieth century, he
observes in his book Energy Transitions, annual energy use rose 17-fold

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globally while economic output soared by a factor of 16—even though
nations had to invent and then build the enormous infrastructure
needed 3. in order that extract, process, and transport oil, gas, and 3. _________________
electricity. 4. _________________
4. Given that in this new century, technology, information, and wealth
speed around the planet faster than ever before, most people want to
have better standards of living. Since 1990, 1.1 billion people have
escaped from extreme poverty, with more than 140 million entering the 5. _________________
burgeoning middle class every year 5. since they have better standards
of living. The ranks of the newly affluent are also swelling at an
accelerating pace. History suggests that as these citizens of the world
find more money in their pockets, they will spend much of it—directly 6. _________________
or indirectly—on energy. 6. Provided that these upward trends, the
steadily expanding number of people on Earth and the rapid increases
in urbanization and car ownership continue, it’s a safe bet that the
great majority of people, no matter where they were born, will continue 7. _________________
to work, vote, protest, and migrate in ways 7. so as improve their
standard of living over the long run. The future will doubtless see its
share of economic downturns and periods of slow growth. But over the
course of generations, the mission of humanity has been to enrich itself. 8. _________________
There is no reason to expect it to fail now after so much past success. 8.
In case of a failure, humanity will find another way.

Practice 4. Write a short paragraph (200-250 words) to answer the following question. Use the notes
below and make sure that you use at least ten different ways of expressing cause and effect relationships.
What are two main causes of a globalised food crisis? Explain each one briefly.

1. increasing global population: by 2050: 9 billion & by 2100: 11 billion

slower in industrialised countries vs. Africa x2 current population by 2050
population growth + urbanisation: E.g. Africa & Asia by 2050, 2.5 billion +2.5 billion urban
residents 🡪not many farmers bec. easier city life (secure jobs, monthly pay) + decreasing fertile land
for agriculture bec. of industrialisation, population growth & urbanisation 🡪more fertile land –arid
land 🡪not enough land to grow crops🡪global food security issue
2. changing diet
a. bec. of globalisation, industrialisation 🡪more processed food, meat & dairy 🡪an increasing need

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for land to grow feed for farm animals to meet demand for meat consumption
b. same varieties of crops produced (e.g. wheat, rice, potato, corn) bec. similar diets globally,
consumers’ choice 🡪farmers’ choice
c. meat preferred to vegetables & grains 🡪 1kg. beef=6000lt. water 🡪freshwater resources used for
meat instead of vegetables

2. Read and edit your paragraph according to the following criteria.

a. Does this paragraph answer the question?
b. Is this paragraph easy to follow?
c. Are there at least ten different ways of expressing cause and effect relationships?
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Practice 1. Combine the following sentences by using the words or clues given in parentheses.
1. More than half of our energy comes from fossil fuels. These fossil fuels are extracted from deep within
the Earth’s crust. (-ed)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Burning of coal, oil and gas is a leading contributor to climate change. It has been linked to the rising
levels of greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere. (Relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

94
3. Most scientists agree that we need to decrease our use of fossil fuels. This seems quite challenging due
to our heavy reliance on fossil fuels for energy production. (Relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

4. The greatest issue is how to cope with the increasing demand for energy. This issue concerns scientists,
policy experts and companies. (-ing)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. One concern is that as developing nations become more industrialised, they will need access to reliable
electricity supplies. This concern is raised by scientists. (-ed)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. There is going to be a rising demand from regions like Asia, Latin America and parts of Africa. A lot of
people have not had access to modern energy services there yet. (Relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

7. Developing countries will consume more fossil fuels in the future. These countries have rising energy
demands. (with)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Elon Musk wants to accelerate the world’s transition to sustainable energy through increasingly
available and affordable electric vehicles and energy products. He is an avid believer in the future of
renewable energy. (Relative Pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

9. Many companies all over the world organise training sessions. These sessions raise awareness on energy
saving. (Infinitive)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

95
10. Consumers place a greater emphasis on insulation. Solar power appeals to consumers mainly for cost
savings. (Prepositional object clause)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
11. Electric vehicles are rising rapidly. People purchase them to reduce their carbon footprints. (Omit the
object relative pronoun)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
12. Some experts think that renewable energy is not the solution to the energy crisis. Many other
scientists disagree with them. (Prepositional object clause)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 2. Error Correction

Read the following paragraph. If the underlined parts are correct, put a tick (√). If they are wrong, correct
them. There are mistakes about relative clauses and noun clauses.
The greatest stress on global resources is not 1. how many of us are 1. _________________
there, but how much we consume. Our ecological impact has grown with
the global economy. As we’ve become richer, we’ve eaten more food,
used more energy, produced more waste, and generally put more
pressure on the natural systems 2. on that we depend for our survival. 2. _________________
While the planet should be able to support even a growing population,
it’s not clear 3. _________________
3. whether can the planet support a growing population as well as we
might like. The global average income increased roughly 125% over the 4. _________________
last 20 years, 4. that means that we are getting rich fast. Over that same
period the global population grew just 30%. Most of that growth is 5. _________________
occurring in parts of the world 5. which the average person consumes
relatively little. While the global population is beginning to peak, there is
still plenty of room for the world to develop economically. But
if everyone in the world earned as much as the average American does,
the global economy would be around five times as large as it is today. It
should go without saying that we’d be pushing the limits of the planet’s 6. _________________
natural systems to support us if our impact approached five times 6.what

96
it is now. The truth is that a substantial majority of the world’s energy
and land supports a wealthy minority of the population. The 34 OECD 7. _________________
countries, 7. that contain less than 20% of the world’s population, use
about half of the world’s commercially-produced energy. Every person 8. 8. _________________
was born in Nigeria certainly increases the overall human ecological
footprint. But the average American 9. with a total footprint around five 9. _________________
and a half times has a larger impact than the average Nigerian. Among
other things, what Americans emit on average 10. are 35 times the 10. _________________
amount of carbon dioxide Nigerians do. Simply flying one way between
New York and Los Angeles produces more carbon emissions than the
average Nigerian does in a whole year. So it’s hard to take academics
from the developed world seriously when they argue 11. that there 11. _________________
should be fewer people while they continue flying to conferences. We 12. _________________
should probably worry more about rich people 12. drive luxury cars than
poor people having more babies. But the connection between economic
growth and environmental impact is not as simple as it might seem. 13. 13. _________________
Despite the fact there is a clear relationship between national wealth and
carbon emissions, there’s also a fair amount of variation among different
countries. People in Norway and Switzerland, 14. that have roughly the 14. _________________
same standard of living as the Americans, produce much less carbon
dioxide per person. Some of the difference is the result of technical and 15. _________________
institutional choices 15. those countries have made. That means that
even with currently-available technology high emitters like the US should
be able to dramatically lower their carbon emissions without
substantially reducing their standards of living.
Adapted from: https://anthropoceneblog.wordpress.com/2014/01/14/have-we-
reached-the-limits-to-growth/

Unit 3 Input 5
NOUN CLAUSES
Practice 1. Read the following text and correct seven errors in noun clauses.
Renewable energy will be world’s main power source by 2040, says BP

Annual energy forecast predicts record surge in wind, solar and other renewables.

Experts estimate that renewable energy sources will the world’s main source of power within two decades

97
and are establishing a foothold in the global energy system faster than any fuel in history. BP points out

the fact wind, solar and other renewables will account for about 30% of the world’s electricity supplies by

2040, up from 25% in BP’s 2040 estimates last year, and about 10% today. In regions such as Europe, the

figure will be as high as 50% by 2040. The speed of growth was without parallel, the company said in

its annual energy outlook.

While oil took almost 45 years to go from 1% of global energy to 10%, and gas took more than 50 years,

renewables are expected to do so within 25 years in the report’s central scenario. Whether this will

happen sooner are not clear. In the event of a faster switch to a low carbon economy, that period comes

down to just 15 years, which BP said would be “literally off the charts” relative to historical shifts.

But what does the company predict is that oil will not go away any time soon. The outlook’s core scenario

envisages that oil demand does not peak until the 2030s, though under its greener scenario that milestone

could be reached between now and the early 2020s. Regardless, the fact that hydrocarbons will play a

“major role” until 2040 will require substantial investment. BP expects global demand for oil and gas to be

80-130 million barrels per day by then, up from around 100mb/d today.

The company has ambitious plans to grow its oil and gas production 16% by 2025, according to figures

compiled by the Norway-based consultants Rystad Energy. The report is gloomy on prospects for avoiding

dangerous levels of global warming. The central scenario expects carbon emissions to grow 10% by 2040,

as world energy demand grows by a third and fossil fuels continue to play a key role. How will we meet the

challenge of providing more energy while cutting emissions would undoubtedly require many forms of

energy to play a role.

The company said it expected growth in renewables to be driven by government policies, technological

change and the falling costs of wind and solar power. Renewables are expected to grow by 7.1% each year

over the next two decades, eventually displacing coal as the world’s top source of power by 2040. Spencer

Dale, chief economist at BP, said in terms of cutting carbon emissions, most of the “low-hanging fruit” was

outside the transport sector, which makes up around a fifth of energy demand. The company is sure that

98
more efficient vehicles will have more of an impact on emissions than electric cars.

The fact that energy demand growth in China is slowing as the country’s economy moves away from

polluting industries to a more services-based one should lead India to overtake China for growth in energy

by the mid-2020s. BP’s forecast for Chinese energy demand is down 7% on its outlook last year. What

trade disputes such as the ongoing one between the US and China impact the market was also examined.

The oil company sees energy demand 4% lower in the next two decades if such disputes continue, as a

result of lower global GDP and trade flows. That this will continue to decrease or will start to increase

again is not certain. Separately on Thursday, a think-tank said fossil fuel giants are still failing to incentivise

their workforces to switch away from hydrocarbons. A report by CarbonTracker found that 92% of 40 oil

and gas firms rewarded greater fossil fuel production with more pay. BP is mulling a link between carbon

emission cuts and executive remuneration.

Adapted from https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/feb/14/renewable-energy-world-power-source-bp

Practice 2. Combine the following sentences by using noun clauses. Make any necessary changes without
changing the meaning.

1. Renewable energy is attractive not only for environmental but also for financial benefits.
What makes ____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________ .

2. Solar energy is a great solution for homes that consume a lot of power because the savings outweigh
the investment. Many people agree with this.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Experts underline a fact. The fact is solar panels require direct sunlight, so if you live in an area with
significant cloud cover, switching to solar power may not be a wise decision.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

4. Turkey can reduce its high energy dependency by using its renewable energy sources. This is not clear
for many people.

99
 How _________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

5. Turkey has the first place among the EU countries regarding wind energy potential. Renewable energy
is not widely used in Turkey.
Despite the fact ________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

6. Turkey can meet a large amount of its energy needs by using solar power as the average sunshine
duration is longer compared to many countries. Many experts claim this.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

7. We can increase clean energy production from 31 percent to more than 50 percent by 2023 in Turkey.
We need to find out this.
______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 4
Unit 4 Input 1
IF CLAUSES: TYPE 3 & MIXED TYPE
Practice 1. Read the sentences below. If the sentence is correct, put a tick (√) next to the sentence. If
there is a mistake with the use of if clauses, correct the mistake.
1. If Rhys’s immune system functioned well, he wouldn’t have stayed at home all the time.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. If genetically modified cells didn’t correct the defect, Rhys wouldn’t go out with his friends now.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. If breast cancer genes BRAC1 and BRAC2 hadn’t been determined, breast-cancer tests wouldn’t be
available today.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. If DNA research hadn’t helped criminal investigations, many innocent people would have been in prison today.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

100
Practice 2. Read the conditions and results below and make sentences using either type 3 or mixed type.

1. scientists didn’t know how to use patterns in our DNA to study the course of human evolution and
migration in the past 🡪 they relied on studying artefacts such as pottery and tools from ancient humans
to learn about their society and migration patterns
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. scientists improved DNA analysis 🡪we are able to understand the first humans and their migration
routes today
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. it wasn’t possible to make virus-free protein factor 8, insulin and human growth hormone in the past 🡪
patients contracted viral infections
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. animals like Oncomouse were genetically modified 🡪 we have some anti-cancer treatments now
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Unit 4 Input 2
PARTICIPLE CLAUSES
Practice 1. Rewrite the following sentences using participle clauses.

1. In 1963, the first lung transplant was carried out, which was followed by a liver transplant in 1967.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. After the doctors had overcome issues such as immune response or connection between blood vessels,
they started to carry out organ transplants other than kidneys.
______________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
3. Since antivirals block the rapid reproduction of viral infections, they treat and control the spread of
deadly virus outbreaks such as HIV and Ebola.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. When stem cells were discovered in the late 1970s, they were found to have incredible potential.

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

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5. Stem cells can treat leukaemia and other blood disorders because they renew themselves through cell
division.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Due to the ethical issues which surround the use of embryonic stem cells, researchers are likely to face
many obstacles when they are developing stem cell-based therapy. (2 participle clauses)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. When William B. Coley injected inactive bacteria into cancerous tumours in the 1890s, he started
immunotherapy.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. If immunotherapy is used every 2-3 weeks which is followed by a rest period, it can give the body a
chance to build healthy cells. (2 participle clauses)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. Artificial Intelligence was in gradual development over the past decade and it has already made great
contributions to healthcare.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
10. As research institutions are teaming up with pioneering technology giants such as Google, IBM and
Apple, they invent smarter and faster ways to diagnose, treat and prevent diseases.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
11. These innovative technologies range from diagnostic tools that can detect malignant tumours invisible
to the naked eye, to cognitive computing systems that produce tailored treatment plans for cancer
patients. (2 participle clauses)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 2. Error Correction

Read the following paragraph. If the underlined parts are correct, put a tick (√). If they are wrong, correct
them. The mistakes are about participle clauses.
James Blundell (1791-1878)

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Blundell was a British obstetrician. At that time, 1. bleed heavily during birth, 1. _____________
many women died. Blundell wondered if these women could be given someone
else’s blood. 2. Having experimented to find a way to safely transfuse blood 2. _____________
from one person to another, he invented equipment specifically for this
purpose, which is still in use.
Trying to find a solution, 3. some patients took blood orally in the past but 3. _____________
these doctors had been unsuccessful. Experiments were also made 4. giving the 4. _____________
blood of animals to humans. Some survived, although it appears that this was
due to receiving only small amounts of blood. 5. As performing whole blood 5. _____________
transfusion first in dogs, Blundell gained experience. 6. Having identified that a 6. _____________
blood transfusion of any significant quantity needed to be from a human,
Blundell performed the first successful human blood transfusion from a
husband to his wife.
Not being aware of blood typing and immune rejection, 7. not all of Blundell’s 7. _____________
patients survived. Research into this was done later and further innovations
have been made in this field, but Blundell should be acknowledged for
pioneering the human blood transfusion. In the UK alone there are currently
8,000 units of blood 8. which used daily, and the World Health Organization
8. _____________
reports that in 2007, 85.4 million units were collected. Transfusions save the
lives of millions. Whether through accident, surgery, or chronic illness, people
survive today who otherwise would not have.

If clauses Type 1,2,3 and Mixed Type

Practice 1. Read the conditions and results about the life of Safiye Ali who was the first female Turkish
physician as well as the first woman to teach medicine to girls in college. Then make sentences using
either type 3 or mixed type conditionals.

1. Safiye Ali received a grant funded by Minister of Education Şükrü Bey 🡪she enrolled in the Medical
Faculty of the University of Würzburg.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. It took her a long time to gain the confidence of her patients as a female physician 🡪she couldn’t earn
much money in her clinic

103
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. Safiye Ali aimed at increasing the number of female doctors 🡪 she gave gynaecological and obstetrics
courses at the first women’s medical school and became the first female lecturer in higher education.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Safiye Ali became the head of a special care centre 🡪 she encouraged mothers to breast-feed their
children and raised awareness about how to raise a healthy child.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Safiye Ali inspired many young women with her work 🡪 there are many female doctors in Turkey today
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Safiye Ali struggled with patience and determination despite the difficulties 🡪 many people are inspired
by her work now.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Practice 2. Read the conditions and results about some medical breakthroughs. Then make sentences
using if clauses.
1. people track their steps everyday by using a pedometer 🡪 people become more physically active
According to recent research, _____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

2. the stethoscope was invented 🡪 doctors do not have to listen to their patients’ heartbeats by putting
their ears on the patients’ chest today
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

3. René Laënnec was not able to accurately judge the heart rate of one of his patients due to too much fat
in his body 🡪 he invented the stethoscope
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

4. Printed books were increasingly available in late 1800s 🡪the cases of myopia increased

104
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

5. the cases of myopia increased 🡪glasses were needed

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

6. Glasses were invented 🡪 many people with vision problems can be corrected by glasses today
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. Neuralink, a startup founded by Elon Musk, successfully develops microchips that can link the brain

with a smartphone 🡪 they will repair motor function in people with injuries

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Samumed, the most valuable biotechnology startup in the world, hasn’t completed the development of

the drug to regenerate cartilage 🡪 people still need to have operations

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Practice 3. Fill in the blanks in the following paragraph with the correct forms of the verbs to form
different types of if clauses.
SAMUMED
Osman Kibar founded the San Diego-based biotech company working on regenerative medicine. If he
1. _________________________ (find) private investors including IKEA’s private venture firm, he
2. _________________________ (establish) Samumed in 2008. Kibar owns a third of the company, which
means a net worth of $4 billion. He still gets a lot of support from investors. If Samumed 3. ___________
(not/be) successful in the first phases of developing medicines that can reverse ageing, it 4.
_____________ (be) difficult to raise these huge amounts of cash today.
Its first drugs are targeted at specific organ systems. One aims to regrow hair in bald men. If this drug
5. _______________________ (use) by people with grey hair, it 6. ___________________ (turn) grey hair
back to its original colour. In addition, a cosmetic version will erase wrinkles. They are also working on
drugs that will regenerate cartilage in arthritic knees, repair degenerated discs in the spine, remove
scarring in the lungs and treat cancer. If they 7. ________________________ (complete) the development
of these drugs soon, they 8. ______________________ (also/attempt) to cure a leading cause of

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blindness and Alzheimer’s. According to research, if the cells of people ageing 9.
______________________ (regenerate) as powerfully as those of a developing foetus, ageing 10.
____________________________ (reverse).
Our body is filled with stem cells that live in every single tissue and multiply in order to provide us with
fresh and healthy cells to replace losses. Scientists know that if stem cells 11. _____________________
(differentiate) into specialised cells, they 12. _________________________ (form) new tissues. The focus
of Samumed is to replenish stem cells to repair and maintain our tissues. However, what Samumed
understands by stem cell therapy is different. No cells are given to patients, and no cells are manipulated
inside patients. Instead, the drugs trigger a biological pathway that promotes regeneration.
While the company is some years away from delivering a marketable product aimed at one of the aging
processes, it is great to see that the interest and support of investors is growing for rejuvenation
biotechnology. If companies and investors 13. ___________________________ (continue) their interest
in antiaging, we 14. ________________________ (have) medicine that changes how we look at ageing.
Assuming the drugs continue to progress, Samumed has a choice of partnering with a large drug company
for marketing, or launching on its own. It’s talking with a number of drug companies now. Founded in
2008, Samumed employs about 170 people. If the drugs 15. ____________________ (continue) to
progress toward approval, the company 16. _____________________________ (hire) 100 or more people
to handle commercialisation. If they 17. _______________________ (develop) these drugs a few years
ago, the process 18. ______________________________ (complete) earlier. If the drugs 19.
________________________ (approve) now, many patients 20. __________________ (take) them to stop
aging and cure their illnesses.

Unit 4 Input 3
REVISION
Practice 1. In the following paragraph, there are mistakes with participle clauses, relative clauses, noun
clauses, cause and effect language, compare and contrast language, passives, subject-verb agreement and
modals. If the underlined part is correct, put a tick (√). If there is a mistake, correct it.
Is there such a thing as sugar addiction?
Refined sugar is as habit-forming as cocaine or nicotine, according to a review
in the British Journal of Sports Medicine. Animal studies show that when 1. 1. __________
giving a choice of levers to pull, lab rats will switch from cocaine to sucrose.
In the past, we 2. can work for our sugar fix by eating honey and ripe fruit. We 2. __________
then stored any surplus energy as fat for the lean times when bison were
scarce. Now that sugar is available as highly concentrated sucrose and high-

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fructose corn syrup – both stripped of nutritional value (minerals and vitamins
are lost in the refining process) – we’re hooked.
Sugar makes us obese, can promote the development of type 2 diabetes, raises
our blood pressure and give us fatty livers. But it also alters our mood, 3. 3. __________
making us feel rewarded and euphoric.
The lead author of the review, James DiNicolantonio at Saint Luke’s Mid
America Heart Institute, says that, 4.whereas salt, sugar has no “aversion 4. __________
signal”. “Salt taste receptors will ‘flip’ when you’ve had too much, but this
doesn’t happen with sugar – so we have a built-in safety mechanism 5. that 5. __________
protects us from overconsuming salt but not sugar,” he says. “People can eat an
entire bag of cookies or endless bars of chocolate and still want more.”
6. Why refined sugar is technically addictive or not has long been debated. 6. __________
What isn’t in doubt is that we eat too much of it. And we should forget the
notion of moderation – any refined sugar is excessive. In the US, the Food and
Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine says: “The lower limit of dietary
carbohydrate compatible with life is apparently zero, 7. provided that adequate 7. __________
amounts of protein and fat 8. consume.” 8. __________
DiNicolantonio argues that refined sugars 9. should produce bingeing and 9. __________
cravings – indicative of an addictive substance. And then there’s withdrawal. He
says: “Withdrawal symptoms from sugar 10. stem dopamine deficiency in the 10. _________
brain. This may result in symptoms such as attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, and it 11. may even create a similar state in the brain as found in 11. _________
patients 12. with depression.” 12. _________
There is some evidence of genetic differences in our response to sugar 13. due 13. _________
to we all perceive sweetness differently. But, overall, the review says, refined
sugar gives us one of the most intense sensory pleasures of modern life, 14. 14. _________
that is worrying for many reasons.
Adapted from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/sep/04/is-there-such-a-thing-as-
sugar-addiction

Practice 2. Combine the following sentences by using the words or clues in parentheses. Do not change
the meaning.
1. Scientists ask governments to consider imposing taxes on foods high in sugar and salt. They want to
lower sugar and salt content. (so as to)

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______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Sugar is a big contributor to obesity. Sugar delivers empty calories with no nutritional value. (which)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. One in four children are overweight or obese when they start primary school. This number rises to one
in three children at the age of 11. (Participle clause)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Salt raises blood pressure. As a result, it contributes to heart disease and strokes. (Participle clause)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. There is a system where people are benefiting from selling unhealthy foods and they are not paying for
the harm that they are doing. Researchers have reported this. (It)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. We weren’t able to bring salt consumption down to 6g a day. Therefore, we have a high rate of high
blood pressure and heart disease now. (If)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. We see more chronic diseases such as cancer and diabetes today. Poor diet seems to be the main
cause. (what has led to)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. It is true that unhealthy food high in salt, sugar and calories is the major cause of death and disability. It
is the responsibility of the government and the food industry to take immediate action and prevent
illnesses and deaths. (given that)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

9. Healthy food might become more affordable, accessible and attractive. Then, we will see a shift in
consumption away from unhealthy products. (If)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

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10. Diets vary from one country to another. However, eating too few fruits and vegetables and too much
salt accounted for half of all deaths. (Although)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 3. Rewrite the following sentences by using the words or clues in parentheses.
1. The absence of healthy food in our diet causes more deaths than the junk food we eat. (by)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Eating and drinking better could prevent one in five deaths around the world. (by)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. Adoption of diets which emphasise soy foods, beans and other healthy plant sources of protein will
have important benefits for our health. (Participle clause)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Obesity which is caused by the imbalance between energy intake and expenditure can be prevented by
encouraging a healthy diet and regular exercise. (Participle clause)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Many European countries promote a Mediterranean or Nordic-style diets so that they will lower rates
of cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular disease in their countries. (in order to)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. The World Health Organisation recommends adopting Mediterranean or Nordic diet as governments
are likely to save the health system money. (2 modal verbs)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. It is impossible for an average parent to keep their children away from the high-calorie food that is
easily available but governments have the ability to promote healthy eating habits. (2 modal verbs)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. A person who has healthy eating habits is not recommended to take vitamin supplements. (with)

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______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Unit 4 Input 4
REVISION
Practice 1a. Choose the correct option for each blank.
A high-carb diet may explain why Okinawans live so long
Emerging evidence suggests a 10:1 ratio of carbohydrates to proteins may protect the body from the
ravages of ageing.
For every 100,000 inhabitants, Okinawa has 68 centenarians – 1. _____ three times the numbers
found in US populations of the same size. Even by the standards of Japan, Okinawans are remarkable,
with a 40% 2. _____ chance of living up to 100 than other Japanese people.
Little wonder scientists have spent decades 3. ____ to uncover the secrets of the Okinawans’
longevity – in both their genes and their lifestyle. And one of 4. ___ factors to have recently caught
the scientists’ attention is the peculiarly high ratio of carbohydrates to protein in the Okinawan diet –
with a particular abundance of sweet potato as the source of most of their calories. “It is quite the
opposite of current popular diets 5. ____ advocate a high protein, low carb diet,” says Samantha
Solon-Biet, who researches nutrition and ageing at the University of Sydney. 6. ____ the popularity of
the Atkins and Paleo diets, there is minimal evidence that high-protein diets really do bring about
long-term benefits.
So 7. ______ the “Okinawan Ratio” – 10:1 carbohydrate to protein – instead be the secret to a long
and healthy life? 8. _______ it would still be far too early to suggest any lifestyle changes based on
these observations, the very latest evidence – from human longitudinal studies and animal trials –
suggest the hypothesis is worth serious attention. According to these findings, a low protein, high
carbohydrate diet sets off various physiological responses that protect us from various age-related
illnesses – 9. ________ cancer, cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer’s disease. And the Okinawan
Ratio may achieve the optimal dietary balance 10. _______ achieve those effects.
1. A. more than B. most C. the mostD. more
2. A. great B. greater C. the greatest D. greater than
3. A. try B. have tried C. trying D. who try
4. A. the most exciting B. most exciting C. far exciting D. exciting
5. A. with B. who C. where D. that
6. A. Due to B. Despite C. AlthoughD. So that

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7. A. must B. has to C. could D. should
8. A. Despite B. Since C. In order that D. Although
9. A. including B. which including C. included D. have included
10. A. so that B. in order that C. so as to D. since

Rather than suffering a prolonged demise, the Okinawan centenarians appeared to have delayed
many of the usual effects of ageing, with almost two thirds 1. ______ independently until the age of
97. The typical Okinawan centenarian appeared to be free of the typical signs of cardiovascular
disease, without the build-up of the hard “calcified” plaques around the arteries that can 2. ______
heart failure. Okinawa’s oldest residents also have 3. _______ rates of cancer,
diabetes and dementia than other ageing populations. Given these results, there is little doubt 4.
______ Okinawa has an exceptional population. But what can explain that extraordinary longevity?
Genetic good fortune 5. _____ be one important factor. Thanks to the geography of the islands,
Okinawa’s populations spent large chunks of their history in relative isolation, which 6. _____ them a
unique genetic profile. Preliminary studies suggest this may include a reduced prevalence of a gene
variant – APOE4 – that appears to increase the risk of heart disease and Alzheimer’s. They may also
be more likely to carry a protective variant of the FOXO3 gene 7. ____ in regulating metabolism and
cell growth. This 8. ____ a shorter stature but also appears to reduce the risk of various age-related
diseases, 9. _____ cancer.

1. A. who living B. are living C. living D. lived

2. A. lead to B. result from C. stem from D. therefore
3. A. low B. far lower C. extremely low D. the lowest
4. A. what B. how much C. whether D. that
5. A. must B. have to C. could D. will
6. A. must have given B. may have given C. can’t have given D. may give
7. A. involved B. involve C. has involved D. involves
8. A. results in B. results from C. consequentlyD. leads
9. A. include B. to include C. including D. having included

Even so, it seems unlikely that good genes would fully explain the Okinawans’ longevity. Lifestyle
factors will also be important. It 1. ______ that Okinawans tend to smoke less than most populations,
and 2. ______ they work predominantly in agriculture and fishing, they are also physically active.
Their tight-knit communities also help the residents to maintain an active social life into old age. It 3.

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______ that social connection improves health and longevity by reducing the body’s stress responses
to challenging events. Loneliness, 4. ______, has been shown to be as harmful as smoking 15
cigarettes a day. It is the Okinawans’ diet, however, that may have 5. _____ to change our views on
healthy ageing among all these factors. 6. _____ the rest of Asia, the Okinawan staple is not rice, but
the sweet potato. It 7. ______ in the early 17th Century through trade with the Netherlands.
Okinawans also eat an abundance of green and yellow vegetables – such as the bitter melon – and
various soy products. They do eat pork, fish and other meats; 8. _______, these are typically a small
component of their overall consumption, which is mostly plant-based foods.

1. A. has found B. has been found C. found D. had been found

2. A. so B. therefore C. as D. thus
3. A. has also shown B. is also showing C. shown D. has also been shown
4. A. in contrast B. in spite of C. owing to D. but
5. A. more potential B. the most potential C. some potential D. as much potential as
6. A. Like B. Similar C. Unlike D. In contrast
7. A. introduced B. is introduced C. has been introduced D. was introduced
8. A. because B. however C. although D. therefore

Practice 1b. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word or phrase from the box below. There are more
words than you need.

is believed believe you consume fewer less why

so that so as to caused causing what that

The traditional Okinawan diet is therefore dense in the essential vitamins and minerals - including
anti-oxidants - but also low in calories. Particularly in the past, before fast food entered the islands,
the average Okinawan ate around 11% 1. ______________________ calories than the normal
recommended consumption for a healthy adult. For this reason, it 2. ______________________ that
Okinawans offer more evidence for the life-enhancing virtues of a “calorie restricted” diet. Since the
1930s, some doctors and scientists have argued 3. ______________________ continuously limiting
the amount of energy 4. ______________________ could have many benefits above and beyond
weight loss – including a deceleration of the ageing process. It’s still not clear 5.
______________________ a calorie restricted diet would be so beneficial, but there are many
potential mechanisms. One possibility is that calorie restriction alters the cell’s energy signalling, 6.
______________________ the body devotes more resources to preservation and maintenance –

112
such as DNA repair – rather than growth and reproduction, while limiting ‘oxidative stress’ 7.
______________________ by the toxic by-products of metabolism 8. ______________________ can
cause cellular damage.

due to the fact that due to is able to is expected expects may

has found in order to in order that like should could

has been found which examined examining

Solon-Biet has conducted a series of studies 1. ______________________ the influence of dietary

composition (rather than sheer quantity) on ageing in animals, and her team has consistently found
that a high-carb, low-protein diet extends the lifespan of various species, with her most recent study
showing that it reduces some of the signs of ageing in the brain. Amazingly, it 2.
______________________ that the optimum ratio is 10 parts carb to one part protein – the same as
the so-called Okinawan Ratio. “Other long-lived populations have also been shown to have dietary
patterns that include relatively low amounts of protein,” she says. “These include the Kitavans, [who
live on] a small island in Papua New Guinea, the South American Tsimane people and populations
that consume the Mediterranean diet.” 3. ______________________ calorie restriction, the low
protein diets seem to promote cell repair and maintenance. The scarcity of amino acids 4.
______________________ encourage cells to recycle old material. Together, these changes 5.
______________________ prevent the ageing-associated accumulation of damaged proteins within
cells. This build-up of damaged proteins could usually be responsible for many diseases, she says –
but the regular clean up when we eat a low-protein diet 6. ______________________ prevent it.
So 7. ______________________ we all start adopting the Okinawan Diet? Not quite. Ryan points to
some evidence that low protein intake may limit bodily damage up to the age of 65, but you may
then benefit from increasing your protein intake after that point. “Optimal nutrition 8.
______________________ to vary across the life history,” she says. And it’s also worth noting one
study, 9. ______________________ found that the relative merits of protein and carbohydrates may
depend on the protein's source: a diet higher in plant-based protein appears to be better than a diet
rich in meat or dairy, for instance. So the Okinawans may be living longer 10.
______________________ they are eating (mostly) fruit and vegetables, rather than high carb, low
protein content. Ultimately, the Okinawans’ health is probably 11. ______________________ a lucky
confluence of many factors. And specific interactions among these factors will also be important. And
we may need many more years of research 12. ______________________ understand the

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importance of each of those ingredients before we finally come up with a true recipe for the “elixir of
youth”.
Adapted from: http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20190116-a-high-carb-diet-may-explain-why-okinawans-live-so-long

Practice 2. Read the following sentences about vitamin D. There is a mistake in each sentence. Find and
correct the mistake in each sentence.
1. Both vitamin D2 and D3 supplements have linked to improving immunity, tiredness and muscle
weakness, bone pain and depression.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. It has also said that they help stave off cancer and the consequences of ageing.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

3. According to research, a third of adults in the UK whose take vitamin supplements count vitamin D
among them.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. The debate over that all adults need to take vitamin D supplements is contentious.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

5. Few doubt the role that vitamin D plays in our bone health to regulate calcium and phosphate in the
body since those who have a vitamin D deficiency are particularly encouraged to address it.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Experts argue that vitamin D not a way to prevent disease in healthy people.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

7. Although its name, vitamin D is not a vitamin but it is a hormone that promotes the absorption of
calcium in the body.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

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8. Aside from a few foods like oily fish, vitamin D is hard to find in the average diet but in the presence of
‘ultraviolet B’ rays, our skin should produce its own from a common cholesterol.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. The first type of vitamin D is D3, which found in animals including fish and is the kind the skin makes
when exposed to sunlight.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
10. The second type is vitamin D2, which comes from plant-based foods include mushrooms.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
11. Studies have found that D3 is effective than D2, and the conclusions of a 2012 meta-analysis argue
that D3 is the preferred choice for supplementation.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
12. In many countries, adults advise to get 15 micrograms of vitamin D and have two servings of vitamin-D
fortified milk or soy alternatives every day by the government.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
13. Low vitamin D levels reduce the body’s levels of calcium, which arises from a decrease in bone density
and can cause rickets, particularly in babies and children.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
14. Although it is not certain, low vitamin D will cause fatigue as low levels cause mitochondria, the
‘power stations’ in every cell of the body, to be less efficient.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
15. The current guidelines on how much vitamin D to take were informed by research involving the
elderly population living in care homes, who don’t get as much exposure to the sun and are more prone
to fractures and osteoporosis the general population.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
16. Who will benefit from vitamin D supplements more have been under debate for a long time.

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______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Unit 4 Input 5
REVISION
Practice 1. Rewrite the following sentences by using the words or clues in parentheses.
1. Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson spent five years eating only meat. He wanted to disprove those
who argued that humans cannot survive if they only eat meat. (so as to)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

2. He was eating lean meat without any fat. He developed protein poisoning nicknamed ‘rabbit starvation’.
(Participle Clause)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

3. His symptoms disappeared after he lowered his protein intake and he raised his fat intake. (If)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

4. How much protein do we need? Is too much or too little dangerous? Many of us are still unsure about

these. (Noun clause)

________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

5. Foods with inflated protein are a waste of money. Some experts argue this point. (Noun Clause)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

6. Adults who aren’t active are advised to eat roughly 0.75g of protein per day for each kilogram they
weigh. This is 55g for men and 45g for women or two palm-sized portions of meat, fish, tofu, or nuts.
(Relative Clause)

116
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

7. A person does not get enough protein. This means hair loss, skin breakouts and weight loss. (give rise to)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

8. It is possible that not consuming protein after a workout causes the breakdown of muscle. (modal verb)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

9. Protein increases physical performance, but for the benefit to be optimal, it is a good idea to combine it
with a fast-acting carbohydrate. (modal verb)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

10. Most experts agree that we best consume protein in food instead of supplements. (Passive)
Most experts agree that ___________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

11. The reason why the elderly need more protein is that they need it to retain muscle mass as they age.
(since)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

12. Someone with an underlying kidney problem consumes high amounts of protein. It is possible that
there are adverse effects. (If)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

13. Some people fail to lose weight. These people are often advised to have a high-protein breakfast which
can help stop cravings later in the day. (who)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

14. Scientists recommend that overweight people eat a high-protein and moderate-carb diet, consisting of
30% protein, 40% carbs and 30% fat. (It)

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________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

15. An increased risk of cancer and heart disease result from eating large amounts of red meat. (contribute to)
________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

Practice 2. Choose the best option to fill in the blanks.

Elon Musk is making implants to link the brain with a smartphone

Elon Musk wants to insert Bluetooth-enabled implants into your brain, 1. ______ the devices could enable
telepathy and repair motor function in people with injuries. Speaking on Tuesday, the CEO of Tesla and
SpaceX said his Neuralink devices will consist of a tiny chip 2. _______ to 1,000 wires measuring one-tenth
the width of a human hair. The chip features a USB-C port, the same adapter 3. _____
by Apple's Macbooks, and connects via Bluetooth to a small computer 4. ______ over the ear and to a
smartphone, Musk said. "If you 5. ______ to stick something in a brain, you will want it not to be large,"
Musk said.
Neuralink, a startup founded by Musk, says the devices 6. _____ by those seeking a memory boost or by
stroke victims, cancer patients, quadriplegics or others with congenital defects. The company says up to
10 units can be placed in a patient's brain. The chips will connect to an iPhone app 7. _____ the user can
control. The devices 8. _____ by a robot built by the startup. Musk said the robot, when operated by a
surgeon, will drill 2 millimeter holes in a person's skull. The chip part of the device will plug the hole in the
patient's skull. "The interface to the chip is wireless, 9. _____ you have no wires poking out of your head.
That's very important," Musk added. Trials 10. ____ start before the end of 2020, Musk said, likening the
procedure to Lasik eye correction surgery, 11. ____ requires local anaesthetic. Musk has said this latest
project is an attempt to use artificial intelligence (AI) to have a positive effect on humanity. But critics
aren't so sure 12. ____ customers should trust tech companies with data ported directly from the brain.
While the technology could help those with some type of brain injury or trauma, gathering data from raw
brain activity could put people at great risk, and could be used to influence, manipulate and exploit them.
"Who has access to this data? Is this data shared with third parties? People need to be in full control over
their data.
Adapted from https://edition.cnn.com/2019/07/17/tech/elon-musk-neuralink-brain-implant/index.html

1. A. claiming B. claimed C. claim D. claims

2. A. connect B. which connect C. connected D. connects
3. A. was used B. which was used C. which uses D. uses

118
4. A. worn B. wear C. wears D. wore
5. A. are wanted B. wanted C. had wanted D. want
6. A. use B. used C. can be used D. can use
7. A. where B. that C. whose D. with
8. A. install B. are installing C. are going to install D. will be installed
9. A. so B. since C. however D. despite
10. A. had to B. was able to C. could D. must
11. A. that B. which C. who D. whose
12. A. what B. who C. whether D. which

119