Unit 2

Chapter

Sensors and Actuators

Syllabus
Temperature sensor (Thermistor, LM-35), Optical sensor (LDR), Passive infrared sensor
(PIR), Tilt sensor, Ultrasonic sensor, Motion sensor, Image sensor, Actuators: DC motor,
Stepper motor.

Chapter Contents
2.1 Temperature Sensors 2.7 Image Sensors
2.2
2.2 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) 2.8 Actuators
2.3 Passive Infrared Sensors (PIR) 2.9 DC Motors
2.4 Tilt Sensor 2.10 Stepper Motor
2.5 Ultrasonic Sensors 2.11 University Questions and Answers

2.6 Motion Sensors

 Instru Systems (Sem. l /BSc. Comp./SPPU) 2-2 Sensors and Actuators

2.1 Temperature Sensors

Effects of heating and cooling:
When a body is heated or cooled, various effects of heating or cooling can be observed. These
effects include:
1 Change in the physical or chemical state.
2. Change in the
physical dimensions (thermometers).
3. Change in the electrical
properties.
4. Generation of an emf
(voltage) at the junction of dissimilar metals.
5. Change in the
intensity of total radiation emitted.
The existing
temperature detectors use any one of the above five
changes in temperatures.
types of variations to detect the

The changes in
physical or chemical state is not
generally used for direct temperature measurement.
The common thermometers and bimetal thermometers operate on the
physical dimensions due to
principle of change in
temperature.
The electrical methods are by far the best methods for
methods temperature measurement. The electrical
are of two types
Methods based on change in resistance and
2. Method based on
generation of thermo emf.
The last method of
temperature sensing is based on
measuring the energy radiation from
body. This is a standard optical method of measurement
a hot

2.1.1 Thermistors
especially at very high temperatures.

University Questions SPPU: April 16

Q.1 List any two temperature sensors.
Definition: (April 16, 1 Mark)
RTD is defined as the
temperature sensor whose resistance
temperature. changes in
proportion with its

Thermistors are
Temperature Dependent Resistors (RTD).
Principle
Thermistors also are Temperature
Dependent Resistors (RTD). They are
materials which have either negative or made of
positive temperature coefficient of semiconduct
resistivity.

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The resistance of a thermistor can be expressed as,

RT Roexp .2.1.1)

Where, RT Resistance at T°K,

Ro Resistance at T°K
and B Characteristics temperature.
This shows that the variation of resistance with changes in temperature is non-linear as shown in

Fig. 2.1.1.

The changes in resistance can be converted into a proportional voltage by using the starndard

Wheatstone bridge.
tResistance

Resistance decreases with

increase in temperature

100 200 300 Temperature C

(8-633)Fig. 2.1.1: Variation in resistance of a thermistor with temperature

As the resistance decreases with increase in temperature, this is called as the Negative Temperature

Coefficient Thermistor [NTC].

Types ofthermistors
Thermistors are of two types, PTC thermistors and NTC thermistors.

The thermistors made of metal combinations have a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity
and called as PTC thermistors while the thermistors made of semiconductor material have a
negative temperature coefficient and called as NTC thermistor.

Construction of thermistors
Thermistors are constructed using the materials such as sintered mixtures of sulphides, selenides
oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron, copper etc.

They are available in various configurations such as small beads, discs, rods etc. as shown in
Fig. 2.1.2(a).
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Glass coating
Glass

nIIIID
End
connections Bead Probe Disc type
o

Th

ww
Rod type
(B-634) (a) Configurations of thermistors (B-3023) (b) Symbol
Fig. 2.1.2

Symbol
Fig. 2.1.2(b) shows the symbol of a thermistor.

Measurement technique using a thermistor:

The changes in the resistance of a thermistor due to changes in temperature can be converted into
proportional voltage changes using the standard Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 2.1.2(c).

A voltage proportional to the change in resistance is produced at the bridge output.

This voltage can be applied to an OP-AMP for amplification and used it for controlling the

temperature.

w.
Th

ww- Amplifier>
Vo

(B-635) Fig. 2.1.2(c) : RTD resistance measurement

Temperature range:
Thermistors can be used to measure temperatures in the range of -100°C to 300°C.
The thermistors provide a large change in resistance for small changes in temperature.

Resolution

Typically we can get achange of 80 ohms/°C which is much larger than a 7 ohms/°C change
obtained from a platinum wire resistance sensor. Thus thermistors have a high resolution.
Advantages ofthermistors
suitable for precision temperature measurements, temperature control and temperature
1. They are

compensation.

2. High resolution (80 2/°C).

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Disadvantages of thermistor:
1. Temperature versus resistance characteristics is nonlinear.

2 Not suitable for wide range operation. (Range is restricted to -100°C to 300°C).
3 Needs external dc power supply for its operation.

Applications of thermistor:
Some of the typical applications of a thermistor are as follows :

1 As a temperature sensor with without

or
compensation.
2. In biomedical instrumentation.
3. In measuring the temperature distribution or temperature gradient.
2.1.2 Temperature IC LM 35: SPPU:Oct. 15, April 16, April 17, Oct. 17
University Questions
Q.1 Writeany fivefeatures of LM35 (Oct.15, 10 Marks)
List any two temperature sensors.
Q.2 (April 16, 1 Mark)
Q. 3 Write any fwo features of LM35. April 17, 1 Mark)
Q.4 Name thetemperature sensor 1C (Oct.17, 1 Mark)
LM35 is a precision IC Temperature sensor that produces an output voltage proportional to the
temperature (in °C).
It consists of sealed sensor circuitry which avoids issues due to oxidations and other such processes.
LM35 generates higher voltages as compared to thermocouple and therefore does not require
amplification of output voltage.
The operating temperature range of this IC sensor is from - 55°C to 150°C.

The scaling factor of LM35 is 0.01V/ °C. Therefore its output voltage varies by 10 mV in response to
every°C rise/fall in ambient temperature.

Pin Diagram

LM35 1:Vcc
2:Output
3:Ground

1 2 3
(B-3313) Fig. 2.1.3: Pin diagram of LM 35
Range of input/ output voltage
Pin No Function Name
1 Supply voltage; 5 V (+ 35 Vto-2 Vcc
2 Output voltage (+6 V to - 1 V)
Output
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Various packages of LM35:

TO-92 Plastic transistor-like package,

TO-46 Metal can transistor-like package

TO-202 Fig. 2.1.3
While using LM35 what needs to be remembered is Vout is measured by voltmeter.
The sensitivity of LM35 is around 10 mV/°C.
Reciprocal of this is used as a conversion factor i.e 0.01 °C/V. Thus the output
with temperature. voltage varies linearly

Connection diagram:
The typical connection diagram of LM35 sensor is as shown in Fig. 2.1.4.
CC

LM35 2Output

R
(B-3314) Fig. 2.1.4 Typical connection diagram
Commonly used values of the parameters are, Vcc =
4 to 30 V and
Ri =
Vcc/ 10
Output voltage of LM35
The output voltage of IC LM35 is
proportional to the Celsius
0.01V/C temperature. The scale
factor is

Vo 0.01
=
x
T (°C)
Therefore the output of this IC at 45°C at 0.01 x 45 0.45 Volts.
Features of LM35
. Low impedance output, 0.1 0 for 1 mA load.
2.
2. Operates from 4 to 30 Volts.
3. Calibrated directly in
°
Celsius (Centigrade).
4. Less than 60 A current drain.

5. Linear10.0 mV/ °C scale factor.

6. 0.5'C accuracy (at + 25°C).

7. Rated for full 55° to+150° C range.

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=

8. Suitable for remote applications.

9. Low cost due to wafer-level

trimming.
10. Low self-heating, 0.08'C in still air.

LM36 Temperature Sensor Applications

Measuring temperature of a particular environment.

Providing thermal shutdown for a circuit/component.
Monitoring Battery Temperature.
Measuring Temperatures for HVAC applications.
Ex. 2.1.1 What will be the output of LM35 at 45
Oct. 14. 1 Mark
Soln.

The output voltage of IC LM35 is,

Vo 0.01 x T (°C)
Therefore the output of this IC at 45°C is.

Vo 0.01 x 45 045 Volts. Ans.

Ex.2.1.2 What wil bethe output of LM35 at55 April 15, 1 Mark
Soln.
The output voltage of IC LM35 is,
Vo = 0.01 x TCC)

Therefore the output ofthis IC at 55°C is

Vo = 0.01 x 55 0.55 Volts. .Ans.

Ex. 2.1.3 Caiculate output voltage ofLM35at65°C Oct. 15. 1 Mark

Soln.
The output voltage of IC LM35 is,
Vo 0.01 x T (°C)

Therefore the output of this IC at 65°C is,

Vo = 0.01 x 65 0.65 Volts. Ans.

Ex. 2.1.4: Calculate output voltage of LM35at100 C April 16, 1 Mark

Soln.
The output voltage of IC LM35 is,

Vo 0.01 x T (C)
Therefore the output of this IC at 65°C is,
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Vo = 0.01 x 100 = 1.00 Volt.
Ans.
2.1.3 Temperature Monitoring System SPPU: Oct. 16
University Questions
Q.1 With neat diagram explain the temperature monitoring system. (LM 35 based).
(Oct 16, 5 Marks)
Block diagram:
Fig. 2.1.5 shows the block diagram of a temperature monitoring system using LM35.
+5V

LM
ADC Signal Display
conditioner driver

Digital
display
(8-3315) Fig. 2.1.5:Temperature monitoring system using LM35
A voltage proportional to the temperature is produced by LM35 and applied to the analog to
digital coverter (ADC)
The ADC converts the analog voltage into a digital equivalent and applies it to a signal conditioner.

The signal conditioner processes the digitizes temperature signal and applies it to a display driver
that produces the required signals to display temperature on a digital display.

2.2 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):SPPU:Oct. 14, Oct. 15, Oct. 16, April 19
University Questions
Q 1 Explain operating principle of LDR. What are the materials used for making of LDR 7?

(Oct. 14,5 Marks)

Q. 2 Write working principle of LDR in short.
(Oct 15, 1 Mark)
Q. 3 Explain LDR on the basis of the following points: Working principle,
structure and symbo,
material used and its application. (Oct. 16, April19,5 Marks)
Definition and Principle
LDR ie. light dependent resistance is a two terminal device, the resistance of which is dependent on
the intensity of light incident on it.
LDR works on the principle of photoconductive effect and its resistance decreases with increase in
the intensity of incident light.

LDR is an optical sensor.

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Photoconductive Effect

If radiation (dight) falls on the surface of a semiconductor, its conductivity increases or resistance
decreases.

This is called as the photoconductive effect and it can be explained as followS

Due to the radiant energy incident on the semiconductor, the covalent bonds are broken and the
electron hole pairs are generated.
This increases the conductivity of the material and hence decrease the resistivity. Such a device is
called as a photo resistor or photoconductor.
Construction and symbol of LDR:
The construction of LDR is as shown in Fig. 2.2.1a) and its symbol is as shown in Fig. 2.2.1(b). LDR is
also called as a photoconductive cell.

Light

Tt Glass cap or lens

-Outer metallic
case

Substrate

I ight sensitive
material w.
Contact leads

(a) Construction of LDR (b) Symbol of LDR

(B-3025)Fig. 2.2.1

As shown in Fig. 2.2.1(a), a light sensitive material such as Cadmium Sulphide (Cds) is deposited on
a ceramic substrate.

Then the substrate along with the photosensitive layer of CdS is enclosed in a metal container
Contact leads are brought out for external connections as shown in Fig. 2.2.1a).

Light is incident on the light sensitive material through the glass cap or lens which has been added
at the top of this assembly.

Principle of operation
As shown in Fig. 2.2.1(c), when light is incident on a photosensitive material, the events take place in
thefollowing sequence:
The incident photons collide with the atoms of the light sensitive semiconductor material and impart
energy to them.
Due to this energy, the valence electrons will cross the forbidden energy gap and enter into the

conduction band.
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Due to more number of electrons entering the conduction band, the conductivity of the matoc
increases and resistance decreases.

Thus the resistance of a LDR decreases with increase in the intensity of light.

Photon
Electron hole pair

Photoconducting
Motion of material
electrons,

(B-1728) Fig. 2.2.1(c): Principle of operation of a photoconductor

LDRcharacteristics:
Fig. 2.2.2 shows the variation of resistance of LDR with
change in intensity of light.
The LDR resistance decreases with increase in the
intensity of incident light.
Dark resistance:
It is the
resistance offered by the LDR in the absence of
light. Typical value of dark resistance is a few
hundred k2
With increase in the light intensity, the resistance of LDR reduces
significantly.
Resistance (k2)
Dark
resistance

Intensity Lm/m2
(B-1729) Fig. 2.2.2 Variation of resistance with
intensity of light
The value of resistance does not start
decreasing immediately.
At any time the resistance value of LDR depends on the previous
light falling on it. This is called as
the memory effect or light history effect.
Advantages of LDR:
1. Simple to construct and operate.
2. Good sensitivity.

3. Low cost.

4 Linear response.

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Disadvantages of LDR
1. It has a light memory effect or light history effect. (i.e. its resistance changes slowly
2 It is a slow device. Its resistance does not
change quickly.
3 It can work only in a small range of electromagnetic spectrum.
The main drawback of the LDR is their slowness. This makes them unsuitable for the applications
where light intensity changes rapidly. We need to use faster devices for such applications.

2.2.1 Applications of LDR

Analog applications
1. Camera exposure control.

2 Photocopy (xerox) machines for checking the density of toner.

3. Colorimetric test equipment.

4. Automated rear view mirror in cars.

Digital applications
Automatic headlight dimmer in cars.
2. Night light control.

3 Street light control (Automatic turning on or off the street lights).

2.2.2 Photo-Relay Using LDR

Circuit diagram
lights. This is shown in
LDR be used in the automatic on-off switch circuit used for the
can
street as

Fig. 2.2.3. This is also called as the photo-relay circuit.

Operation
LDR is high, hence it offers a low resistance.
During the day time, the intensity of light falling
on

not suficient to turn on the transistor Q. The relay will remain

The voltage across it is therefore
and the lamp continues to be in the off state.
unenergized
+VcC
N. O. contact
Relay
coll
R
Lamp
mains

R2

(0-33) Fig. 2.2.3 : Photo-relay using LDR

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In the evening, light intensity reduces. The resistance of LDR increases,
therefore voltage across
rOss t
will be large enough to tum on the transistor. The relay will be energized and the N.O. contact qett
closed to tum on the lamp.

This is called as a photo relay circuit because its operation is controlled by the intensity of light.

2.3 Passive Infrared Sensors (PIR): SPPU April 18

University Questions
Q. 1 What do you mean by PIR sensor ? (April 18,1 Mark)
The term PIR is the short form of the Passive PIR Cute
Infra Red. The tem "passive "indicates that the
sensor does not actively take part in the
process,
which means, it does not emit any referred IR Distance 6 meter
signals itself, rather passively detects the infrared
radiations coming from the human body in the PIR Dete

surounding area.

Horizontal range 108.6 degree

(8-3328) Fig. 2.3.1: PIR sensor

The detected infra red radiations are converted into an electrical charge, which is proportional to the
detected level of the radiation.
Then this charge is further improved by a built in FET and fed to the output pin of the device which
can be applied to an external circuit for further triggering and amplification of the alarm stages.
The PIR sensor range is up to 10 meters at an angle of +15° or - 15°.
PIR sensor
DC pin configuration

Signal
Out

100K

(8-3329) Fig. 2.3.2: PIR pin configuration

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The image shown in Fig. 2.3.2 is a typical pin configuration of the PIR sensor, which is quite simple to
understand the pinouts.

The Passive infrared sensors consist of three pins as indicated in the diagram shown above.

Pinl corresponds to the drain terminal of the device, which should be connected to the positive
supply 5 V DC.

Pin2 corresponds to the source terminal of the device, which should be connected to the ground
terminal via a 100 K or 47 K resistor. The pin 2 is the output pin of the sensor, and the detected IR

signal is carried forward to an amplifier from the pin 2 of the sensor.

Pin3 of the sensor is connected to the ground.

PIR Sensor's Working Principle:
The PIR sensors are more complicated than the other sensors as they consists of two slots.

These slots are made of a special material which is sensitive to IR.

The Fresnel lens is used to see that the two slots of the PIR can see out past some distance.

When the sensor is inactive, then both the slots sense the same amount of IR that is from the

outdoors, walls or room, etc.

then it intercepts the first slot of the PIR sensor. This

When a human body or any animal passes by,
two bisects.
causes a positive differential change between the
When a human body leaves the sensing area, the sensor generates a negative differential change
between the two bisects.

PIR Sensor

Pin1 &2 on horizontal plane I

Fresnel Lens

Detecting Area

Heat Source Movement

1 2

(B-3330) Fig. 2.3.3

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The infrared sensor itself is housed in a hermetically sealed metal to improve

humidity/temperature/noise/immunity.
There is a window which is made of typically coated silicon material to protect the sensing element
These sensors respond well to cross motion than an object which is approaching towards the sensor.
Its basic requirement is line of sight and does not read through any material.

Hence it's not suitable for the spaces having barriers in between for eg. office with high cubide wall.

PIR sensors can work upto long range upto 40 mS proves their suitability for places like

1. Enclosed offices

2. High ceiling warehouses

3. Car parking's etc.

These suitable to work in extremely warm environment

are not
as they fails there to distinguish
between human body temperature and
background.
2.4 Tilt Sensor: SPPU Oct. 15, Oct. 16, April 17, April 19

University Questions
a1 List any three types of tilt sensor. Explain tilt activated LED
switch (Oct. 15,5 Marks)
Q.2 Write down any two applications of tilt sensor.
(Oct 16, April 19, 1 Mark)
Q.3 State any two applications of tilt sensor
(April17,1Mark)
Definition

The sensor which senses angle or inclination of device

housing it with respect to downward force of
gravity is known as tilt sensor. It is also known as tilt switch or tipover switch.

Tilt sensors are devices that produce an electrical signal that varies with an
angular movement.
These sensors are used to measure slope and tilt within a limited range of motion.
Sometimes, the tilt sensors are referred to as inclinometers.
Tilt sensor working principle
Metal/plastic
enclosure

Metal balls
Switch
off
Switch
on

B-3331) Fig. 2.4.1: Tilt Terminals

sensor working
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These sensors consist of rolling as shown in Fig. 2.4.1.

It is the most common type of tilt sensor or tilt switch.

balls
t consists of a cylindrical metal or plastic enclosure containing two spherical steel balls. These
may be nickel plated or gold plated.

When the switch is
connection between the
be closed.
tilted, balls eventually move downward. Hence lower ball makes electrical
contact & metal enclosure. Thus the switch
will
two contacts or with single

in connection with the contacts and the

switch
When the switch is not tilted, the rolling balls are not

acts as an open circuited switch.

first.
The second ball is included to add weight and suppress vibration in the

Tilt sensor circuit:

It is also called as the tilt activated LED circuit.
Fig. 2.4.2 shows the basic circuit using the tilt sensor.
Tilt switch

Red Red LED

R
w
2.4.2: Tit sensor circuit
(B-3332) Fig.
the bottom
position, then the rolling ball settle at
and is in its upright
When the device gets power the sensor.
two end terminals of
electrical connection between the
of the sensor to form an

and the LED is turned

on.

Therefore the circuit gets complete

bottom of the s e n s o r .
ball doesn't settle at the
the rolling
If the circuit gets tilted, off.
connected anymore
and the LED is turmed
are not
The two ends of the
sensor

Tilt sensor types: of these sensors includes

the classification
into different types and
classified
These s e n s o r s are elevation and
inclination.

to m e a s u r e tilt, slope,
different devices and technologies

are as
follows
Different types of tilt sensors

sensors
Force balance
1
2. MEMS sensors

filled sensors
3 Fluid

Capacitive sensors
4. TecKneuledge
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Applications of tilt sensors :
These sensors are used in many different applications. They are:
1. Cameras

2. Video cameras

3. Aircraft flight controls

4. Construction equipment

One of the major applications of the tilt sensor is in aviation where it gives information of vertical as
well as horizontal inclination of the airplane to pilot.
Few more applications are robotics, gaming controllers, tilted trains, etc.

The calibration of tilt sensors in the factory may differ on the actual site.

2.5 Ultrasonic Sensors SPPU Oct. 15, Oct. 17

University Questions
Q. 1 Explain operating principle of ultrasonic sensor. Aiso write any two applications of it.

(Oct. 15, Oct. 17,5Marks)

Definition:
Ultrasonic transducers or ultrasonic sensors are a type of acoustic sensor divided into three broad
categories: transmitters, receivers and transceivers.
Transmitters convert electrical signals into ultrasound, receivers convert ultrasound into electrical
signals, and transceivers can both transmit and receive ultrasound.
Principle of operation:
Its working principle is same as that of a "SONAR" used in submarine.
Ultrasonic transmitter transmits sound waves of high and inaudible frequencies which bounce
around the space and return back to the sensor.
The returned waves are received by the ultrasound receiver and converts it into an electronic signal
for further processing.
This is as shown in Fig. 2.5.1.
Transmitter

Ultrasonic
waves

Receiver
Electronic
processing
(B-3311) Fig. 2.5.1: Principle of ultrasonic sensor

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This technology, can detect approaching objects and track their positions.
2.5.1 Construction:

Ultrasonic transmitter
Ultrasonic transmitters convert AC into ultrasound, and vice versa. An ultrasonic transmitter is
basically a piezoelectric transducers or capacitive transducers.
Piezoelectric crystals change size and shape when an ac voltage is applied across their electric axes
The applied AC voltage makes them oscillate at the same frequency and produce ultrasonic sound.

This is as shown in Fig. 2.5.2(a).

Capacitive transducers use electrostatic fields between a conductive diaphragm and a backing plate.

H.F.
oscillator(
Crystal Ultrasonic
waves

(B-3312) Fig. 2.5.2(a): An ultrasonictransmitter

Ultrasound transmitters can also use non-piezoelectric principles. such as magnetostriction.
Materials with this property change size slightly when exposed to a magnetic field, and make

practical transducers.

Ultrasonic receiver/detector
Since piezoelectric materials generate a voltage when force is applied to them across their

mechanical axes, they can also work as ultrasonic detectors.

Some systems use separate transmitters and receivers, while others combine both functions into a

single piezoelectric transceiver.

A capacitor ("condenser") microphone has a thin diaphragm that responds to ultrasound waves.

Changes in the electric field between the diaphragm and a closely spaced backing plate convert

sound signals to electric currents, which can be amplified as shown in Fig. 2.5.2(b).

Capacitve
transducer

H AmpA
Electrical
Ultrasonic
waves
signal

(B-3312) Fig. 2.5.2(b) : An ultrasonic receiver / detector

is also used in the recently developed micro-machined

The diaphragm (or membrane) principle
ultrasonic transducers (MUTS).
These devices are produced using silicon micro-machining technology (MEMS technology).

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converted into
an electronic signal with the
e
be measured or
of the diaphragm may plate (CMUT).
closely spaced backing
The vibration
and a
between the diaphragm
the capacitance
help of
be converted into an electrical signal by addina aa

can
vibration of the diaphragm
Alternatively the
(PMU).
material on diaphragm
thin layer of piezo-electric resonator integrated
may be
measured by a tiny optical ring
Finally, the vibration of the diaphragm

inside the diaphragm (OMUS).

2.5.2 Applications
transducers:
Following are some important applications of ultrasonic

Liquid level indication

Distance measurement or ranging

Medical ultrasonography
Burglar alarms

Non-destructive testing

Wireless charging

2.5.3 Level Measurement:

The ultrasonic level detector is as shown in Fig. 2.5.3. "Tr and "Rec" are the ultrasonic transmitter

and receiver respectively.

Liquid levels

Rec

Ooliatar Dotoctor Amgplitfer )O/p moter

Fig.2.5.3: Ultrasonic level detector
Operation
The transmitter transmits a pulse of ultrasonic signal. This signal is reflected from the liquid to
vapour interface from say x.

The reflected signal is received by the receiver transducer.

The time interval between the instant of transmission and the

instant of reception is measured.
This time indicates the liquid level. Longer the time is higher will be the level. Hence the time
corresponding to the level xz will be shorter than that corresponding to the level x1.

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Ultrasonic Solid Level Detector
The principle of level detection using the ultrasonic
level measurement. transducers is same as that used for the liquid
Only difference is that the
transmitter and receiver are mounted
Fig. 2.5.4. at the top of the vessel as shown in

The advantage of using the ultrasonic level detector is

that it does not disturb the liquid
level of which is to be measured. or solid, the
Tr Rec

Fig. 2.5.4: Ultrasonic solid level detector

2.6 Motion Sensors

Definition

A motion detector is a device that detects moving objects, particularly people.

Such a device is often used in a system that automatically alerts a user of motion in an area.

They are used in the security, automated lighting control, home control, and other useful systems.
An electronic motion detector contains an optical, microwave, or acoustic sensor, along with a
transmitter.

One common application of these sensors is activating automatic door openers in businesses and
public buildings.
Motion sensors are also widely used in the occupancy sensor that activate street lights or indoor
lights in walkways, such as lobbies and staircases.
In such smart lighting systems, energy is conserved by only powering the lights for the duration of a
timer, after which the person has presumably left the area.
A motion detector is also used as one of the sensors in a burglar alarm system that is used to alert
the home owner or security service when it detects the motion of an intruder

Such a detector may also trigger a security camera to record the possible intrusion.

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 Instru. Systems (Sem. Il /BSc. Comp./SPPU) 2-20 Sensors and Actuators

2.6.1 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

SPPU: April 15, April 16, Oct. 16. April 17,April 18,April 1s
University Questions
Q. 1 What is the principle of LVDT ? (April 15, April 19, 1Mark)
Q. 2 Explain operating principle of LVDT with a neat diagram. (April 16, 5 Marks)
a. 3 Expiain the working of LVDT with proper diagram, (Oct. 16, April 17, April 18,5 Marks)
Construction:

LVDT is variable inductance

a
displacement transformer. The construction of LVDT is as shown in
Fig. 2.6.1 which shows that the LVDT consists of a primary winding and two identical
secondary
windings.
Primary

Core
Displacement
A
Secondary 1 Secondary -2
(B-2190) Fig. 2.6.1: Construction of LVDT
Connection of LVDT windings

Refer to Fig. 2.6.2(a), which shows that the LVDT consists of a

primary winding and two identical
secondary windings. These windings are axially placed and wound on a cylindrical coil former.
A rod shaped magnetic core is positioned centrally inside the coil assembly. This rod
reluctance path for the magnetic flux which links the coils
provides a low

AC
(windings).
Input
Output voltage lel
Primary
Displacement LLILL-
Core *******1*********

o1
505 Secondary
02
windings

eo1-o2 B
Linear range
A Core positon

(a) Connections of LVDT windings (6) Transfer characteristics of LVDT

(B-2191)Fig. 2.6.2
The moving object, displacement of which is to be measured, is
coupled to this movable rod.
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 Instru.Systems (Sem. /BSc. Comp./SPPU) 2-21 Sensors and Actuators
The two secondary winding are connected in series opposition as shown in Fig. 2.6.2(a).

Therefore the voltages induced into these windings are of opposite polarities. The output voltage is

given by,
e eol-Coz ..(2.6.1)
Where eo and esz are the emfs induced in the two secondary windings.

The transfer characteristics of LVDT is shown in Fig. 2.6.2(b). It is the graph of output voltage against
the core position.

Operation of LVDT:
The primary winding is connected to the ac
source
Assume that initially the core is exactly at the center of the coil assembly. Then equal amount of flux

gets linked to both the secondary windings.

Due to equal flux linkage, the induced voltages in both secondary windings are equal but they have

opposite polarities.
The output voltage of LVDT ie. "eo" is therefore zero corresponding to the central position of the

core. This position of the core is called as the "null position".

Now if the core is displaced from its null position towards secondary-1 then the flux linked to

secondary-1 increases and flux linked to secondary-2 decreases.

Therefore the induced voltage "eor is now higher than 'eo" and the output voltage of LVDT ie. "e
will be positive as shown in Fig. 2.6.2(b).

Similarly if the core is displaced downwards ie. towards the secondary-2 then "eo2" will be higher

than "eo1" and the output voltage "e" will be negative.

Thus the magnitude of output signal will vary "linearly" with the mechanical displacement of the

core.
Therefore the word "Linear" is used in LVDT. The output is obtained "differentially" between the two

secondary windings. Hence the word "differential" is used in LVDT.

Characteristics
The LVDT produces a differential voltage at its output which is proportional to the position of the

core, from its null position.

Thus a voltage proportional to the displacement of core is obtained at the LVDT output.

The operation of LVDT with the help of its transfer characteristics and equivalent circuits is as shown

in Fig. 2.6.3.

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 Instru. Systems (Sem. Il /BSc. Comp./sPPU) 2-22 Sensors and Actuators
Advantages of LVDT
1. Very fine resolution.

2. High accuracy.

3. Very good stability.

4. The transfer characteristic (is linear).
5. LVDT is easy to fabricate and installation.

6. LVDT can operate

high temperature.
at

7. High sensitivity (2 mV/Volt/ 10 microns at 4 kHz excitation)

t Output voltage le

Core position

AC AC - o AC o-
Input Input Input
Priman Displacement
Primary
Primars
iCore= Displacement
Core E Core
a1 Secondary 01 n Secondary m Secondary
windings 2 windings 01
02 windingss
Negative ePositive
More coupling with Equal coupling with More coupling with
second secondary both secondariess first secondary
therefore eo2 greater therefore e2 equal therefore eo1 greater
than o to
o1 than 2
(B-2192) Fig. 2.6.3 Operation of LVDT

Disadvantages of LVDT:
1. LVDT is sensitive to the external magnetic fields. To minimize this effect magnetic shielding s
necessary.
2. Complicated circuitry is needed.
3. Due to mass of the core, LVDT is not suitable for measurement of fast
displacements.
4 Larger displacements are needed to get a substantial differential output.

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