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Bandura 1963
Bandura 1963
Most of the research on the possible effects Huston, 1961), it was shown that children
of film-mediated stimulation upon subsequent readily imitated aggressive behavior exhibited
aggressive behavior has focused primarily on by a model in the presence of the model. A
the drive reducing function of fantasy. While succeeding investigation (Bandura, Ross, &
the experimental evidence for the catharsis Ross, 1961), demonstrated that children ex-
or drive reduction theory is equivocal (Albert, posed to aggressive models generalized aggres-
1957; Berkowitz, 1962; Emery, 1959; Fesh- sive responses to a new setting in which the
bach, 1955, 1958; Kenny, 1952; Lovaas, model was absent. The present study sought
1961; Siegel, 1956), the modeling influence to determine the extent to which film-mediated
of pictorial stimuli has received little research aggressive models may serve as an important
attention. source of imitative behavior.
A recent incident (San Francisco Chronicle, Aggressive models can be ordered on a reality-
1961) in which a boy was seriously knifed fictional stimulus dimension with real-life
during a re-enactment of a switchblade knife models located at the reality end of the con-
fight the boys had seen the previous evening tinuum, nonhuman cartoon characters at the
on a televised rerun of the James Dean movie, fictional end, and films portraying human
Rebel Without a Cause, is a dramatic illustra- models occupying an intermediate position. It
tion of the possible imitative influence of was predicted, on the basis of saliency and
film stimulation. Indeed, anecdotal data sug- similarity of cues, that the more remote the
gest that portrayal of aggression through model was from reality, the weaker would be
pictorial media may be more influential in the tendency for subjects to imitate the be-
shaping the form aggression will take when a havior of the model.
person is instigated on later occasions, than in Of the various interpretations of imitative
altering the level of instigation to aggression. learning, the sensory feedback theory of
In an earlier experiment (Bandura & imitation recently proposed by Mowrer (1960)
1
This investigation was supported in part by Re- is elaborated in greatest detail. According to
search Grants M-4398 and M-S162 from the National this theory, if certain responses have been
Institute of Health, United States Public Health repeatedly positively reinforced, proprioceptive
Service, and the Lewis S. Haas Child Development stimuli associated with these responses acquire
Research Fund, Stanford University.
The authors are indebted to David J. Hicks for secondary reinforcing properties and thus the
his generous assistance with the photography and to individual is predisposed to perform the be-
John Steinbruner who assisted with various phases havior for the positive feedback. Similarly,
of this study. if responses have been negatively reinforced,
2
This research was carried out while the junior
author was the recipient of an American Association
response correlated stimuli acquire the capac-
of University Women International Fellowship for ity to arouse anxiety which, in turn, inhibit
postdoctoral research. the occurrence of the negatively valenced
A. BANDUEA, D. Ross, AND S. A. Ross
behavior. On the basis of these considerations, the aggressive models and were tested only in the
it was predicted subjects who manifest high generalization situation.
Subjects in the experimental and control groups
aggression anxiety would perform significantly were matched individually on the basis of ratings
less imitative and nonimitative aggression than of their aggressive behavior in social interactions in
subjects who display little anxiety over ag- the nursery school. The experimenter and a nursery
gression. Since aggression is generally con- school teacher rated the subjects on four five-point
sidered female inappropriate behavior, and rating scales which measured the extent to which
subjects displayed physical aggression, verbal ag-
therefore likely to be negatively reinforced in gression, aggression toward inanimate objects, and
girls (Sears, Maccoby, & Levin, 1957), it was aggression inhibition. The latter scale, which dealt with
also predicted that male subjects would be the subjects' tendency to inhibit aggressive reactions
more imitative of aggression than females. in the face of high instigation, provided the measure
To the extent that observation of adults of aggression anxiety. Seventy-one percent of the
subjects were rated independently by both judges
displaying aggression conveys a certain degree so as to permit an assessment of interrater agreement.
of permissiveness for aggressive behavior, it The reliability of the composite aggression score,
may be assumed that such exposure not only estimated by means of the Pearson product-moment
facilitates the learning of new aggressive re- correlation, was .80.
Data for subjects in the real-life aggression con-
sponses but also weakens competing inhibitory dition and in the control group were collected as
responses in subjects and thereby increases the part of a previous experiment (Bandura et al., 1961).
probability of occurrence of previously learned Since the procedure is described in detail in the
patterns of aggression. It was predicted, there- earlier report, only a brief description of it will be
fore, that subjects who observed aggressive presented here.
models would display significantly more ag-
Experimental Conditions
gression when subsequently frustrated than
subjects who were equally frustrated but who Subjects in the Real-Life Aggressive condition were
had no prior exposure to models exhibiting brought individually by the experimenter to the
experimental room and the model, who was in the
aggression. hallway outside the room, was invited by the ex-
perimenter to come and join in the game. The subject
METHOD was then escorted to one corner of the room and
Subjects seated at a small table which contained potato
prints, multicolor picture stickers, and colored paper.
The subjects were 48 boys and 48 girls enrolled in After demonstrating how the subject could design
the Stanford University Nursery School. They ranged pictures with the materials provided, the experi-
in age from 35 to 69 months, with a mean age of menter escorted the model to the opposite corner
52 months. of the room which contained a small table and
Two adults, a male and a female, served in the chair, a tinker toy set, a mallet, and a 5-foot
role of models both in the real-life and the human inflated Bobo doll. The experimenter explained that
film-aggression condition, and one female experi- this was the model's play area and after the model
menter conducted the study for all 96 children. was seated, the experimenter left the experimental
room.
General Procedure The model began the session by assembling the
Subjects were divided into three experimental tinker toys but after approximately a minute had
groups and one control group of 24 subjects each. elapsed, the model turned to the Bobo doll and
One group of experimental subjects observed real- spent the remainder of the period aggressing toward
life aggressive models, a second group observed these it with highly novel responses which are unlikely
same models portraying aggression on film, while a to be performed by children independently of the
third group viewed a film depicting an aggressive observation of the model's behavior. Thus, in
cartoon character. The experimental groups were fur- addition to punching the Bobo doll, the model
ther subdivided into male and female subjects so exhibited the following distinctive aggressive acts
that half the subjects in the two conditions involv- which were to be scored as imitative responses:
ing human models were exposed to same-sex models, The model sat on the Bobo doll and punched it
while the remaining subjects viewed models of the repeatedly in the nose.
opposite sex. The model then raised the Bobo doll and pommeled
Following the exposure experience, subjects were it on the head with a mallet.
tested for the amount of imitative and nonimita- Following the mallet aggression, the model tossed
tive aggression in a different experimental setting the doll up in the air aggressively and kicked it
in the absence of the models. about the room. This sequence of physically aggres-
The control group subjects had no exposure to sive acts was repeated approximately three times,
IMITATION OF FILM MODELS
interspersed with verbally aggressive responses such of imitative learning in a different experimental
as, "Sock him in the nose . . . , " "Hit him down ...," room which was set off from the main nursery
"Throw him in the air ... ," "Kick him ... ," and school building.
"Pow." The degree to which a child has learned aggres-
Subjects in the Human Film-Aggression condition sive patterns of behavior through imitation be-
were brought by the experimenter to the semi- comes most evident when the child is instigated to
darkened experimental room, introduced to the aggression on later occasions. Thus, for example, the
picture materials, and informed that while the sub- effects of viewing the movie, Rebel Without a Cause,
jects worked on potato prints, a movie would be were not evident until the boys were instigated to
shown on a screen, positioned approximately 6 aggression the following day, at which tune they
feet from the subject's table. The movie projector re-enacted the televised switchblade knife fight in
was located in a distant corner of the room and considerable detail. For this reason, the children in
was screened from the subject's view by large wooden the experiment, both those in the control group,
panels. and those who were exposed to the aggressive models,
The color movie and a tape recording of the were mildly frustrated before they were brought
sound track was begun by a male projectionist as to the test room.
soon as the experimenter left the experimental room Following the exposure experience, the experimenter
and was shown for a duration of 10 minutes. The brought the subject to an anteroom which contained
models in the film presentations were the same adult a varied array of highly attractive toys. The ex-
males and females who participated in the Real-Life perimenter explained that the toys were for the sub-
condition of the experiment. Similarly, the aggressive ject to play with, but, as soon as the subject became
behavior they portrayed in the film was identical sufficiently involved with the play material, the
with their real-life performances. experimenter remarked that these were her very best
For subjects in the Cartoon Film-Aggression con- toys, that she did not let just anyone play with
dition, after seating the subject at the table with them, and that she had decided to reserve these toys
the picture construction material, the experimenter for some other children. However, the subject could
walked over to a television console approximately play with any of the toys in the next room. The
3 feet in front of the subject's table, remarked, experimenter and the subject then entered the ad-
"I guess I'll turn on the color TV," and ostensibly joining experimental room.
tuned in a cartoon program. The experimenter then It was necessary for the experimenter to remain
left the experimental room. The cartoon was shown in the room during the experimental session; other-
on a glass lens screen in the television set by means wise, a number of the children would either refuse
of a rear projection arrangement screened from the to remain alone or would leave before the termina-
subject's view by large panels. tion of the session. In order to minimize any in-
The sequence of aggressive acts in the cartoon was fluence her presence might have on the subject's be-
performed by the female model costumed as a black havior, the experimenter remained as inconspicuous
cat similar to the many cartoon cats. In order to as possible by busying herself with paper work at a
heighten the level of irreality of the cartoon, the desk in the far corner of the room and avoiding
floor area was covered with artificial grass and the any interaction with the child.
walls forming the backdrop were adorned with
brightly colored trees, birds, and butterflies creating
a fantasyland setting. The cartoon began with a
Test for Delayed Imitation
close-up of a stage on which the curtains were The experimental room contained a variety of
slowly drawn revealing a picture of a cartoon cat toys, some of which could be used in imitative
along with the title, Herman the Cat. The remainder or nonimitative aggression, and others which tended
of the film showed the cat pommeling the Bobo doll to elicit predominantly nonaggressive forms of be-
on the head with a mallet, sitting on the doll and havior. The aggressive toys included a 3-foot Bobo
punching it in the nose, tossing the doll in the air, doll, a mallet and peg board, two dart guns, and
and kicking it about the room in a manner identical a tether ball with a face painted on it which hung
with the performance in the other experimental con- from the ceiling. The nonaggressive toys, on the
ditions except that the cat's movements were char- other hand, included a tea set, crayons and coloring
acteristically feline. To induce further a cartoon set, paper, a ball, two dolls, three bears, cars and trucks,
the program was introduced and concluded with and plastic farm animals.
appropriate cartoon music, and the cat's verbal ag- In order to eliminate any variation in behavior
gression was repeated in a high-pitched, animated due to mere placement of the toys in the room, the
voice. play material was arranged in a fixed order for each
In both film conditions, at the conclusion of the of the sessions.
movie the experimenter entered the room and then The subject spent 20 minutes in the experimental
escorted the subject to the test room. room during which time his behavior was rated in
Aggression Instigation terms of predetermined response categories by judges
who observed the session through a one-way mirror
In order to differentiate clearly the exposure and in an adjoining observation room. The 20-minute
test situations subjects were tested for the amount session was divided in S-second intervals by means
A. BANDURA, D. Ross, AND S. A. Ross
TABLE 1
MEAN AGGRESSION SCORES TOR SUBGROUPS OP EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL SUBJECTS
Experimental groups
Total aggression
Girls 65.8 57.3 87.0 79.5 80.9 36.4
Boys 76.8 131.8 114.5 85.0 117.2 72.2
Imitative aggression
Girls 19.2 9.2 10.0 8.0 7.8 1.8
Boys 18.4 38.4 34.3 13.3 16.2 3.9
Mallet aggression
Girls 17.2 18.7 49.2 19.5 36.8 13.1
Boys 15.5 28.8 20.5 16.3 12.5 13.5
Sits on Bobo doll"
Girls 10.4 5.6 10.3 4.5 15.3 3.3
Boys 1.3 0.7 7.7 0.0 5.6 0.6
Nonimitative aggression
Girls 27.6 24.9 24.0 34.3 27.5 17.8
Boys 35.5 48.6 46.8 31.8 71.8 40.4
Aggressive gun play
Girls 1.8 4.5 3.8 17.6 8.8 3.7
Boys 7.3 15.9 12.8 23.7 16.6 14.3
a
This response category was not included in the total aggression score.
of an electric interval timer, thus yielding a total physically aggressive acts directed toward objects
number of 240 response units for each subject. other than the Bobo doll, and any hostile remarks
The male model scored the experimental sessions except for those in the verbal imitation category;
for all subjects. In order to provide an estimate for example, "Shoot the Bobo," "Cut him," "Stupid
of interjudge agreement, the performances of 40% ball," "Knock over people," "Horses fighting, biting."
of the subjects were scored independently by a Aggressive gun play. The subject shoots darts or
second observer. The responses scored involved highly aims the guns and fires imaginary shots at objects in
specific concrete classes of behavior, and yielded high the room.
interscorer reliabilities, the product-moment coeffi- Ratings were also made of the number of be-
cients being in the .90s. havior units in which subjects played nonaggressively
or sat quietly and did not play with any of the
Response Measures material at all.
respectively. The results of the analysis of ing the behavior of the female model they
variance performed on these scores reveal that had observed earlier on film.
the main effect of treatment conditions is The prediction that imitation is positively
significant (xr2 = 9.06, p < .OS), confirming related to the reality cues of the model was
the prediction that exposure of subjects to only partially supported. While subjects who
aggressive models increases the probability observed the real-life aggressive models ex-
that subjects will respond aggressively when hibited significantly more imitative aggression
instigated on later occasions. Further analyses than subjects who viewed the cartoon model,
of pairs of scores by means of the Wilcoxon no significant differences were found between
matched-pairs signed-ranks test show that the live and film, and the film and cartoon
subjects who viewed the real-life models and conditions, nor did the three experimental
the film-mediated models do not differ from groups differ significantly in total aggression
each other in total aggressiveness but all three or in the performances of partially imitative
experimental groups expressed significantly behavior (Table 2). Indeed, the available
more aggressive behavior than the control data suggest that, of the three experimental
subjects (Table 2). conditions, exposure to humans on film por-
traying aggression was the most influential in
Imitative Aggressive Responses eliciting and shaping aggressive behavior.
The Freidman analysis reveals that ex- Subjects in this condition, in relation to the
posure of subjects to aggressive models is also control subjects, exhibited more total aggres-
a highly effective method for shaping subjects' sion, more imitative aggression, more partially
aggressive responses (xr2 — 23.88, p < .001). imitative behavior, such as sitting on the Bobo
Comparisons of treatment conditions by the doll and mallet aggression, and they engaged
Wilcoxon test reveal that subjects who ob- in significantly more aggressive gun play. In
served the real-life models and the film- addition, they performed significantly more
mediated models, relative to subjects in the aggressive gun play than did subjects who
control group, performed considerably more were exposed to the real-life aggressive models
imitative physical and verbal aggression (Table 2).
(Table 2).
Illustrations of the extent to which some Influence of Sex of Model and Sex of Child
of the subjects became virtually "carbon In order to determine the influence of sex
copies" of their models in aggressive behavior of model and sex of child on the expression of
are presented in Figure 1. The top frame imitative and nonimitative aggression, the
shows the female model performing the four data from the experimental groups were com-
novel aggressive responses; the lower frames bined and the significance of the differences^
depict a male and a female subject reproduc- between groups was assessed by t tests for
TABLE 2
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS
IN THE EXPRESSION OF AGGRESSION
Response category X,' t Live vs. Live vs. Film vs. Live vs. Film vs. Cartoon vs.
Film Cartoon Cartoon Control Control Control
P P P P P P
Total aggression 9.06 <.OS ns ns ns <.01 <.01 <.oos
Imitative aggression 23.88 <.001 ns <.OS ns <.001 <.001 <.oos
Partial imitation
Mallet aggression 7.36 .10>/>>.05
Sits on Bobo doll 8.05 <.05 ns ns ns ns <.os <.005
Nonimitative aggression 7.28 .10>/>>.05 b
Aggressive gun play 8.06 <.OS <.01 ns ns ns <.05 ns
FIG. I. Photographs from the film, Social Learning of Aggression through Imitation
of Aggressive Models.
uncorrelated means. In statistical comparisons havior, Sits on Bobo, was not significant,
involving relatively skewed distributions of Sex X Model subgroup comparisons yielded
scores the Mann-Whitney U test was em- some interesting results. Boys who observed
ployed. the aggressive female model, for example,
Sex of subjects had a highly significant were more likely to sit on the Bobo doll
effect on both the learning and the perform- without punching it than boys who viewed
ance of aggression. Boys, in relation to girls, the male model ( f / = 3 3 , p<.Q5). Girls
exhibited significantly more total aggression reproduced the nonaggressive component of
(t = 2.69, p < ,01), more imitative aggression the male model's aggressive pattern of be-
(t = 2.82, p<.005), more aggressive gun havior (i.e., sat on the doll without punching
play (z = 3.38, p < .001), and more nonimita- it) with considerably higher frequency than
tive aggressive behavior (t = 2.98, p < .005). did boys who observed the same model (U =
Girls, on the other hand, were more inclined 21.5, p<.Q2). The highest incidence of
than boys to sit on the Bobo doll but refrained partially imitative responses was yielded by
from punching it (z = 3.47, p < .001). the group of girls who viewed the aggressive
The analyses also disclosed some influences female model (M=10.4), and the lowest
of the sex of the model. Subjects exposed to values by the boys who were exposed to the
the male model, as compared to the female male model (If = 0.3). This difference was
model, expressed significantly more aggressive significant beyond the .05 significance level.
gun play (z = 2.83, p < .005). The most These findings, along with the sex of child and
marked differences in aggressive gun play sex of model differences reported in the
((7 = 9.5, ^ < . 0 0 1 ) , however, were found preceding sections, provide further support for
between girls exposed to the female model the view that the influence of models in
(M = 2.9) and males who observed the male promoting social learning is determined, in
model ( M = 1 9 . 8 ) . Although the overall part, by the sex appropriateness of the model's
model difference in partially imitative be- behavior (Bandura et al., 1961).
IMITATION OF FILM MODELS