Class: F.Y.B.Sc.

Subject: Mechanics and Properties of

Matter

Chapter 2 :Work & Energy

 Introduction to Work & Energy
Work and energy are closely related to each other. Work can also be defined as the transfer
of energy. In Physics, for two objects, the work done is defined as the transfer of energy from
the first object to the second object. Also, energy is defined as the capacity to do work.
Work is believed to be done by a force when an object experiences displacement parallels to
the line of action of the force. It’s an activity that includes force and movement in the
direction of the force. The capability for doing work is the energy

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

S.I unit is Joule

 Kinetic Energy
• The kinetic energy (KE) of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion
• It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its
stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this
kinetic energy unless its speed changes. The same amount of work is done by the body
when decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest.
• S.I unit is joule and erg in C.G.S system
• K.E comes from potential energy that an object
possess
𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎 -------(1) Newtons second law
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 third eq’n of motion
∴ 𝑣 2 = 0 + 2𝑎𝑠 (since initial velocity is 0) u v

𝑣2
∴ (displacement) 𝑠 = ---------(2) s
2𝑎

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡(s or d)

K.E is also a type of work being done
∴ K.E=𝐹 × 𝑠
𝑣2
∴ K.E= 𝑚 𝑎
2𝑎

1
∴ K.E= 𝑚 𝑣 2
2
• K.E of a particle of mass 𝑚 moving with velocity 𝑣 is given by ,
1
K.E= 𝑚𝑣ҧ ∙ 𝑣ҧ
2

Differentiating above equation w.r.t time we get,

dk dത
𝑣
= 𝑣ҧ ∙ m
dt dt

dk dത
𝑣
∴ = 𝑣ҧ ∙ 𝐹ത ത
∵ 𝐹 = m (newtons 2nd law of motion)
dt dt

dk
∴ = 𝑣 ∙ 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
dt
Where 𝜃 is the angle between v & F
 Work done
• When we push a block with some force ‘F’ the body moves with some
acceleration or in other words its speed increases or decreases depending on
the direction of the force. As the speed increases or decreases, the kinetic energy
of the system changes. We know energy can neither be created nor be destroyed
so the energy must be getting transformed into some other form. In this case
that is termed as work done.
• “ work is said to be done, if a force acting on a body is able to move it through
some distance in the direction of Force”
• Mathematically it can be expressed as , 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠
 Example of Zero Work
• Eg: work done will be zero in case of given image
We can see that the person is walking with a load on his head, here work done by
the person is zero because force and displacement are not in same direction
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃
Cos 90= 0
∴ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠 ∙ 0
∴ 𝑑𝑊 =0
Example of Zero Work
 Work Energy theorem
“ it states that work done by a force acting on a body is equal to the change in its kinetic
Energy”
• Consider a body of mass m, let a constant force F be applied on the body. This force
displaces through ds in time dt in the direction of force
• The work done by this force is,
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃 𝐹ത m m

Force and displacement are in same

𝑑𝑠
Direction so, angle will be zero
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠 cos 0
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠
 d𝑣
𝐹= m Newtons second law
dt

d𝑣
∴ 𝑑𝑊 = m ∙ 𝑑𝑠
dt

𝑑𝑠
∴ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣. 𝑑𝑣 𝑎𝑠 𝑣 =
dt

Now after applying force, the velocity increases from 𝑢 𝑡𝑜 𝑣 total work done on the
body is,
𝑣

𝑊 = 𝑚 න 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑢
1 v
𝑊 = 𝑚 𝑣2
2 u

1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢2
2 ∴ 𝑊 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖
2 2
 Work done by a constant force
• “𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒”
• If force 𝐹ത is acting on the body and displaces it by very small displacement 𝑑𝑠 in the
direction of force then work done is, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹ത 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑠
• The work done during the finite displacement 𝑠ҧ in the direction of 𝐹ത is
W = ‫𝑠𝑑 𝐹 ׬‬
• Since force is constant during displacement, last equation becomes
W = 𝐹 න 𝑑𝑠
𝐹Ԧ 𝐹Ԧ
𝑊=𝐹𝑠

𝑑𝑠
𝑠ҧ
• If constant force 𝐹ത is acting is along an inclined direction making an angle 𝜃 with the
direction of displacement (as shown in the figure), then work done is obtained by
resolving force in to two components
• The magnitudes of these components are:
(i) Along direction of displacement 𝑑𝑠, 𝐹𝑥 = F cos𝜃
(ii) Along direction perpendicular to 𝑑𝑠, 𝐹𝑦 = F sin𝜃
• Since the body does not move along the component of force 𝐹𝑦 , it does not work on the
body
𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑦
𝐹Ԧ 𝐹Ԧ

𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑥

𝑑𝑠
𝑠ҧ
Now, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 ds
∴ 𝑑𝑊 = F cos𝜃 ds 𝑎𝑠, 𝐹𝑥 = F cos𝜃
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑠
The work done during a finite displacement is given by,
W = න 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑠

W = 𝐹ത ∙ න 𝑑𝑠 since 𝐹ഥ is constant during entire displacement

W= 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑠ҧ
∴ 𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ s cos𝜃
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Work done by a Varying force
𝑥=0
Note that here force is applied
𝐴 by spring (to understand that
imagine spring in vertical
direction)

𝐴′

𝑑𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑥1
𝐵

𝑥ҧ
𝑥 = 𝑥2

𝐶
 𝐴
𝑥=0 𝐴′
𝑑𝑥

𝐵
𝑥 = 𝑥1
𝐶 𝑥 = 𝑥2
• one end of the spring (whose spring constant is k) is fixed to a vertical support such as a
wall and the other end is tied to a block placed on a smooth horizontal surface.
• Initially, let A(𝑥 = 0) be the position of a block when the spring is in its natural length.
• If k is spring constant, then force on the block is k times the elongation of the spring.
• Let us calculate the work done on the block by the spring force when the block moves from
the position 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐴′
• Suppose that the block moves from the point A (shown by position x = 0) to point 𝐴′ with
small displacement 𝑑𝑥.
• The force varies between the positions A and A', but as we are taking small 𝑑𝑥, the force
may be taken constant over the small displacement 𝑑𝑥
• The work done by a force F in moving a block from the point A to 𝐴′ is,
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑥
As force and displacement are oppositely directed (𝜃 = 180°), above equation becomes
𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹 𝑑𝑥
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 (Hook’s law)
Spring force Displacement
∴ 𝑑𝑊 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• The work done in moving a block from the position x = 0 (point A) to position x = x1 (point B)
is
𝑥1
𝑥1
1 2
𝑊 = − න 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑘𝑥
2 0
0

1 2
𝑊 = − 𝑘𝑥1
2
Similarly, if the block moves from position B to C (x = x1 to x = x2 ) , work done is,
𝑥2

𝑊𝑥1 → 𝑥2 = − න 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥1
1 1
𝑊𝑥1 → 𝑥2 = 𝑘𝑥12 − 𝑘𝑥22 ------------(3)
2 2

Now, if the block is brought back to position B( x = x1 ). (it means that the block is moved
from position (C to B)x = x2 𝑡𝑜 x = x1 ), work done by the spring force will be
1 1
𝑊𝑥2 → 𝑥1 = 𝑘𝑥22 − 𝑘𝑥12 -------------(4)
2 2

Adding equations (3) & (4) we get,

𝑊𝑥1 → 𝑥2 + 𝑊𝑥2 → 𝑥1 = 0
Thus, total work done by a spring force during the displacement of block from position B to C
and brought back to B. This means that net work done by the spring force in a round trip is
zero.
Various Cases of Varying Force (spring Force)
1. Initially, if the spring is in its natural length (x1 = 0 ) and finally in a stretched position
(x2 = x) the work done by the spring force is
𝑥
1 2
𝑊 = − න 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑘𝑥
2
0
2. Initially, if the spring is in its natural length (x1 = 0 ) and finally in a compressed position
(x2 = −x ), the work done by the spring force is
−𝑥
1 2
𝑊 = − න 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑘𝑥
2
0

3. Initially, if the spring is in a stretched position (x1 = x ) and finally in a natural position
(x2 = 0 ),
 0
1 2
𝑊 = − න 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥
2
𝑥
4. Initially, if the spring is in a compressed position (x1 = −x ) and finally in a natural
position (x2 = 0), the work done by the spring force is
0
1 2
𝑊 = − න 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥
2
−𝑥
5. Initially, if the spring is in a compressed position (x1 = −x ) and finally in a natural
position (x2 = x), the work done by the spring force is
𝑥

𝑊 = − න 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =0
−𝑥
 Conservative Force
• A conservative force is a force done in moving a particle from one point to another,
such that the force is independent of the path taken by the particle.
• It depends only on the initial and final position of the particle. Gravitational force and
elastic spring forces are two such examples of conservation forces.
• As the name suggests, conservative force conserves energy. It follows the law of
conservation of energy.
• Many forces in nature that we know of like the magnetic force, electrostatic force,
gravitational force, etc. are a few examples of a conservative force.
• Let us understand the concept better with the help of the following example.
• If an object moves from point A to point B by
applying force F along a curved path through
path 1, Total work done in moving an object is, Path 1
𝐵

𝑊1 = න 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑟
𝐴
• Now If an object moves from point A to point B by
Path 2
applying force F along a curved path through path B
Total work done in moving an object is,
𝐵

𝑊2 = න 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑟
𝐴
If work done along path 1is same as work done along path 2, then the force F is called
conservative
• If work done in moving particle from point
A to point B along path 1 is 𝑊1 and If work
done in moving particle from point Path 1
B to point A along path 2 is 𝑊2′ then
𝐵 𝐴

𝑊1 = න 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑟 and 𝑊2′ = න 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑟
𝐴 𝐵
• Total work done for round trip along a closed path is, Path 2
𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2′
Now 𝑊2′ is opposite of 𝑊2 so we can write 𝑊2′ = −𝑊2
∴ 𝑊 = 𝑊1 − 𝑊2
𝐵 𝐵
∴𝑊 = ‫𝐹 𝐴׬‬ത ∙ 𝑑𝑟 − ‫𝐹 𝐴׬‬ത ∙ 𝑑𝑟
∴𝑊 =0
• Let us understand the concept better with the help of the example of gravitational force
• Consider a body of mass M kept at the origin (earth) 2
A
Consider another body of mass m be moving from point A
to B along path 1 under the effect of Gravitational Force m
exerted by M on m r 1 B
• The work done by gravitational Force in moving mass m
through small displacement is,
M
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑠
∴ 𝑑𝑊 = F cos𝜃 ds
𝑑𝑊 = F dr

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑑𝑊 = 2 dr
𝑟
• Now the work done in moving a body
• Similarly if the object moves from point B
from point A to B along path 1 is to point A through path 2

1 1
𝐵 𝑊𝐵→𝐴 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 −
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
𝑊=න 2 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 Total work done in moving particle from A to
𝐴

B and then again back to A is,

𝐵
∴ 𝑊 = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵→𝐴
𝑊= 𝐺𝑀𝑚 න 𝑟 −2 𝑑𝑟
𝐴 1 1 1 1
∴W= 𝐺𝑀𝑚 − + 𝐺𝑀𝑚 −
𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
B
1
𝑊𝐴→𝐵 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 − 1 1 1 1
𝑟 A ∴W= 𝐺𝑀𝑚 − + −
𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴

1 1 ∴W=0
𝑊𝐴→𝐵 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 −
𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵
 Non-Conservative Force
• A non-conservative force is a force for which the work done depends on the path
taken. Friction is an example of a non-conservative force.
• e.g. if a block of mass m is on a wooden surface and its initial position is A(rest)
• Let the block be horizontally dragged to position B with small displacement s , here
the frictional force will act on left side
N N
(frictional force is always opposite to motion)
• Normal force acts perpendicular to object
∴ 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑓ҧ 𝑓
𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑓)ҧ = −𝜇𝑁 A
W=mg S B
W=mg
𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∴ 𝑊1 = 𝑓 ҧ × 𝑠
𝑊1 = −𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑠
 Non-Conservative Force
• When the block moves from B to A, frictional force will act towards right side

∴ 𝑊2 = 𝑓 × 𝑠
𝑊2 = −𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑠 N N

• Total work done by force of friction is,

𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2
𝑊 = −𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑠 +(−𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑠) 𝑓ҧ 𝑓

𝑊 = −2𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑠 A S B
W=mg W=mg
Thus, work done by frictional force in round trip journey is −2𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑠
𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
So frictional force is non-conservative force
 Potential Energy
• There are several types of potential energy, each associated with a distinct type of
force. It is the energy by virtue of an object’s position relative to other objects
• The formula for potential energy depends on the force acting on the two
objects. For the gravitational force the formula is:
W = m×g×h = mgh
Where, m = mass in kilograms
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height in meters
•unit Joule (J).
 Gravitational Potential Energy
• Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed or acquired by an object due
to a change in its position when it is present in a gravitational field.
• In simple terms, it can be said that gravitational potential energy is an energy
which is related to gravitational force or to gravity.
• When a body of mass (m) is moved from infinity to a point inside the gravitational
influence of a source mass (M) without accelerating it, the amount of work done in
displacing it into the source field is stored in the form of Potential Energy this is
known as gravitational potential energy.
• It is represented with the symbol Mg.
• Explanation: We know that the potential energy of a body at a given position is
defined as the energy stored in the body at that position. If the position of the body
changes due to the application of external forces the change in potential energy is
equal to the amount of work done on the body by the forces.
• Under the action of gravitational force, the work done is independent of the path
taken for a change in position so the force is a Conservative Force. Besides, all such
forces have some potential in them.
• The equation for gravitational potential energy is: 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑔 ⋅ ℎ
Where, m is the mass in kilograms,
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 on Earth)
h is the height above the ground in meters
 Law of Conservation of Energy
• If the force is conservative , work done is independent of path and depends on end
points only
• Consider the figure, work done by const. force f to move a particle from point A to B is,
B

W = න Fത ∙ dr
A

P B
−𝑼(𝑩) B
WA→B = න Fത ∙ dr + න Fത ∙ dr −𝑼(𝑨) P
A P
Let the work function of a particular position P be −U

∴ න F. dr = −U(A) A
P
 P B

∴ න Fത ∙ dr = U(A) and න Fത ∙ dr = −U(B)

A P
𝐵 𝑃 𝐵

∴ න 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = න 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑟 + න 𝐹ത ∙ 𝑑𝑟
𝐴 𝐴 𝑃
𝑊 =𝑈 𝐴 −𝑈 𝐵
Now , the point A is initial position and point B is final position
𝑊 = 𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓
or
𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = −𝑊---------(1)
The quantity 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = ∆𝑈 is called change in potential energy
Now we know that 𝑊 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 (work energy theorem)
Applying above value in equation 1 we get
𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = −(𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 )
Uf + K f = U i + K i

Uf + K f
∴ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Ui + K i
the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy is called mechanical energy
∴ 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
"𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑".
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦