[NCM 411] NURSING LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

LEADERSHIP THEORIES
1ST SEMESTER ┃A.Y. 2022-2023┃PRELIMS┃TRANS 1┃TRANSCRIBED BY APRIL TOM O. CUENCA
NAME OF LECTURER: MR. TARCISIO B. CANDOG, JR., RN, MAN
DATE OF LECTURE: SEPTEMBER 14, 2022

OUTLINE 3. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTER THEORY

1. Early Leadership Theories 3. Situational or Contingency • Traits determine whether or not a person can be an effective leader
a. Great Man Theory Theory • Distinctive physical and psychological individual
b. Trait Theory a. Paul Hersey and Kenneth characteristics account for leadership effectiveness: naturally
c. Individual Character Theory Blanchard (Situational taller, attractive, intelligent, self-reliant and creative
2. Behavioral Theories Leadership Theory) • Napoleon complex: alleged type of inferiority complex affecting
a. Kurt Lewin (Field Theory of b. Fred Fiedler (Contingency some people are sort since Napoleon Bonaparte who was short,
Human Behavior) Theory) went against this ideal of a leader
b. Chris Argyris (Maturity Theory) c. Victor Harold Vroom and
c. Alvin Toffler (Theory of the Yetton (Contingency
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
Third Wave Society) Model/Theory)
d. Rensis Likert (Likert d. Robert House (Path-Goal • Concerned with what leaders do and act than who the leader is
Management System) Theory) • The actions of the leaders and not their mental qualities or traits
e. Robert Blake and Jane Mouton make them leaders
(Managerial Grid Model) • Focus is moved from leaders to leadership
• Great leaders are made, not born
• People can become leaders through experience and observation
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
1. KURT LEWIN
• A leader is one who knows the way, goes the way and shows the
way (John Maxwell). • A famous psychologist that proposed that worker’s behavior is
• A leader may or may not be assigned by the organization. influenced by interactions between the personality, the structure of
the primary work group and the socio-technical climate of the
workplace
EARLY LEADERSHIP THEORIES
• Categorized leadership styles as (1) authoritarianism, (2)
democratic, and (3) laissez-faire
1. GREAT MAN THEORY • Developed the “Field Theory of Human Behavior” where people
• Assumes that the capacity for leadership is inherent act the way they do depending on self-perceptions and their
• Great leaders are born, not made environments. To understand a leader’s behavior or that of the
• Great leaders are heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership follower, one must look at the totality of the individual’s experience.
when needed • This individual carries perceptions that are valid and must be taken
• Examples: Sun Tzu, Genghis Khan, Aristotle, Kings of Great into account.
Britain and Abraham Lincoln
AUTHORITARIAN LEADERS
2. TRAIT THEORY • Strong control is maintained over the work group
• Assumes that people inherit extraordinary qualities and traits that • Others are motivated by coercion
make them better suited to leadership • Others are directed by command
• They have special traits that make them leaders: tireless • Communication flows downward
ambition, zest for life, great orator skills, irresistible looks and • Decision making does not involve others
extremely persuasive • Emphasis is on difference in status (“I” and “you”)
• Almost similar to the “Great Man Theory” since it is believed that • Criticism is punitive
leaders are born with special traits
• Examples: Pope John Paul II, Mother Teresa, Margaret Thatcher, DEMOCRATIC LEADERS
Nelson Mandela, Gandhi • Less control is maintained
• Stogdill (1974) found that leaders tend to be higher than non- • Economic and ego awards are used to motivate
leaders on: (1) intelligence, (2) dominance, (3) self-confidence, (4)
• Others are directed through suggestion and guidance
activity level and (5) knowledge on the task.
• Communication flows up and down
• Reeves (2001) noted that leaders possess these traits: (1)
• Decision making involve others
emotional stability and composure, (2) admitting error, (3) good
• Emphasis is on “we” rather than “I” and “you”
interpersonal skills and (4) intellectual breadth
• Criticism is constructive
• Gardner (1993) also said that decisiveness, trustworthiness, self-
confidence, capacity to motivate people, skills in dealing with
people, task competence among others make up traits LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADERS
• Permissive with little or no control
REEVES: TRAITS OF THE LEADER • Motivation by support when requested by the group or individuals
1. Emotional stability and composure: Calm, confident and • Provision of little or no direction
predictable when under stress • Communication upward and downward flow among members of the
2. Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes rather than covering up group
3. Good interpersonal skills: Can communicate and persuade others • Decision making dispersed throughout the group
without resorting to negative or coercive tactics • Emphasis is on the group
4. Intellectual breadth: Understands wide range of areas rather than • Criticism is withheld
narrow area of expertise

TRANSCRIBED BY APRIL TOM O. CUENCA 1

 KURT LEWIN PROPOSED THAT CHANGE UNDERGOES THREE
STAGES
1. First stage: Unfreezing
• People in the organization made aware of problems or
performance gap and need for change. Diagnosis stage is
often driven by a change agent
2. Second stage: Changing
• People experiment with new workplace behavior to deal with
needed change. Intervention stage.
3. Third stage: Re-freezing
• People employ new skills and attributes and are rewarded by
organization. Changes are institutionalized in the corporate
culture
2. CHRIS ARGYRIS
• Organizational psychologist who studied the way people in
organizations act and react with each other.
• Developed the concepts on:
1. Ladder of Inference: When communicating one needs to
communicate not just subjective conclusions but also the
objective reasoning process and assumptions that underline
the conclusions. Otherwise, the real sources of disagreement
will not be known which is usually lie in one’s assumptions
rather than conclusions.
✓ It is based on the idea that the individuals interpret data
to make meaning and make sense of it.
✓ With the available data, one then selects to process,
interpret, and finally draw up conclusions.
✓ The conclusions that are drawn are not objective but
subjective. At each step, there is bias in the process
depending on the person’s experience.
2. Double loop learning: Saw learning as a process of
defecting and correcting errors. Focus is on solving problems
that are complex and ill-structured and which can change as
problem-solving advances.
✓ This concept has an impact in nursing profession.
✓ It would mean questioning the age-old ways of doing
things that never works anyway but are continued for
various reasons.
3. ALVIN TOFFLER
• A futurist known for his works discussing the digital revolution,
communications revolution, corporate revolution and technological
singularity.
• Categorized the changes in cultural behavior and civilization in
terms of "waves" such as the first wave, second wave, and third
waves.
4. RENSIS LIKERT
• Best known for the development of the Likert Scales and the
Linking Pin Model.
• The model hopes to achieve regularity of practice which would
reinforce the organizational structure laid down by the
organization. The competence and synergy of all the efforts of the
workers would lead to the achievement of common purposes and
goals.
• Likert gave special attention to the impact of leaders’ behaviors on
workers motivation and the performance of groups. This leads to
the identification of the four main styles of leadership which he
called “Four Systems Approach”.
• Linking Pin Model: Concept of the ideal work relationship of
workers in an organization.
• Developed the organizational design:
1. Superiors and subordinates trust each other.
2. Information flows freely downward and laterally.
3. Group participation sets high and realistic goals.
4. Decisions are done through democratic process.
5. Training human resources and control is done often.
LIKERT’S FOUR (4) TYPES OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
1. EXPLOITATIVE-AUTHORITATIVE
• Management uses fears and threats; communication is top
down with most decisions taken at the top; superiors and
subordinates are distant.
a. Least effective performance
b. Managers show little confidence in staff associates and
ignore their ideas.
c. Staff associate do not feel free to discuss their jobs with
the manager.
d. Responsibility for the organization’s goal is at the top;
goals are established through orders
2. BENEVOLENT-AUTHORITATIVE
• Management uses rewards; information flowing upward is
restricted to what management wants to hear and whilst policy
decisions come from the top, some prescribed decisions may
be delegated to lower levels, superiors expect subservience
lower down
a. The manager is condescending to staff associates
b. Staff associates ideas are sometimes sought after but they
do not feel very free to discuss their jobs with the manager
c. Top management and middle management are
responsible for setting goals
d. Decisions are made at the top with some delegation
e. Staff associates are occasionally consulted for problem
solving
3. BENEVOLENT-AUTHORITATIVE
• Management offers rewards, occasional punishment, big
decisions come from the top while there is some wider
decision-making involvement in details; and communication is
downward while critical upward communication is cautious
a. The manager has substantial confidence in staff
associates
b. Their ideas are usually sought and they feel free to discuss
their work with the manager
c. Responsibility for setting goals is fairly general.
d. Managers are quite familiar with the problem faced by their
staff associates
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4. PARTICIPATIVE
• Management encourages group participation and involvement
in setting high performance goals with some economic
rewards; communication flows in all directions and is open and
frank; decision making through group processes with each
group linked to others by persons who are members of more
than one group called linking pins; and subordinates and
superiors are close to each other. The result is high productivity
and better industrial relations.
a. Associated with the most effective performance
b. Managers have complete confidence in their staff
associates
c. Ideas are always sought
d. Managers are very well informed about the problems
faced by their staff associate and decision making is well
integrated throughout the organization with full
involvement of staff associates
5. ROBERT BLAKE AND JANE MOUTON
• The Managerial Grid Model was conceptualized by Dr. Robert R.
Blake (1918- 2004) and Dr. Jane S. Mouton (1930-1987)
• Developed the Managerial Grid Model which attempts to
conceptualize management in terms of relations and leadership
styles.
a. Leaders lay somewhere along the continuum of concern for
productivity to concern for people
b. There is no ‘one best way’ of leadership •
c. Different styles are needed for different situations.
d. Identified the five (5) different leadership according to the
varying emphasis on each of the two dimensions: (1)
impoverished style, (2) country club style, (3) produce or
perish style, (4) middle of the road style and (5) team style.
• Consists of two behavioral dimensions: concern for task or
production and concern for people
1. Concern for task or production: Leader cares little about
people and operates in fear of something going wrong. The
focus of the leader is on achieving results and productivity.
2. Concern for people: Leader cares a little about productivity
and operates wholly from a desire to be loved and approved
of.
1. IMPOVERISHED STYLE
• Description: Leaders have low concern for both people and
production. This style is used to avoid getting into trouble.
• Characteristics: Main concern is not to be held responsible for
any mistakes which results in less innovative decisions. This
leader is indifferent, non-committal, resigned and apathetic.
Leaders just do enough to keep their job.
• Results: Disorganization, dissatisfaction, disharmony among
people due to lack of effective leadership
2. COUNTRY CLUB STYLE
• Description: Leader has a high concern for people and a low
concern for production. Leaders using this style pay much
attention to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes
that this would increase performance.
• Characteristics: The leader is attentive to his/her people’s
needs and has developed satisfying relationships and work
culture, but at the expense of achieving results. The leader is
defined as agreeable, eager to help, non-confrontational,
comforting and uncontroversial.
• Culture embedded within; climate is the situation
• Results: Atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily
that productive
3. PRODUCE OR PERISH STYLE (AUTOCRATIC)
• Description: With a high concern for production, and a low
concern for people, leaders using this style find employee
needs unimportant; they provide their employees with money
and expect performance back. Managers using this style also
pressure their employees through rules and punishments to
achieve the company goals.
• Characteristics: The leader concentrates almost exclusively
on achieving results. People are viewed as a commodity to be
used to get the job done. Communication is de-emphasized
and conflict is resolved by suppressing it. Leadership is
controlling, demanding and over-powering.
• Results: This dictatorial style is based on Theory X of
Douglas McGregor, and is commonly applied by companies
on the edge of real or perceived failure. This is used in case of
crisis management. So, while high output is achieved in a short
time, it becomes costly as there is high labor turn-over.
4. MIDDLE OF THE ROAD STYLE
• Description: Leaders try to balance between company goals
and worker’s needs. By giving some concern to both people
and production, leaders who use this style hope to achieve
acceptable performance.
• Characteristics: This leader is a compromiser who wants to
maintain the status quo and avoid any problems. The leader is
aware of and wants to focus on productivity but not at the
expense of the morale of the team.
• Results: Leader comprises in which neither production and the
people’s needs are met.
5. TEAM STYLE
• Description: Leaders who use this style rely heavily on making
employees feels as a constructive part of the organization.
• Characteristics: Leader pays high concern for both people
and production. Leaders encourage teamwork and
commitment among employees. The leader may be
characterized as open-minded, flexible and one who inspired
involvement.
• Results: The leader achieves high work performance through
“leading” the people to become dedicated to the organizational
goals. There is a high degree of participation and teamwork,
which satisfies the basic need of people to be involved and
committed to their work.
SITUATIONAL OR CONTINGENCY THEORY
• Are theories that believe in different types of leadership for different
situations
• It is also called contingent theories because the leadership style
would be dependent on the situation that a leader is faced at the
moment
• Proponents: Paul Hersey, Kenneth Blanchard, Fred Fiedler,
Victor Harold Vroom and Yetton, Robert House
• Different situations demand different types of leadership.
• Situation: Set of values and attitudes with which the individual or
group has to deal in a process of activity and with regard to which
this activity is planned and its results appreciated.
1. PAUL HERSEY AND KENNETH BLANCHARD
• Developed the situational leadership theory
• Leaders should adapt their style to follower development style
(maturity), based on how ready and willing the follower is to
perform required tasks.
• Their readiness depends on their competence and motivation.
• Identified four leadership style (S1 to S4) that match the
development levels (D1 to D4) of the followers.
FOUR (4) LEADERSHIP STYLES
1. Style 1: Directing and Telling Leaders
• The leaders define the roles and tasks of the follower, and
supervises them closely. Decisions are made by the leader and
announced, so communication is largely one way.
2. Style 2: Coaching or Selling Leaders
• The leader still defines roles and tasks, but seeks ideas and
suggestions from the follower. Decisions remain the leader’s
prerogative, but communication is much more than two ways.
3. Style 3: Supporting or Participating Leaders
• The leader passes day to day decisions, such as task allocation
and processes, to the follower. The leader facilitates and takes
part in decisions, but control is with the follower.
TRANSCRIBED BY APRIL TOM O. CUENCA 3
4. Style 4: Delegating Leaders • After weighing up various contingencies a leader can choose
• Control is with the follower. The follower decides when and how to:
the leader will be involved. a. Decide on their own, and if necessary, sell their decision
b. Consult some staff members individually, gathering some
informal ideas and then make the decision themselves.
c. Consult the staff as a group, gathering their suggestions but
still making the decision themselves.
d. Facilitate a meeting where they define the problem and set
the limits within which a decision needs to be made, and then
uses a concensus approach to make a decision.
e. Delegate the decision-making process either to the team or
individual responsible for enacting the decision.

4. ROBERT HOUSE
• The Path-Goal Theory was developed by Robert House, a leader
adopts a certain leadership style such as: (1) directive leadership,
(2) supportive leadership, (3) participative leadership and (4)
achievement-oriented leadership.
• Proposed the Path-Goal Theory of Leadership:
1. Directive leadership: Specific advice is given to the group
and ground rules and structure are established
2. Supportive leadership: Good relations are promoted with
the group and sensitivity to the subordinates’ needs is shown
3. Participative leadership: Decision making is based on
consultation with the group and information is shared with the
group
4. Achievement-oriented leadership: Challenging goals are
set and high performance is encouraged while confidence is
shown in the group’s ability

2. FIEDLER CONTINGENCY MODEL

• Developed by Fred Fiedler which focused on the personality and
relationship between the leader and group members, programming
of group’s assignment and positional power of the leader.
• Fiedler believed that the leader’s personal characteristics are
stable and therefore, so is the leadership styles.
• He believed that there is no single approach that could provide an
adequate solution for the various management problems.
• It is a leadership theory that moved from research of traits and
personal characteristics of leaders to leadership styles and
behaviors.
• The model exemplifies task-oriented leadership style. The leader
has a great influence or power over group members.

TASK-ORIENTED LEADERSHIP STYLE

1. Leader-member relation: refers to how well the manager and the
workers get along
2. Task structure: refers to how the nature of the job to be done is
highly structured or fairly unstructured or somewhere in between
3. Leader’s position power: refers to how much legitimate authority
does the leader-manager possess

3. VICTOR HAROLD VROOM AND YETTON (DEMOCRATIC)

• Suggested that the selection of a leadership style will determine
decision making
• Effectiveness of decision making is affected by: importance of the
decision quality and acceptance, amount of relevant information
possessed by the leader and the subordinates, the likelihood that
subordinates will accept an autocratic decision or cooperate in
trying to make good decision if allowed to participate, amount of
disagreement among subordinates with respect to their preferred
alternatives.
• Participative model provides a set of rules or norms that determine
how participatory a leader should be when making decisions
• It is democratic due to consultation

TRANSCRIBED BY APRIL TOM O. CUENCA 4